Georgica

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The beginning of the fourth book of Georgica in the manuscript Rome, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana , Vaticanus Palatinus lat. 1632, fol. 51v (written in 1473/1474)

The Georgica ( neuter plural ; ancient Greek [poems from] agriculture ) are a didactic poem in four books, the Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil) between 37 and 29 BC. Chr. Wrote.

Content and interpretation

The first book of Georgica deals mainly with agriculture, the second with fruit and wine growing, the third with cattle breeding and the fourth with beekeeping . In between the actual agricultural themes, however, numerous myths are dealt with and poetic reflections are woven in. This makes it clear that Virgil was not aiming for objective instruction, but on the one hand placed his poetry in the service of Augustus in order to support his cultural renovatio . The detailed and strongly idealizing description of the bee state serves as a parable for its rule.

On the other hand, Virgil was simply striving for a poetic work of art: The term “didactic poem” should not be misunderstood as a roughly versed non-fiction book, but rather describes an independent poetry according to ancient understanding, which is exactly like a heroic epic of gods and myths, but also of images, metaphors and artful Language needs. Virgil succeeded in doing this to an extraordinary degree. In fact, the Georgica are rightly considered to be one of the most accomplished poems of ancient literature.

first book

Introduction : Verses 1-42: Virgil briefly gives the contents of the four books. According to tradition, he refrains from calling the muses, addresses his didactic poem to Maecenas and prays to twelve gods: Firstly, the sun, the moon, the wine god Liber , the grain goddess Ceres and the fauns and dryads . Second, to the horse god Neptunus and to the shepherd gods Aristaeus and Pan . Third, to the olive goddess Minerva , to the master of the plow, Triptolemus , and to the master of the field borders, Silvanus . As a result, Virgil calls on Augustus, whom he sees as a man of God, but not as God on earth. Rather, he should be given divinity in heaven.

Georgica 1.141–160 in the late antique Codex Vergilius Augusteus

First main part : Verses 43–203: about the work of the farmer: Virgil lists types of soil and describes the work of the farmer before and after sowing. First he goes into the barren soil, then the exhausted one, which is to be revitalized. Virgil describes how the soil and man fight equally for the yield. He deals with fallow land and fertilization, and finally with irrigation. He emphasizes the blessing of the farmer's work, which is God's will. After he has spoken about field work, the following is a representation of the agricultural implements, starting with the plow and ending with the threshing floor. Finally, Virgil delves into discussions of the teachings of the ancients (about the threshing floor, future crops, and seeds). In addition, verse 145 mentions the nowadays widespread motto Labor omnia vincit .

Second main part about the rural appointments: Verses 204-310: The meaning of the zodiac signs for agriculture is discussed, the importance of the work calendar is to be emphasized. In the following, the basics of astronomy are discussed: Geography communicates with astronomy. By entering into the twelve signs of heaven, the rural course of the year is controlled. Virgil addresses the world zones, of which there are five. These are determined by the tropic and polar circles. The path in the sky, the ecliptic , apparently traversed by the sun , leads diagonally through the hot zone in the zodiac and reaches Cancer with the temperate zone in the north, while Capricorn in the south. This is followed by an explanation of the lunar calendar, where he emphasizes the ordering power of Jupiter . Finally, on the one hand, he points out work that must be done at night and, on the other hand, on those during the day.

Third main part about the weather: Verses 311-463: First, autumn storms are discussed. This is followed by explanations about possibilities of protection against the weather and the Ceres Festival. Virgil then gives a lecture on signs of bad and good weather. Then weather signs of the sun and moon are discussed.

second book

Introduction : Verses 1–8: Virgil calls on the wine god Bacchus .

First main part about the origin and the care of the trees: Verses 9-176: According to Virgil these arise either from the trunk or the root. Trees are created by cuttings or grafting . Maecenas is called. Then of finishing options to specify how transplanting, grafting and budding . Furthermore, the types of trees are dealt with and the dependence on soil and climate is pointed out. Virgil praises Italy as a country in which the order of the Golden Age has been preserved. This order of nature is a model for the entire world.

Second main part about the hardship of the gardener in tending trees: Verses 177-345: The part is introduced by a section about the types of the earth. Virgil teaches how the soil is checked, how the plants are used, the importance of the depth of the planting pits and what needs to be considered in mixed planting. The second main part ends with the plants of spring and praise for that season.

Third main part about farm work and its blessings: Verses 346-540: Here Virgil tells something about plant care, plant protection, the Bacchus festival and viticulture, working with olive and fruit plants and the use of other trees. Finally he sings about country life itself.

Third book

Introduction : Verses 1–48: Virgil worships Pales and Apollo and is dedicated to Octavian and Maecenas. Virgil wants to set a monument to Octavian with his poetic work, just as others honor him with a temple.

First main part about the breeding and care of animals: Verses 49–285: First of all, the selection of breeding for cattle is addressed, first for the cow, then for the bull. There is also discussion about horses, in this context also the importance of the horse's age and horse racing. Virgil then goes into the care of large cattle, first of those of the father, then that of the mother animals, and finally that of the young. The reproduction of animals is also discussed.

Second main part about small animals and epidemic in cattle: Verses 286-566: Virgil sings about the summer pasture, the Scythian land and its climate as well as its animals and people. As a counterpart to the good pastures of the shepherds, he names the desert and the northern countries. Then he cites advantages of various animals such as those of the sheep, the goat and the dog. The third book ends with descriptions of animal diseases. The motif of death dominates the end. Virgil tells of the Noric cattle epidemic, which may have been related to the cattle epidemic and anthrax, and is said to have been based on the description of the plague by Thucydides and Lucretius .

Fourth book

The topic is apiculture , especially from the point of view of a beekeeper. Virgil values ​​bees because he ascribes traits such as loyalty, diligence and artistic qualities to them. In the bee state, the human legal system is reflected, which, like the human state, also has a large degree of organization. He also praised the bees' courage to fight, which, according to Virgil, is reminiscent of the brave Roman. In the state of the bees he sees a model for the Roman state, to which it has come closer through the Augustan state reforms. The poet sees the bees as the heirs of the Golden Age.

Introduction : Verses 1–7: Virgil again addresses Maecenas.

First main part about the life of bees and their care: Verses 8–280: The importance of the location of the apiary and protection from cold and wind is emphasized. Vergil is interested in the way these animals live, how they work and how they swarm. Virgil misinterprets the encounter between different swarms as a battle between bee colonies and bee kings. He also speaks of two types of bees and dedicates a few verses to flying away. Then he gives descriptions of the bee state, he admires the sociability and division of labor of bees, observes how they behave and reproduce when they are at rest and when danger is imminent. Virgil goes into what he believes to be the stoic character of bees. He also does not forget about the honey harvest and discusses types of damage and diseases.

Second main part of life and death and Aristaeus- and Orpheus myth: Verses 281-566: The Georgica be incorporated by a Epyllion crowned. For the first time in literary history, the four themes of the origins of bees, Aristaeus, Proteus and Orpheus are brought into connection with one another. Virgil contributed significantly to the maturation of the Orpheus myth. He interlocks several narratives. His Epyllion is characterized by a lack of action and monologues. Aristaeus is presented as a self-centered, ambitious and active person. He is guilty of the first death of Eurydice and becomes aware of this after a tip from Proteus. Now he recognizes the mischief that he has caused. Through his act of atonement, he renews peace with the gods. As in the Orpheus myth, death is not conquered here either, but the Aristaeus myth ends with the positive realization that the old must pass so that the new can finally arise. With Aristaeus the destructive potential of his passions is realized as with Orpheus, but Aristaeus breaks away from the mere nature being by performing a religious act with his atonement.

Proteus reports to Aristaeus about the fate of Orpheus and Eurydice and teaches him morally with his story of justice. Aristaeus, the natural being, comes into contact with Orpheus, the artistic being. While Aristaeus is a semi-divine apparition, Orpheus is entirely human. Proteus is a kind of mythical deity of nature.

In contrast to Aristaeus, Orpheus does not get the help of a deity. His initial success was based on his artistic skills. Eventually, however, he loses the game against death. While Orpheus fails to reawaken his beloved, the myth of Aristaeus ends with the fact that bees come into being as part of his atonement ( Bugonia ). The Bugonie is, as it were, a sign of becoming that follows the passing away.

In the Orpheus myth, on the other hand, it is demonstrated that humans cannot expect superhuman help, but that they can almost overcome death with their love. In the end, of course, it is precisely this that prevents it from being finally overcome. This shows the ambivalence of human passion. Orpheus is capable of almost superhuman achievements with the art of his singing. Of course, with this art he fights desperately against nature, he almost succeeds in the impossible. Ultimately, however, he too must submit to the inevitable fate of death.

The Aristaeus story embodies vitality, the eternal cycle in which a constant renewal is in progress, the Orpheus story the unique life that in this cycle cannot escape renewal and has to die.

At the beginning of this part, Virgil speaks of the origin of bees from animal corpses. This also shows how the past is supposed to form something new. Then the lament of Aristaeus begins. This is first taken in by his mother, the nymph Cyrene . Your kingdom and your speech are addressed. Thereupon Aristaeus visits the oracle of Proteus. Aristaeus ties up Proteus, who should give him advice. Proteus wants to strengthen Aristaeus 'sense of guilt and tells of Orpheus' lament and plea to the Eumenids and of the recent loss of Eurydice and the resulting grief of Orpheus, who finally dies of his grief. In the end, Cyrene gave instructions to her son Aristaeus as to which acts of atonement he should set. After the altars have been erected and the sacrifice for Orpheus has been made, the bees emerge from the cattle's bellies. The conclusion is rounded off by a sphragis , a summary of the contents of all four books.

role models

With this work, Virgil ties in with the long Greek tradition of didactic poems from Hesiod to Aratos . In the didactic poem, material is always presented in bound form. Two types of didactic poem can be distinguished: In the older Hellenic didactic poem (around 700-550) an attempt is made to interpret the world and nature as a whole. This overall interpretation takes precedence over practical advice from experience. Famous representatives of this species were, for example, Hesiod and Parmenides . From the end of the fourth century, the poet's poetry is in the foreground in the younger, Hellenistic didactic poem. It was essential to transform the prose into a work of art. Poets like Aratos or Nikander represented this type. The Georgica are characterized by the fact that Virgil combined both forms of didactic poetry in them. In doing so, he was formally based on the younger didactic poem. By also taking a position on questions of determining life, he also includes the older type of didactic poem and the Latin poet Lucretius.

Virgil's models are correspondingly varied: if he lets Aristaeus complain to his mother in Georgica , then he may have been influenced by Homer. Aristaeus is comparable to Achilles , who complains in a similar way before Thetis in the Iliad. The Georgica are also under the influence of Hesiod, which is evident in the introduction of elements such as myths and aphorisms. The motif of the fulfillment of meaning, which is a very central idea in the Georgica, may come from Hesiod . As a main exponent of the Alexandrian didactic poem, Aratos may also have been a great role model for Virgil. Virgil may have oriented himself to Aratos von Soloi in terms of both artistic design and stoic-religious aspects. Virgil took the subject and name of his didactic poem from Nikander von Colophon, who wrote a work on agriculture called Georgika . The didactic features of his poem are ultimately derived from the Hellenistic epic.

Although his direct model in Latin poetry is Lucretius , as Virgil himself makes clear by allusions to the text, Virgil strives for a downright opposite intention overall. While Lucretius' epicurean didactic poem proclaimed the perfect materiality of the world and thus the non-existence or irrelevance of the gods, Virgil is deeply convinced of a divine control of the world. What Virgil shares with Lucretius, however, is the view that nature appears as the creative power in the cosmos. Like Lucretius, Virgil has an affection for nature and philosophy and condemns all waste. In formal terms, too, Virgil reveals himself to be an admirer of Lucretius in the Georgica . Numerous adopted linguistic formulas prove this. Virgil, like Lucretius, would like to explore the secrets of nature, but at the same time he knows about the difficulties that arise in the study of nature from the limitation of his mental faculties. But he wants at least to be able to recognize the aesthetics of nature by shaping the world, which in Virgil is filled with gods (cf. second book, verse 475 ff). With the conviction that nature is borne by gods, he rejects the view of Lucretius, although he feels great appreciation for this.

The element of divinity with simultaneous worship of nature contributed decisively to its reception by Christianity, which was unusually positive for a “pagan” poet , during which the Middle Ages even awarded Virgil an anima naturaliter christiana (“naturally Christian soul”).

Of course, Virgil's practical experience also plays a decisive role in depicting country life. He was certainly also familiar with the Greek and Roman specialist literature. Virgil was certainly influenced by the philosophy of Cicero . When Virgil describes how a plow is made from the wood of elm, linden and beech (First Book, verse 169–175) and discusses the magical meaning of days of the month (First Book, verse 276–286), he is referring to Hesiod . References to the Historia animalium of Aristotle and the Historia plantarum Theophrasts can also be established. Virgil also knew from Oikonomikos Xenophons , as evidenced by Servius ' commentary on 1.43 in Georgica . The citation of weather signs in verses 351 to 392 shows the influence of Arat's work Diosemeia . Virgil probably also received the work Melitourgika on the honey by Nikander and the poems Hermes and Erigone by Eratosthenes in the Georgica .

Other works from which Virgil was inspired when writing his didactic poem were On Agriculture by Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder , the Work of Diophanes of Nikaia, Works on Agriculture by Mago , the Res rusticae by Marcus Terentius Varro , De agricultura and De apibus by Gaius Julius Hyginus and the Thyestes by Lucius Varius Rufus .

Cicero was also an important role model for Virgil. Cicero writes in Cato Maior de senectute about useful field work and the joy of country life. Virgil possibly also derived the structure of the Georgica from this work , because in Cicero's work Cato speaks of the fact that seed fields, vineyards, orchards, cattle breeding and swarms of bees characterize rural life, just as Virgil in the first book of sowing and plowing, in the second of vines, im third tells of the maintenance of the cattle and in the fourth of the bees. Cicero exerted stylistic influence on Virgil at least as much as Ennius or Lucretius.

Socio-economic background

The emergence of the Georgica is also related to the driving back of the free peasants through the expansion of the large estates in the second century BC. Civil wars resulted in the flight of many rural residents to the cities. Veterans were given estates they did not know how to manage, which reduced yields. Virgil therefore calls for the renewal of peasantry in Italy through a moral turnaround in Rome by accusing the turmoil of civil wars to be responsible for the misery of a deserted nature. He emphasizes the values ​​of peace.

Virgil emphasizes the usefulness and sanctity of nature, man should treat it with piety and cultivate it with diligence. The decay of the world can be prevented through work. It is the will of Jupiter to see man at work, who thereby has to integrate himself into the order of the cosmos. In the course of this process, culture arises through progress. At the same time, Virgil is also aware that progress can lead people to ruin through war, which is why he by no means praises the work itself. According to Virgil, it is rather the consequence of the transition to the Iron Age.

Italian country life in its entirety is extolled in the Georgica . Agriculture is the economic basis for Rome's greatness. Virgil associates virtues such as independence, piety, and modesty with rurality. Virgil sees rural life as the most primitive way of life. He envisions an Arcadia that should be characterized by freedom from peace. He wants to see remnants of the Golden Age in it. The farmer transforms an original nature of paradise into an ordered nature of harmony. The work of Saturn resulted in agriculture, who, driven by Jupiter, stayed for a while in Italy, where he maintained the prosperity and peace of the Golden Age. It follows that Virgil in the Georgica refers exclusively to Italian agriculture. He thus confirms Italy as the central country, because everything great comes from Rome.

Because Augustus wanted to give the Romans an identity again, whereby the state should be rehabilitated, he promoted the smallholder family and emphasized the economic importance of the farmers. When the emperor actually succeeded in restoring peaceful order, Virgil saw in him a divine apparition who had ushered in a new age. As the gods would have done in the beginning, so Augustus is now also re-establishing rural life.

Virgil's Georgica are definitely not a textbook, even if they contain a profound core of specialist knowledge. They also refer not only to rural life, but place it in an overall context that illustrates the importance of human life, but also that of Rome for the whole world. By bringing in gods, Virgil appeals to the piety of the rural population that still prevailed at that time and on the one hand, with geographical effusions, gives life a role within the entire world, on the other hand, the gods a key role by giving them not only dominion over the earth, but also heavenly power is awarded.

On the whole, Virgils addresses himself less to the Roman peasants themselves than to the intellectual elite of Rome, who are instructed to take care of the peasantry. There is no doubt that Virgil not only wanted to give pleasure with the Georgica , but also wanted to operate politically and cause a rethink in society.

Outline of Georgica

Virgil's form is based on Catullus poems and the epic of Lucretius. He does not follow a strict system and avoids monotony. Under no circumstances does he proceed haphazardly, his didactic poem has grown organically. In the first book, the description of the field follows the seasons and is based on the civil war. The second is about the care of vines and olive trees, with the motif of peace appearing. In the third cattle and horse breeding is discussed, Virgil follows the life course of the animals, at the end of which stands death. In the fourth book of the bees he finally tries the motif of their resurrection with the simultaneous gravity of human fate.

The figure of the antithesis appears clearly in the structure: The first and third books have extensive introductions and end with scenarios of ruin, the second and fourth have only short introductions and are of a pleasant nature. While the first two books deal with inanimate objects, the last two books focus on living things.

Structural similarities can also be seen in other features: The third and fourth books deal equally with animal suffering. In the first as well as in the fourth book the efforts of the peasantry are listed. While the first book speaks of celestial geography, the third book deals with terrestrial geography. If the first two books are subdivided into three parts each, the last two of them have two parts each.

Poetry in the Georgica

Virgil applied the high art of poetry to the Hellenistic didactic poem. In this principle he follows Lucretius. The instructive character is dominated by the poetic. Virgil masterfully implemented the poetic principle of variation. Long-windedness has been avoided, matter is permeated with action, objects are often personified by being given attributes such as bravery, joy and envy.

The poet addresses the reader in command. Occasionally, Virgil even gets a little humorous. However, his greatest attention was paid to the combination of Greek elegance with Latin simplicity. For example, there are echoes of Homer's Iliad . Stylistic devices such as enumerations and decorative archetypal adjectives come from the Alexandrians. Virgil took over ancient expressions from Ennius, elegant language from Catullus and the cheerfulness of teaching from Lucretius.

Virgil's language likes to be abstract, albeit sometimes concrete, where one would not expect it, and open to neologisms in which the self-confidence of the Creator is revealed. She makes frequent use of metaphors, parables, comparisons, onomatopoeia and leaps in time. The hexameter Virgil is strictly according to tradition while partial nimbleness and majestic at the same time elegance.

Musical references

The Georgica are also interesting from a musicological point of view, as it is a song of praise for the Italian peasantry. Numerous musical references are also made in the factory. In the first book reference is made to Weber songs (verse 293) and dressmaker dances (verse 350). The second book speaks of Etruscan wind instruments (verse 193), artless songs on the occasion of the Bacchus Festival (verse 386 ff.), Winegrower's songs (verse 417) and war music that marked the end of the Age of Saturn (verse 539) . Finally, according to the fourth book, the hum of swarms of bees, which Virgil interprets as armies fighting with one another, sounds like war music (v. 71). The bees would be pointed in the right direction by cymbals (64), just as the Zeus boy was nourished by bees while beating the cymbals (151). In the second book, verse 193, a typical Etruscan instrument, the aulos wind instrument, is also referred to , Referred to. According to Virgil's testimony, his pipe was made of ivory.

reception

Literary aftermath

Virgil's work enjoyed great prestige throughout the Middle Ages and modern times.

Antiquity

The Georgica were already being read in school and performed in the theater in Virgil's time. In Pompeii there are quotes from it as graffiti. Virgil's contemporary Iulius Hyginus published a commentary on the Georgica on which the textual explanation of Marcus Valerius Probus should be based. Servius's commentary , parts of the Veronese scholias , the Bernese scholias and comments on the work in the Saturnalia of Macrobius have also survived. Arrianos translated the Georgica into Greek. Already in the time of Hadrian the work was consulted on matters of fate. In late antique times he was revered as a polyhistor , in the Middle Ages he was finally given attributes of a miracle worker.

Effects of the didactic poem on Horace are possible; with regard to Ovid , who for example creates a parody of Virgil's section on the experiences of Orpheus in his Metamorphoses, they are considered certain. Virgil's Georgica can also be assumed to have had an influence on the hunting poem of Grattius and the astronomical poem of Manilius , as well as on the bucolic Titus Calpurnius Siculus and Marcus Aurelius Nemesianus . At least in the beginning, Virgil was presumably seen as an agronomic authority with regard to his work on agriculture and was quoted by Columella in his agricultural work and criticized by Pliny the Elder in questions of apiculture.

In late antique times, the Georgica , for example by Ambrosius, was interpreted to mean that the call to work corresponded with biblical content and the work was reminiscent of the Benedictine rule of the Ora et labora . Thus, the Georgica were able to bridge times of decay by appearing as Christian praise. Both Cassiodorus in the institutions and Endelechius in De mortibus boum strive Georgica -Zitate.

middle Ages

After the migration of the peoples, people went back to the works of Virgil: Alkuin's poems show Virgilian influences from Georgica as well as Walahfrid Strabo's didactic poem De cultura hortorum about the herb garden in Reichenau, possibly Wandalbert von Prüm's poems about the names of the twelve months as well. Walter von Châtillon , who lived in the 12th century and wrote an important Alexandre epic in addition to vagante poems with the Alexandreis , drafted a retouch of the Georgica shortened to 100 verses . It must be concluded, however, that although motifs from Georgica such as the deterioration of the paradisiacal state at the time of Saturn due to divine influence continued to be quoted with pleasure , the literary and theological effect of this didactic poem was more and more dominated by the Aeneid and behind this other Virgil's work resigned.

Early modern age

After all, there is also a great interest in the Georgica among the Italian humanists , such as Dante and Petrarch . Poliziano wrote an epic called Rusticus based on the Georgica . In his work Arcadia, Sannazaro borrowed the Aristaeus episode in the Georgica . Giovanni Ruccellai modeled his poem Le Api on them. Alamanni took the didactic poem as a model for his own poem about country life, which he called La Cultivazione . Fracastro took a position in Naugerius for Virgil's Georgica .

Title page to Wolf Helmhardt von Hohberg's Georgica curiosa

Later, the influence went the didactic poem on the Romance language areas about what is in Spain in Juan de Mena's Laberinto , in France in Ronsard's Eclogues and René Rapins Hortorum libri IV and in England in Spenser's Shepheardes Calender , in Swift's the Georgica nachempfundenem A Description of a City Shower and Milton's Paradise Lost . People like Ben Jonson , George Chapman and John Fletcher are impressed by the Georgica . Joseph Addison wrote an essay on the didactic poem in 1693, in which he praised it as the most complete, elaborate and finished piece in all antiquity, and in 1697 the literary critic John Dryden described it as “the best poem of the best poet . Martin Opitz also praises it several times in the book by Deutsche Poeterey . Johannes Fries , who had studied philology and music in Paris, emerged as the author of a number of school works on the subjects of ancient languages ​​and music and dedicated his Annotationes in Vergilii Bucolica et Georgica to the Georgica Virgils in 1561 . In the German-speaking world who wrote Austrian landed gentry Wolfhelm Hardt Hohberg (1612-1688), the Georgica curiosa , an encyclopedic scale textbook on all aspects of domestic and agriculture according to the understanding of the 17th century, among the highlights of the so-called Hausväterliteratur is counted .

The list of authors who were influenced by the Georgica could go on and on: Dryden's translation attracted the greatest attention, especially in 18th-century England. So based John Denham in Cooper's Hill , Alexander Pope in Windsor Forest , Christopher Smart in The Hop-Garden , John Philips in Cyder , John Gay in Rural Sports , William Sommerville in The Chase , further Walter Savage Landor , William Wordsworth , George Gordon Byron , Alfred Tennyson, and Robert Browning ideas from Virgil's didactic poem. Thomson's work The Seasons also draws its material from the Georgica .

Georgica was also very popular in France in the 18th century. Vanières Praedium rusticum , de Rossets Agriculture , Delilles L'homme des champs and Les quatre saisons by François-Joachim de Pierre de Bernis testify to the dissemination of Virgil's works and the admiration that was particularly felt for his didactic poem.

Even Goethe quoted in the Italian Journey to the ninth September 1786 Georgica and when his character Egmont can say how whipped the sun horses time to go through with our destiny light wagon , so Goethe may be the final scene of the first book of the Georgics been encouraged.

From the second half of the 18th century, Virgil was replaced as the leading ancient poet in the German-speaking area by Homer. Furthermore, Lessing regarded the Georgica as the masterpiece of Virgil , but Virgil was ultimately overshadowed by Homer. In the Romance-speaking area, however, he was still at the forefront of ancient poetry, as demonstrated by Charles-Augustin Sainte-Beuves Ètude sur Virgile .

20th century

In the 20th century, the Georgica experienced a renaissance through studies by the philologists Richard Heinze , Erich Burck , Friedrich Klingner and Vinzenz Buchheit . In The Land, Vita Sackville-West was based on the writing style of the didactic poem and Thomas Stearns Eliot also saw Virgil as his model, not least because of the Georgica , which he also explains in his essay What is a classic .

philosophy

In the 18th century, Homer was held up against Virgil's sublime style as a simple poet. Thus Homer won against Virgil in Johann Gottfried Herder's Critical Forests and in Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's Aesthetics .

In his work Die Theodicee, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz also makes references to Virgil's Georgica in the section on the correspondence of faith with reason , although he cites it as a negative example. He cites the statement of some Aristotelians that there is a general soul which forms the ocean for all special souls, only this general soul should exist as an independent one, while the individual special souls arise and perish . Hegel points out that some even believed that God was this universal soul . This doctrine, according to which the souls of animals arise through a drop-by-drop excretion from this ocean as soon as they meet a body which they can animate and according to which they perish when the body is destroyed by rejoining the ocean of souls connect, just as the rivers get lost in the sea , Hegel sees in a statement in Virgil's Georgica in the fourth book in verse 221 addressed: “For the divinity strides through all countries and seas and the deep sky. Hence, each of the domestic animals, the herds, the men, all kinds of wild animals and each born takes its weak life and when they dissolve, it must be returned there and brought back. «Leibniz also quotes verse 724 of the sixth book the Aeneid .

The Italian poet and philosopher Tommaso Campanella names a book called Georgica in his Utopia The Sun State , which should help the inhabitants of the Sun State to work the earth with great skill and to fertilize it well , which they do with the help of secret means , with which the germinal power of the seed could be accelerated and multiplied and, on the other hand, prevented from ever dying off . At the same time, Campanella also refers to advice on breeding and keeping animals in Virgil's Bucolica .

In his preschool for aesthetics, Jean Paul even speaks of a science of its own in relation to georgica , which they would support if he went into the function of poetry. Poetry should circulate common sense and learned knowledge or entire sciences (such as agronomy in the Georgica ) , and precisely because of this it should work all the more strongly for the memory that it impresses everything more deeply on it through its grace .

Visual arts

In the 20th century, Aristide Maillol , André Dunoyer de Segonzac and Richard Seewald created pictures on certain Georgica themes . André Segonzac, a French painter and graphic artist who made over 2000 etchings and numerous book illustrations and became famous for his drawings of theater and ballet visits, published a large number of illustrations for Virgil's Georgica in 1947 .

The Virgil manuscripts : A total of 24 Virgil manuscripts, most of which date from the 4th to 6th centuries, have been more or less completely preserved. The Vergilius Vaticanus and the Vergilius Romanus also show numerous illustrations for the text of the Bucolica , Georgica and the Aeneid and are of particular importance in terms of art history. Fifty miniatures of the former manuscript have survived, about a fifth of the original number, and three painters may have been involved in their development. 19 miniatures of the latter still exist, around half of the original number. The illustrations of the first manuscript were designed in the Hellenistic tradition, which is evident in the representation of the figures and in the way they are embedded in the surrounding landscape and architecture. The younger Vergilius Romanus shows a pronounced medieval character with features such as the dissolution of space, tectonics of the composition, few main directions and decorative colors (after Boeckler 1932). This representation takes a distance from Hellenistic design instruments and emphasizes the surface and line character. In addition to the two manuscripts already mentioned, Vergilius Augusteus is of artistic value due to its high-quality book decoration. The written form of the text in this manuscript is that of the Capitalis quadrata. A few documents from the 10th to 12th centuries have also survived in which the text is adorned with marginal drawings and decorative initials. Manuscripts from that period are still available today, especially from southern Italy, southern Germany and Austria. In the 14th and 15th centuries, particularly in France and Italy, elaborate picture cycles were created, mostly for the Georgica , the Bucolica and the Aeneid . The codices from Lyons, Gand and Florence should be emphasized here.

music

The Orpheus myth is very often the subject of Western music. The Seasons , a literary work for which Thomson focused on the theme of the seasons rhythm of the first book of the Georgica , later inspired Joseph Haydn to compose his oratorio The Seasons , so that this musical work is ultimately carried by the spirit of Virgilian poetics. In the 19th century, the later award-winning pianist and orchestra master Gellio Benvenuto Coronaro composed a musical work called La Georgica when he was only thirteen .

In the 20th century, Francesco Malipiero and Jan Novák composed pieces on individual Georgica themes. Malipieri interpreted the first book of Georgica in 1946 with La terra , a cantata for mixed choir, piano and orchestra. With his Toccata Georgiana , a musical work that he wrote for the organ in 1963, Jan Novák wanted to partially oppose Socialist Realism, which was the dominant style in his home country, Czechoslovakia. Novák's other musical works clearly inspired by Georgica are the tonal works Concentus Eurydicae for guitar and string orchestra (1971) and Rustica Musa I and II (1973/1975) for piano as well as the vocal works Dido 1967, a cantata for mezzo-soprano, male choir and orchestra, Mimus magicus 1969 for soprano, clarinet and piano and IV Fugae Vergilianae 1974 for mixed choir. Werner Egk created a musical work called Georgica in the 1930s , which comprises four peasant pieces and was created for orchestra.

Naming

The Georgica gave its name to the Hungarian agricultural school in Veszprém Georgikon .

Editions, comments and translations

literature

  • Michael von Albrecht : Virgil. Bucolica - Georgica - Aeneid. An introduction , Winter, Heidelberg ²2007.
  • Robert Cramer: Virgil's worldview. Optimism and pessimism in Virgil's "Georgica" , De Gruyter, Berlin a. a. 1998.
  • Friedrich Klingner : Virgils Georgica , Artemis, Zurich a. a. 1963.
  • Gary B. Miles: Virgil's Georgics: a new interpretation . University of California Press, Berkeley et al. a. 1980, ISBN 0-520-03789-8
  • Attempt to translate the Georgik des Virgils , authors Vergilius Maro, Publius, CG Lenz, Verlag Adler, Rostock, year 1783

Web links

Commons : Georgics  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 145/146
  2. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 147-150.
  3. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 150–153.
  4. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 153–155.
  5. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , p. 156.
  6. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 156–159.
  7. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 159–161.
  8. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 161-164.
  9. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 165–167
  10. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 167–170
  11. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 170-173
  12. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 174/175
  13. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , p. 175
  14. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 175-179
  15. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 179-183
  16. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 183-187
  17. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 200-205
  18. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 206-210
  19. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 210-212
  20. ↑ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 212-214
  21. ↑ Günther Wille : Virgil in The Music in Past and Present. General encyclopedia of music. Edited by Friedrich Blume, Kassel, 1949–1986. Volume 13, p. 1812
  22. ^ Jean Maillard: Gautier de Châtillon in Music in the past and present. General encyclopedia of music. Edited by Friedrich Blume, Kassel, 1949–1986. Volume 16, p. 429
  23. ^ Otto Schönberger: Georgica , pp. 217-223
  24. ↑ a b Otto Schönberger: Georgica , p. 222.
  25. ↑ Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz: The Theodicee. Translated by JH von Kirchmann , Leipzig: Dürr, 1879, pp. 40/41.
  26. ↑ Thomas Campanella: Der Sonnenstaat , Munich: M. Ernst, 1900, pp. 44/45
  27. ^ Jean Paul: Works. Ed. Norbert Miller and Gustav Lohmann, Munich 1959-1963, Volume 5, pp. 375/376.
  28. ↑ a b Otto Schönberger: Georgica , p. 223
  29. ↑ Segonzac in Lexikon der Kunst , ed. Harald Olbrich. Leipzig, 1987-1994. Volume 6, p. 586
  30. ↑ Andreas Fingernagel: Virgil Manuscripts in Lexikon der Kunst , ed. Harald Olbrich, Leipzig 1987-1994, Volume 7, p. 592.
  31. ↑ Sergio Martinotti: Coronaro in Music in the past and present. General encyclopedia of music. Edited by Friedrich Blume, Kassel, 1949–1986. Volume 15, p. 1601
  32. ↑ Massimo Mila: Malipiero in The Music in Past and Present. General encyclopedia of music. Edited by Friedrich Blume, Kassel, 1949–1986. Volume 8, p. 1553
  33. ^ Ottone Tonetti: Novák in Music in the past and present. General encyclopedia of music. Edited by Friedrich Blume, Kassel, 1949–1986. Volume 16, p. 1416