Kerosene

Kerosene with a flash point of up to 55 ° C
	Qualitative boiling curves of crude oil . JP (Jet Propellant) are outdated standards for jet fuel.
other names	Jet fuel, aviation turbine fuel, light oil, middle distillate , turbine kerosene, light kerosene, light oil, light kerosene
Trade names	Jet A-1, TS-1
Brief description	Aviation turbine fuel; colorless, slightly smelling, liquid hydrocarbon mixture
origin	fossil
CAS number	8008-20-6
properties
Physical state	liquid
viscosity	8.0–8.8 mm 2 / s (−20 ° C) (depending on the variety)
density	0.750-0.845 kg / l (depending on the variety)
calorific value	34.1–34.8 MJ / l (at the reference density of 0.800 kg / l); 42.6–43.5 MJ / kg (depending on the variety);
Hypergol with	highly concentrated hydrogen peroxide
Melting range	−60 ° C to −26 ° C (depending on the variety)
Boiling range	~ 150 to 300 ° C
Flash point	28 to 60 ° C (depending on the variety)
Ignition temperature	220 ° C
Combustion temperature	1926 ° C / 2200 K (in air, stoich. )
Explosive limit	0.6–6.5% by volume
Temperature class	T3
Carbon dioxide emissions from combustion	2.760 kg / l
safety instructions
H and P phrases	H: 226-304-315-336-411
	P: 102-210-280-301 + 310-331-501
UN number	old: 1223; new: 1863 (since July 1, 2009)
Hazard number	30th
As far as possible and customary, SI units are used. Unless otherwise noted, the data given apply to standard conditions .

GATX tank car in Mainz-Bischofsheim station with the UN number 1863 and the designation "Nozzle fuel" (Jet A-1). Kerosene is transported in this tank car.

Kerosine ( ancient Greek κηρός KEROS , German , wax ' , a light petroleum ; in Switzerland as kerosene hereinafter) are aviation fuels of different specifications, mainly as a fuel for the gas turbine engines of jet and turboprop aircraft and helicopters be used (jet fuel). With the development of special diesel engines suitable for aviation , such as the Thielert Centurion 1.7 , it has also been possible since the beginning of the 21st century to operate small aircraft equipped with kerosene.

Kerosene is a narrow fractionation cut from the light middle distillate of petroleum refining , provided with additive packages to achieve the respective specification. The boiling curve of kerosene is quite flat compared to other fuels. The name according to ADR is KEROSIN , it falls under packing group III.

history

The name kerosene goes back to the doctor and geologist Abraham Gesner (1797–1864), who in 1846 in Nova Scotia (Canada) extracted an easily flammable liquid from coal , which corresponds to German petroleum . A resulting, waxy intermediate product, which played an important role in the process, is the reason why he called the liquid kerosene (pronounced: kerrosine or kerosene ), derived from the Greek κηρός (keros), dt. Wax. The intermediate product was similar to paraffin , which is why the liquid secondary product is still called paraffin (oil) in British English . After improved methods for obtaining kerosene from coal were improved in the early 1850s, and after Ignacy Łukasiewicz and Jan Zeh also discovered their distillation from crude oil (patent dated December 2, 1853) and in 1858 the first North American crude oil was found in Ohio, Gesner's method was no longer there profitable, his company with its rights and licenses was taken over by Standard Oil . The brand or the name Kerosene , however, caught on almost worldwide.

Linguistic demarcation

Gesner registered both the invention of the product for a US patent and the word kerosene as a trademark . In order to circumvent the protected trademark rights, other manufacturers have also introduced other names using other processes, which often allude to the terms wax (kerosene), stone (coal) and oil: stone oil (German) or petroleum (Greek-Latin), Cherosene ( Italian) or Queroseno (Spanish). This variety of names and additional terms based on Gasolene (referring to the distillation of crude oil) mean that identically sounding terms in different languages denote very different petroleum refiners and can lead to dangerous misunderstandings.

In the German language, kerosene always refers to the aircraft turbine fuel described in this article, except in the technical jargon of the German petro-industry, where it is used as German for kerosene . This leads to confusion with the wrong friends in other languages, which almost always refer to what the German Petroleum is: Kerosene in American English, Spanish queroseno , Dutch kerosene or cherosene in Italian. Exceptions are e.g. B. Kerozin (Croatian) or occasionally Kerosene (French), where it can also refer to the jet fuel. In British English and thus also in many Commonwealth of Nations , the term kerosene is known, but rather uncommon and mostly also means petroleum .

The jet fuel described here is referred to in most (European) languages by a word that contains the component “jet”: e.g. B. Jet Fuel , Jet-Un or Jet-A .

Manufacturing

In petroleum refineries, kerosene is mainly obtained by distillation from crude oil . The crude oil is first fed to a desalination process and heated to approx. 400 ° C in tube furnaces. It is then fed to an atmospheric distillation column . A temperature profile is established in this. The liquid and gas exchange and the temperature profile result in a material separation or an enrichment of components in certain zones of the column. Kerosene, which consists mainly of molecules with around 9 to 13 carbon atoms per hydrocarbon molecule (boiling temperature 150 and 250 ° C), and diesel are obtained in the middle distillate fraction . At the bottom of the column there are heavy oils and the residue. Depending on the crude oil used, this can make up 40–60% of the crude oil used and is therefore processed in a variety of other processes with conversion systems. The higher molecular weight compounds are broken down by different cracking processes . This creates flows of the fractions gases, naphtha , middle distillates, heavy oils , wax and finally coke . What all refineries have in common is vacuum distillation at pressures between 10 and 30 mbar. In this way, material flows can also be fractionated that have boiling temperatures above 400 ° C, in some cases up to 600 ° C, at ambient pressure. The streams from the various processes also contain aliphatic and aromatic sulfur compounds which, if necessary , have to be selectively removed in a hydrogenation reactor. The specification of kerosene allows a mass fraction of 3000 ppmw sulfur . A rough cut of kerosene contains a maximum of around 1600 ppmw sulfur, while kerosene on the market contains between 100 and 700 ppmw sulfur. The different material flows are mixed together in the refinery to produce a fuel that meets the specification requirements. The maximum permissible sulfur contents remain in the same range with values between 1000 ppmw (JP-7), 3000 ppmw (Jet A-1) and 4000 ppm (JP-4). Aviation turbine fuels differ from kerosene fractions in the refinery by the addition of numerous additives such as antioxidants, metal deactivators, antistatic additives, corrosion inhibitors and others.

The narrow fractionation section means that there are few light and less heavy hydrocarbon compounds in the fuel, which is why it does not ignite too early and burns almost residue-free. Most molecules ignite at the same temperature. A boiling analysis provides information on this , which in the case of kerosene shows a long, flat boiling curve in the middle boiling range. See graphic with boiling curves at the top. This lies between heavy fuel and diesel fuel .

We are working on processes that are not based on petroleum as a raw material. In addition to biokerosene , for example, sun-to-liquid technology is in development. The system separates carbon dioxide and water from the air and converts it into hydrogen and carbon monoxide in a multi-step thermochemical process chain . Kerosene can then be produced from this syngas.

In 2015, around 5.2 million tons of jet fuel (heavy) were produced in Germany.

composition

Kerosene consists of a complex mixture of alkanes , cycloalkanes , aromatics and olefins . Jet A almost exclusively contains compounds with 9 to 17 carbon atoms, with the main focus (19.5% by weight) being a C12 compound. A typical content is 37% alkanes, 47% cycloalkanes, 15% aromatics and 1% olefins. The exact composition depends very much on the crude oil and its origin. Various sources give a range of 35.4–78% alkanes, 9.8–60.3% cycloalkanes and 2.5–22% aromatics (in each case mass percent). Most of the aromatics consist of monoaromatics. A small part has di- and tri-aromatics.

Additives

Kerosene differs from petroleum in addition to the narrower fractionation cut essentially by the addition of functional additives (see also Appendix D, or) that are necessary or useful for use as aircraft fuel. These include:

Antistatic agents prevent or reduce the tendency of the fuel to become statically charged when refueling (STADIS 450, active substance: dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid , dosage: 1–5 mg / l)
Anti-oxidants avoid the formation of rubbery deposits that can form in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Dosing is mandatory for “hydrogenated” kerosene components (substances: polysubstituted phenols, maximum 24 mg / L).
Metal deactivators prevent the oxidation of kerosene catalyzed by metals (especially copper) (substance: N , N ′ -disalicylidene-1,2-diaminopropane , max. 5.7 mg / L).
Corrosion inhibitors prevent corrosion in the tanks. Some of these substances also have lubricity-improving properties (substances: long-chain fatty acids or polysubstituted phenols, dosage: unknown).
Anti-icing agents prevent the formation of water ice crystals when the kerosene is cooled down significantly during flights at high altitudes. It does not affect the freezing point , i.e. the formation of paraffin crystals at low temperatures. These substances also have a biocidal effect (substances: including diethylene glycol monomethyl ether / DEGME , 0.10–0.15%).
Biocides are only used when bacteria are present; this is usually checked every quarter to six months using a rapid test. Long-term use leads to resistance (substances: including Kathon: chloromethylisothiazolinone , methylisothiazolinone or octylisothiazolinone , dosage: 1 ppm).
Thermal stabilizers ( Thermal Stability Improver ) are used in the JP-8 + 100 and prevent / reduce the decomposition ( cracking ) of the kerosene at high temperatures (substances: unknown, dosage: unknown).

Varieties (specification and use)

Civil aviation

Jet A

The fuel locations currently located exclusively in the United States still in use Jet A corresponds to the military specification JP-1 with a Freezing Point or freezing of -40 ° C.

Density: 0.775-0.825 kg / dm ³
Flash point : +38 ° C
Freezing point: −40 ° C

Jet A-1 (NATO Code F-35)

Refueling with Jet A-1

Today in international civil aviation, with the exception of the USA, the specification Jet A-1 (corresponds to the military designation JP-1A ) with a slightly lower freezing point (−47 ° C) but the same flash point and boiling range as Jet A is used as an aircraft turbine fuel . The NATO code is F-35.

The military aviation of NATO uses the same basic fuel under the name Jet Propellant-8 (JP-8, NATO-Code F-34), whereby special additives (additives) like antifreeze (Fuel System Icing Inhibitor, FSII), anti-corrosion agents , lubricants and antistatic substances such as dinonylnaphthylsulfonic acid can be added.

Density: 0.775-0.825 kg / dm ³
Flash point: +38 ° C
Freezing point: −47 ° C

Jet B

For flights in regions with extremely low temperatures, such as Alaska, Canada and Siberia, there are still the types Jet B for civil use and JP-4 with the corresponding additives for military use (Wide Cut Fuels), which are made from 65% gasoline - and 35% kerosene fractions and have a freezing point of −60 ° C. However, the engines must be suitable for the use of this fuel.

Bulk density: 0.750-0.800 kg / dm ³
Energy density: 11.11 kWh / kg or for the usual 0.796 kg / dm ³ = 8.84 kWh / l.
Flash point +20 ° C
Freezing point −60 ° C

TS-1

Another variety with a flash point of 28 ° C and also a freezing point of −60 ° C is TS-1, which is still used occasionally in Eastern Europe according to the Russian specification GOST 10227-62.

Military aviation

JP-1

The specification AN-F-32, which describes the jet fuel for the first time in the USA under the name JP-1 (English: Jet Propellant-1, as much as jet fuel 1), dates back to 1944. The main disadvantage of the fuel introduced in 1944 is that it can only be used up to temperatures of −40 ° C. The now obsolete JP-1 had a freezing point of a maximum of −60 ° C and a flash point of a minimum of 43 ° C, had a boiling range of approx. 180 to 230 ° C and was classified in hazard class A II.

JP-2, JP-3

The JP-2 introduced in 1945 and the JP-3 introduced in 1947 are obsolete today. They were so-called wide cut fuels with a maximum freezing point of −60 ° C.

JP-4 (NATO code F-40)

For flights in regions with extremely low temperatures, such as Alaska, Canada and Siberia, there are still the types Jet B for civil use and JP-4 with the corresponding additives for military use (Wide Cut Fuels), which are made from 65% gasoline - and 35% kerosene fractions and have a freezing point of maximum −72 ° C. The NATO code for JP-4 is F-40 (US Military Specification MIL-DTL-5624U). For safety reasons, the F-40 was the first choice for single-engine aircraft of the German Air Force . However, the engines must be suitable for the use of this fuel. Many military engines (e.g. the GE-J79 ) can be changed relatively easily from (normal) F-40 to (occasionally) F-34 by adjusting the regulator. As a fuel introduced by the US Air Force in 1951, JP-4 (F-40) was replaced by JP-8 from around autumn 1996 .

JP-5 (NATO Code F-44)

The special grade JP-5 with a particularly high flash point (safety fuel , high flashpoint kerosene) introduced in 1952 is only used for on-board aircraft and helicopters for reasons of cost . It has a freezing point of a maximum of −46 ° C. The fuel is used in particular on aircraft carriers. The NATO symbol is F-44. The flash point is 65 ° C and is almost 30 ° C higher than the standard jet A-1 fuel. According to security experts, the civilian use of JP-5 could significantly reduce the risk of explosion and fire in aviation.

JP-6

The now obsolete JP-6 was introduced in 1956 for the XB-70 program. JP-6 had a higher energy density than JP-4 and could withstand higher temperatures than JP-4. It is similar to JP-5 , but has a lower freezing point of a maximum of −54 ° C.

JPTS

The JPTS ( Jet Propellant Thermally Stable ), also introduced in 1956, was designed with a maximum freezing point of −53 ° C and a minimum flash point of 43 ° C for greater thermal stability and as a high-altitude fuel. It is only used for the Lockheed U-2 spy plane and is still produced today in two refineries in the USA. The fuel costs about three times as much as JP-8 .

JP-7

Another special grade is the difficult to ignite JP-7, introduced in 1960, for aircraft that fly at high supersonic speeds and become very hot due to air friction. The only aircraft that used the fuel was the Lockheed SR-71 . The fuel has a freezing point of a maximum of −43 ° C and a flash point of a minimum of 60 ° C. The global provision of the special fuel JP-7 for the worldwide use of the SR-71 and in particular the complex air refueling logistics for a single aircraft type was a very high operating cost factor and contributed to the fact that the SR-71 was decommissioned for cost reasons.

JP-8, JP-8 + 100 (NATO code F-34)

The JP-8 , introduced in 1979 on some NATO bases, has replaced the JP-4 from 1996 . For the US Air Force, the specification was established in 1990. It was developed as a flame-retardant fuel that is expected to be used until around 2025. The fuel has a freezing point of a maximum of −47 ° C and a flash point of a minimum of 38 ° C. Its NATO code is F-34.

JP-8 + 100 is a further development of JP-8 introduced in 1998 , which is said to increase its thermal stability by 100 ° F (55.6 ° C).

consumption

In 2015, around 8.5 million tons of jet fuel (heavy) were used in Germany. Since significantly less jet fuel was produced in Germany (5.2 million tons, see above), the deficit had to be covered by imports - mainly from Rotterdam. By way of comparison: sales of petroleum amounted to a negligible amount of 14,000 tons.

Factors influencing kerosene consumption

Aircraft type and engines influence the consumption of the respective aircraft. In the course of the last decades it has been observed that the consumption of modern commercial aircraft has been falling steadily. The individual aircraft types are each available with different engines , especially from the three major manufacturers General Electric Aircraft Engines , Pratt & Whitney and Rolls-Royce . Depending on the combination of aircraft type and engine, there are differences in the kerosene consumption of a machine.

The weight of an airplane is the second big factor in fuel consumption. In addition to the weight of the aircraft itself, this depends on the seating, the load, the amount of kerosene carried and the cargo load of a machine.

In addition to the aircraft and weight, the course of the flight also has an impact on fuel consumption. The distance that an aircraft covers on its flight from the point of departure to the point of arrival plays a major role here. Due to the airway system with the routing along so-called waypoints , detours arise that lengthen the route to be covered by an aircraft. At many airports with congested slots , planes have to fly on holding patterns before landing . The distance to be flown is lengthened by detours and waiting loops and thus causes increased fuel consumption.

Options for saving kerosene

Because of the lower consumption of new types of aircraft, airlines are trying to replace their old aircraft with new, fuel-efficient models. This fleet rejuvenation has great potential to reduce kerosene consumption and thus save money in the long term.

The improvement of the infrastructure through the Single European Sky should significantly increase the efficiency of air traffic in Europe.

The weight of the aircraft is one of the decisive factors influencing kerosene consumption. This leads to constant efforts by aircraft manufacturers to reduce the weight of aircraft through newly developed materials. Here, in the first place are fiber composite materials and especially carbon fiber reinforced plastics used. This can reduce the weight of modern aircraft by up to 40%. In the past, the only daring to use composite materials in the tail unit, wings and similar parts of the aircraft, in the new generation of aircraft a part of the fuselage is also made of modern materials. In the latest generation, e.g. B. Airbus A350 or Boeing 787 , up to 80% of the aircraft structure are made of fiber composite materials.

Winglets are a kerosene saving measure that has found widespread use in aviation in recent years. Winglets are the vertical continuation of the wings. They are intended to reduce air turbulence that occurs at the tips of the wings due to different pressures on the top and bottom of the wings. The turbulence reduces lift and induces drag. Both of these increase kerosene consumption.

Another way to optimize fuel consumption is to descend continuously . The aircraft remains at flight altitude longer than with a conventional landing approach ( English step descent ; German: gradual descent) and then sinks in a steady descent for landing. Because the engines idle during a descent, fuel consumption is reduced with the duration of the actual descent.

On shorter distances (e.g. most intra-European flights), many passenger planes do not take off until they have been assigned a land slot at the destination airport, which normally avoids holding patterns.

Prices

The prices for Jet A-1 (trade name: Jet) are based on the Rotterdam market. Jet is traded in US dollars per 1000 kg (US $ / t). Various publications such as Platts , ICIS Heren and OMR report on current retail prices and volumes. The reference density used commercially (to relate the price of a current batch with a given density to the quotation) is 0.800 kg / l. Transport costs in particular must be taken into account here.

Price development

From 1986 to 1999, the price of kerosene rose from $ 17 to $ 22 per barrel . The price of kerosene has been rising since 2000 and has risen sharply since 2004. The particular problem with the development of kerosene prices in 2008 is that both a record price and the lowest level since July 2004 were reached within a short period of time. The record price of $ 169.57 a barrel was recorded in July 2008. Within just seven months, the price fell to $ 53.52 per barrel in February 2009. In May 2020, the price of kerosene averaged only $ 17.22 per barrel due to the drop in prices on the crude oil market.

Taxes

Jet A-1, like AvGas , is not subject to the (German) energy tax law and therefore not subject to the (German) eco tax for commercial aviation companies . Only in private aviation and for commercial aircraft used in company traffic is each type of aviation fuel subject to energy tax (€ 654 per 1000 l of kerosene; i.e. the equivalent of € 104 per barrel).

Web links

Commons : Kerosene - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Wiktionary: Kerosene - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Entry on kerosene with a flash point of up to 55 ° C in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on March 17, 2013 (JavaScript required)

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Exxon Worldspecs (PDF; 1.5 MB)

↑ Carolus Grünig: Mixture formation and flame stabilization with pylon injection in supersonic combustion chambers . Herbert Utz Verlag,, ISBN 978-3-89675-476-9 , pp. 1–13 (accessed on September 17, 2011).

↑ z. B. admin.ch: Mineral Oil Tax Ordinance: new tax concessions on aviation fuel or Carbura: compulsory storage in Switzerland

↑ ^a ^b Ralf Peters: Fuel cell systems in aviation . Springer-Verlag, 2015, ISBN 978-3-662-46798-5 , pp. 8 ( limited preview in Google Book search).

↑ DLR Portal: SUN-to-LIQUID solar system produces solar kerosene from sunlight, water and CO2 for the first time - DLR Portal , accessed on November 21, 2019

↑ ^a ^b MWV: Annual Report 2016 , accessed on November 26, 2016.

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Energy-Visions Aviation Fuel. Retrieved September 5, 2019 .

↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e additive components ( Memento from December 29, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 110 kB)

↑ World Jet Fuel Specifications with Avgas Supplement - 2005 Edition (PDF; 841 kB), exxonmobil

^ Aviation Fuel - Jet Fuel Information , csgnetwork.com

↑ Operating manual J79

^ Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields

↑ Dennis R. Jenkins, Tony R. Landis: Warbird Tech Series Volume 34, North American, XB-70 VALKYRIE . Specialty Press, North Branch, Minnesota, USA, 2002, ISBN 1-58007-056-6 , p. 84.

↑ From a report by FLUG REVUE from the 1980s.

^ The Development of High Thermal Stability Jet Fuel

↑ Energy tax

[GESTIS-1] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Entry on kerosene with a flash point of up to 55 ° C in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on March 17, 2013 (JavaScript required)

[Exxon-2] ↑ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Exxon Worldspecs (PDF; 1.5 MB)

[Grünig-3] Carolus Grünig: Mixture formation and flame stabilization with pylon injection in supersonic combustion chambers . Herbert Utz Verlag,, ISBN 978-3-89675-476-9 , pp. 1–13 (accessed on September 17, 2011).