Hydrogen peroxide

Structural formula
Wedges to clarify the spatial structure
General
Surname	Hydrogen peroxide
other names	Perhydrol Hydrogen peroxide Dioxidant HYDROGEN PEROXIDES ( INCI )
Molecular formula	H 2 O 2
Brief description	colorless, almost odorless liquid
External identifiers / databases
CAS number 7722-84-1 (aqueous solution) EC number 231-765-0 ECHA InfoCard 100,028,878 PubChem 784 Wikidata Q171877
Drug information
ATC code	A01 AB02 D08 AX01 S02 AA06
properties
Molar mass	34.02 g mol −1
Physical state	liquid
density	1.71 g cm −3 (−20 ° C, solid) 1.463 g cm −3 (20 ° C, pure)
Melting point	−0.43 ° C (pure)
boiling point	150.2 ° C (pure)
Vapor pressure	1.9 hPa (20 ° C, pure)
pK s value	11.75 (20 ° C) 11.8 (25 ° C)
solubility	miscible with water
safety instructions
Please note the exemption from the labeling requirement for drugs, medical devices, cosmetics, food and animal feed GHS hazard labeling from  Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 (CLP) , expanded if necessary for the aqueous> 70% solution danger H and P phrases H: 271-302-314-332-335-412 P: 280-305 + 351 + 338-310
MAK	DFG / Switzerland: 0.5 ml m −3 or 0.71 mg m −3
Thermodynamic properties
ΔH f 0	−188 kJ mol −1
As far as possible and customary, SI units are used. Unless otherwise noted, the data given apply to standard conditions .

Hydrogen peroxide (H ₂ O ₂ ) is a pale blue, in diluted form colorless, largely stable liquid compound made of hydrogen and oxygen . It is a little more viscous than water , a weak acid and a very strong oxidizing agent compared to most substances , which as such reacts violently with substances such as copper , brass , potassium iodide and thus acts as a strong bleaching and disinfecting agent . In its highly concentrated form, it can be used both as a single and as a component rocket fuel.

In commercial trade, hydrogen peroxide is usually available as a 30 to 35 percent aqueous solution.

history

Hydrogen peroxide was first produced in 1818 by Louis Jacques Thénard by reacting barium peroxide with nitric acid. The process was improved first through the use of hydrochloric acid and then sulfuric acid . The latter is particularly suitable because the barium sulfate by-product is precipitated. Thénard's method was used from the late 19th century to the middle of the 20th century.

For a long time it was believed that pure hydrogen peroxide was unstable because attempts to separate it from the water produced during production failed. This was due to the fact that traces of solid bodies and heavy metal ions lead to catalytic degradation or even to an explosion. Absolutely pure hydrogen peroxide was first obtained in 1894 by Richard Wolffenstein using vacuum distillation .

Extraction and manufacture

In the past, hydrogen peroxide was mainly produced by the electrolysis of sulfuric acid. Here forms peroxodisulfuric that then to sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide hydrolyzed is.

1. ${\displaystyle \mathrm {\ 2\ SO_{4}^{2-}\longrightarrow S_{2}O_{8}^{2-}+2\ e^{-}} }$
2. ${\displaystyle \mathrm {\ S_{2}O_{8}^{2-}+2\ H_{2}O\longrightarrow H_{2}O_{2}+2\ HSO_{4}^{-}} }$

Today, hydrogen peroxide is technically produced using the anthraquinone process . For this purpose, anthrahydroquinone is converted to hydrogen peroxide and anthraquinone with atmospheric oxygen under pressure . In the next step, anthraquinone can again be reduced to anthrahydroquinone using hydrogen .

The gross equation is:

${\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}+O_{2}\longrightarrow H_{2}O_{2}} }$

On a laboratory scale, hydrogen peroxide is also produced when peroxides are treated with acids . A historically important reagent is barium peroxide , which reacts in a sulfuric acid solution to form hydrogen peroxide and barium sulfate .

${\displaystyle \mathrm {BaO_{2}+2\ H_{3}O^{+}+SO_{4}^{2-}\longrightarrow H_{2}O_{2}+BaSO_{4}+2\ H_{2}O} }$

The standard molar enthalpies of formation are:

• Δ _f H ⁰ _gas : −136.11 kJ / mol
• Δ _f H ⁰ _liq : −188 kJ / mol
• Δ _f H ⁰ _sol : −200 kJ / mol

properties

Physical Properties

The compound is miscible with water in any ratio. Although the melting points of the neat components are relatively similar, significantly lower melting points are observed in mixtures. A dihydrate (H ₂ O ₂ · 2H ₂ O) which melts at a defined temperature of −52.1 ° C is found. Together with the pure substance components, this forms two eutectics with a hydrogen peroxide content of 45.2% by mass with −52.4 ° C and 61.2% with −56.5 ° C. Hydrogen peroxide and water do not form an azeotropic mixture.

The H ₂ O ₂ - molecule is in terms of the two O-O-H planes angled ( dihedral angle = 90.2 ± 0.6 °). The O – O bond length is 145.3 ± 0.7 pm, the O – H bond length is 99.8 ± 0.5 pm, and the O – H bond angle is 102.7 ± 0.3 °. As with water, hydrogen bonds are formed in the liquid phase . The angled structure and modified hydrogen bridge structure lead to a significantly higher density and slightly higher viscosity compared to water.

Physical properties of aqueous hydrogen peroxide solutions .
H 2 O 2 - mass fraction (w)		0%	10%	20%	35%	50%	70%	90%	100%
Melting point (in ° C)		0	−6	−14	−33	−52.2	−40.3	−11.9	−0.43
Boiling point (in ° C, 101.3 kPa)		100	101.7	103.6	107.9	113.8	125.5	141.3	150.2
Density (in g cm −3 )	00 ° C	0.9998			1.1441	1.2110	1.3071	1.4136	1.4700
	20 ° C	0.9980	1.03	1.07	1.1312	1.1953	1.2886	1.3920	1.4500
	25 ° C	0.9971			1.1282	1.1914	1.2839	1.3867	1.4425
Vapor pressure (in hPa)	20 ° C	23			17th		8th		1.9
	30 ° C	42			30.7		14.7	6.67	3.9
	50 ° C	123							13.2
Specific heat capacity (in J · K -1 · g -1 )	25 ° C	4.18	3.96	3.78	3.57	3.35	3.06	2.77	2.62
Viscosity (in mPas)	00 ° C	1,7920			1.8200	1.8700	1.9300	1.8800	1,8190
	20 ° C	1.0020			1.1100	1.1700	1.2300	1.2600	1.2490
Refractive index ( ) ${\displaystyle n_{D}^{20}}$		1.3330			1.3563	1.3672	1.3827	1.3995	1.4084

Hydrogen peroxide is a very weak acid. The following equilibrium is established in water:

${\displaystyle \mathrm {H_{2}O_{2}+H_{2}O\rightleftharpoons \ H_{3}O^{+}+HO_{2}^{-}} }$

The acid constant is K _S = 1.6 · 10 ⁻¹² or pK _S = 11.8.

Chemical properties

Hydrogen peroxide tends to break down into water and oxygen. In particular, in the case of highly concentrated solutions and contact with metal surfaces or the presence of metal salts and oxides, spontaneous decomposition can occur. The decay reaction is strongly exothermic with a heat of reaction of −98.20 kJ mol ⁻¹ or −2887 kJ kg ⁻¹ . In addition, with 329 l kg ⁻¹ hydrogen peroxide, a considerable amount of gas is released:

${\displaystyle \mathrm {2\ H_{2}O_{2}\longrightarrow 2\ H_{2}O+O_{2}} }$

Disproportionation of two molecules of hydrogen peroxide to form water and oxygen.

This decomposition reaction is, among other things by heavy metal ions, I ^- - and OH ^- catalyzed ions. For this reason, stabilizers (including phosphoric acid ) are added to H ₂ O ₂ solutions on the market . It is a powerful oxidizer . When the oxidation state is reduced from −I to −II, the only reaction products are water and oxygen. Difficult to separate or disruptive by-products are not produced, which simplifies its use in the laboratory.

Depending on the position of both redox potentials, H ₂ O _{2 can} also act as a reducing agent, so Mn ^VII (in potassium permanganate ) is reduced in acid .

Hydrogen peroxide is a very weak acid ; its inorganic salts and organic esters are the hydroperoxides and peroxides .

Biological properties (physiology)

Hydrogen peroxide causes characteristic wounds that are slow to become visible and gradually cause stabbing pain.

Hydrogen peroxide is very corrosive , especially as steam . If you get hydrogen peroxide on the skin, you should rinse the area well with water (dilution) or at least remove the hydrogen peroxide from the skin immediately. If it penetrates the skin, it decomposes there quickly, and the resulting oxygen bubbles make the skin appear white.

In general, hydrogen peroxide has a cytotoxic effect and, due to its high toxicity , disinfects many prokaryotic microorganisms .

Hydrogen peroxide is produced in numerous biochemical processes. In the biological cycle it arises from the oxidative metabolism of sugar. The organism protects itself against its toxic effects by means of enzymes - catalases , peroxidases , which decompose it again into non-toxic O ₂ and H ₂ O.

After being fertilized by a sperm, the female egg briefly produces low concentrations of hydrogen peroxide, so that other sperm are killed.

In addition, hydrogen peroxide is a signaling molecule for the induction of the plant's defense against pathogens (aspect of cytotoxicity ).

Hair turns gray with age

German and British researchers announced in a study in March 2009 that the " gray color " (actually white color) of hair with age is the result of less breakdown of hydrogen peroxide in the hair. It has been shown in laboratory tests that hydrogen peroxide hinders the function of the enzyme tyrosinase , which is required for melanin production . This happens through oxidation of the amino acid methionine contained in the tyrosinase .

use

Highly concentrated solutions of hydrogen peroxide can decompose spontaneously with an explosion , so a maximum of 12 percent solutions in water are freely available in stores. From a concentration of 12%, there is a ban on sales to private end users; it also exists in Germany for suspicious transactions or theft reporting obligation to the responsible state police. Aqueous solutions with concentrations of up to 70% H ₂ O ₂ are available for industrial use .

Bleach

Pulp can be bleached with hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide is a bleaching agent . The most common application worldwide is pulp bleaching . Pulp is obtained from wood , and the lignin it contains gives the pulp a yellow tone , which is perceived as a nuisance in the main use of pulp for paper and paper products.

In the trade , woods are bleached with hydrogen peroxide during restoration or renovation and thus lightened.

It is used for bleaching as well as dyeing , tinting and intensive tones and for fixing permanent changes ( perm and volume wave ) as well as for fixing permanent straightening of hair . A very light, artificial blonde shade is therefore called "hydrogen blonde". The connection becomes even clearer in the English term peroxide blonde .

In dentistry it is used in different concentrations to whiten teeth .

It is often used as a peroxide bound to carbamide .

Hydrogen peroxide and bleaching agents containing hydrogen peroxide, such as a mixture of peroxyacetic acid and hydrogen peroxide , are also referred to in advertising using the artificial word "active oxygen". In addition to hydrogen peroxide, other peroxides can also be used for bleaching purposes , which disintegrate when exposed to water and release the active atomic oxygen .

Also in the taxidermy it is used on one animal skulls bones to bleach white.

Water treatment

When UV rays act on hydrogen peroxide, the hydroxyl radical , a much stronger oxidizing agent than the peroxide itself, is formed. Below is the equation for the formation:

${\displaystyle \mathrm {HOOH\ {\xrightarrow {UV-Licht}}\ 2\ {\cdot }OH} }$

This strong oxidation effect is used in water treatment to break down organic impurities. As an example, the so-called UVOX process ( UV light and OX idation), with which the herbicide atrazine and its degradation product desethylatrazine or other toxic ingredients can be safely removed from drinking water. Through this “wet combustion” of the atrazine, only decomposition products such as water , oxygen , carbon dioxide and nitrogen are formed, and there is no additional salt build-up in the water. In addition, this method replaces the use of activated carbon , which is significantly more expensive.

Disinfection and sterilization

A 3 percent solution of hydrogen peroxide is used for disinfection , also in the household sector. Examples of use are the mouth and throat ( it is diluted to 0.3% for mouth rinsing), dentistry , the disinfection of contact lenses in cleaning agents , the disinfection of packaging materials or the disinfection of hands in cases of illness. Accordingly, it is used in face creams: to cleanse the pores and combat pimples and skin impurities. It is also used to disinfect the water when cleaning industrial wastewater and in swimming pool technology.

The 35 percent solution of hydrogen peroxide is used in the food industry in aseptic filling systems for the sterilization of PET bottles, plastic containers and the typical multilayer cardboard packaging. Numerous foods (beverages, milk , dairy products, sauces, soups) are aseptically packaged today in cardboard boxes, cups, bottles and foils for better shelf life and product quality. The packaging material is disinfected with 35 percent hydrogen peroxide before the respective food is filled.

Another area of ​​application is the use of gaseous H ₂ O ₂ for clean room decontamination. For this purpose, a usually 35 percent solution is evaporated in a special device and blown into the area to be decontaminated (room, chamber, etc.).

The high bactericidal effect of H ₂ O ₂ , the environmental compatibility and the good technical feasibility are the reasons for the widespread use of this process.

Another method of room disinfection with hydrogen peroxide is cold nebulization. In this process, hydrogen peroxide is converted into an aerosol and, depending on its concentration (from 3%), is distributed in the room by an aerosol generator according to a specified process cycle. The aerosols have a droplet size of 0.5–40 µm. The droplet size depends on the technology used to generate the aerosols. The aerosols distribute themselves evenly in the room after a short time. A small droplet size has a positive effect on the distribution and the ability of the droplets to float. Depending on the initial climatic conditions of the room, some of the droplets present in the liquid phase are converted into the gas phase. The energy required for this is taken from the room temperature. The process is identical to adiabatic humidification. The medium mixes with the medium air and, when used properly, causes a holotic disinfection. The device (generator) for nebulization and the special procedure must be validated in advance for effectiveness. In addition, this must be checked for effectiveness on the basis of the existing standardization. The system of disinfection product and aerosol generator is tested for its effectiveness in a laboratory.

Oxygen supply

Hydrogen peroxide can be used in aquariums to supply oxygen. Oxygen is generated in an oxidizer . For this purpose, hydrogen peroxide is split into water and oxygen radicals in a vessel in the aquarium with the help of a catalyst .

Against mold growth

During interior renovation, mold infestation can be combated with hydrogen peroxide. It acts as a disinfectant against both the biologically active fungal cells - as a fungicide - and against the " conidia " called spores of the fungi.

Due to its bleaching effect, it also "optically" removes the residues of the mold from porous substrates. Hydrogen peroxide has some advantages over alcohol or sodium hypochlorite because, unlike alcohol, it is non-flammable, has a bleaching effect and, unlike sodium hypochlorite, does not leave any chlorinated by-products behind.

medicine

In dentistry , H ₂ O _{2 is used} as a three percent aqueous solution for the local disinfection of tooth tissue and for hemostasis in minor operations. In medicine and emergency medicine , the substance can be used to disinfect surfaces, instruments, skin and mucous membranes . Hydrogen peroxide is still used sporadically to clean wounds these days, but has lost its traditional importance because it is quickly inactivated when it comes into contact with red blood cells and foams and therefore only develops its effect for a short time.

For some time now, a method for sterilizing certain medical products and surgical instruments has been used in which H ₂ O _{2 is used} as a process chemical (H ₂ O ₂ plasma method). It has advantages over steam sterilization, especially with thermally unstable products. It can e.g. B. evaporated in vacuo at room temperature and additionally ionized .

In addition, H ₂ O _{2 is used} to disinfect piercings . There it is supposed to disinfect the affected area and allow any bleeding to clot, which is supposed to accelerate the healing process.

Agriculture

In agriculture , hydrogen peroxide is used for disinfection in greenhouses and for oxygen enrichment in nutrient solutions from hydroponics. Hydrogen peroxide is also used to disinfect drinking line systems or stable equipment, for example in pig farming.

biology

For the determination of bacterial cultures , the catalase test is carried out with a three percent hydrogen peroxide solution. Most aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria as well as fungi have the enzyme catalase , which is able to break down the H ₂ O ₂ , which is toxic to the cells .

Hydrogen peroxide is used experimentally in biology to induce programmed cell death in isolated eukaryotic cells .

forensic science

Hydrogen peroxide has been used in forensics to detect blood . Louis Jacques Thénard discovered in 1818 that hemoglobin breaks down hydrogen peroxide. Christian Friedrich Schönbein developed a test for blood from this in 1863. Today, however, the more sensitive Kastle-Meyer test is used to detect blood.

Caustic

In microelectronics , a mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide - called " piranha " - is used to clean the surface of wafers and to create a thin, three to four nanometer thick, hydrophilic oxide layer on the wafers. Nowadays the name “SPM” (Sulfuric Peroxide Mixture) is more common. The main application is the removal of photoresist from wafers.

In the production of printed circuit boards (circuit boards), concentrated copper chloride etching baths containing hydrogen peroxide are used to remove the copper :

${\displaystyle \mathrm {Cu+CuCl_{2}\longrightarrow 2\ CuCl} }$.

Elemental copper reacts with copper (II) chloride to form copper (I) chloride . This is a comproportioning .

To regenerate the copper chloride etching baths, hydrogen peroxide is used together with hydrochloric acid:

${\displaystyle {\ce {2CuCl \ + 2Cl^{-}_{(aq)}\ + 2H3O^{+}_{(aq)}\ + H2O2 -> 2CuCl2 + 4 H2O}}}$.

The copper (II) chloride is regenerated by reacting the copper (I) chloride with hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid. The copper atom is oxidized in the process .

The addition of hydrogen peroxide and hydrochloric acid is controlled via the redox potential; the photoresists used here are stable to hydrogen peroxide.

Rocket / torpedo engines

Vulcain II rocket engine of an Ariane 5

As an oxygen supplier, H ₂ O _{2 is used} by decomposition (preferably over manganese dioxide ) in submarines. It was used in concentrated form in rocket drives at Max Valier and the Messerschmitt Me 163 , as well as in submarine drives ( Walter U-Boot ). Hydrogen peroxide, decomposed with the help of potassium permanganate, was used as a propellant for the fuel pumps (370 kW power) of the A4 rocket (also known as the V2 miracle weapon).

In British rockets (e.g. Black Arrow ), undecomposed 85 percent hydrogen peroxide was used as an oxygen carrier that was liquid at normal temperatures and burned with kerosene , with which it reacts hypergolically .

One of the theses about the sinking of the Russian nuclear submarine K-141 Kursk in 2000 stated that hydrogen peroxide leaked from a tank of a torpedo , reacted with iron oxide in the launch tube and ignited. The torpedo exploded, causing a devastating fire.

Such a fuel mixture (85-98% hydrogen peroxide) for missiles and torpedoes is also referred to as HTP (High Test Peroxide) .

Hydrogen peroxide tends to decompose in an uncontrolled manner. Kurt Wahmke and two technicians died on July 16, 1934 in Kummersdorf in the explosion of an engine powered by hydrogen peroxide. Due to the dangerousness in use and handling (corrosive effects, uncontrolled decomposition, explosion in the event of contamination in the tank and pipe system), use today is limited to small rocket engines (record attempts, control engines).

Fire hazard can arise in suitable combination with iron filings and cleaning rags; the accident prevention regulations therefore stipulate precautionary measures for process water treatment in metalworking companies.

Explosives manufacture

Due to the peroxide group, the compound is high in energy and decomposes with the release of oxygen. In the presence of a suitable catalyst, hydrogen peroxide reacts with acetone to form acetone peroxide , which is a triacetone triperoxide and is known as an explosive with TATP . The explosive hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD) is also produced using hydrogen peroxide .

Analytics

Classic qualitative and quantitative analysis

These classic methods lose their importance in laboratory practice because of their low detection limits and their complexity.

Evidence as blue chromium peroxide (CrO (O ₂ ) ₂ )

Chromium trioxide CrO ₃ is converted in the strongly acidic range (pH <0) by hydrogen peroxide into deep blue colored and ether soluble chromium (VI) peroxide . To do this, potassium dichromate is acidified in the test tube with dilute sulfuric acid and covered with a little ether. In the presence of H ₂ O ₂ , the ether phase turns bluish. Because of the use of toxic and carcinogenic chromium (VI) compounds, this test is now only of academic interest.

Evidence as a yellow peroxotitanyl (IV) ion

The detection as titanium yellow (not to be confused with the organic reagent of the same name) is very sensitive. Titanium (IV) ions react with traces of hydrogen peroxide to form intensely orange-yellow colored peroxotitanyl complex ions.

Redox titration with potassium permanganate

The concentration of hydrogen peroxide in aqueous sulfuric acid solution can be determined titrimetrically with potassium permanganate. If hydrochloric acid is present instead, Reinhardt-Zimmermann solution is added. The titration is based on the following reaction:

${\displaystyle {\ce {2 MnO4- + 5 H2O2 + 6 H3O+ -> 2 Mn^2+ + 5O2 + 14 H2O}}}$

The color changes from colorless to pale pink, which should persist for one minute. The consumption of 1 ml KMnO ₄ solution (0.02 mol / l = 0.1N) corresponds to 1.701 mg H ₂ O ₂ . In this way it is also possible to titrate compounds which split off H ₂ O ₂ in a sulfuric acid solution , such as peroxides, perborates or percarbonates.

Evidence with starch iodide paper

Iodide-soaked and starch-containing filter paper shows even small amounts of peroxide by turning blue. The peroxide oxidizes the iodide to iodine, which in turn forms a characteristic blue complex with starch.

Instrumental quantitative analysis

Optical methods

Photometry

The oxidizing power of H ₂ O ₂ enables a multitude of (partly enzymatically catalyzed) chromogenic reactions. This enables photometric or reflectometric determinations of H ₂ O ₂ . One of the most proven oxidation reactions is the “Trinder reaction” of phenol with 4-amino antipyrine to form a purple dye. The absorbance is proportional to the analyte concentration and can be measured at 510 nanometers. Chemical modifications of the reagents also allow measurements at wavelengths of 550 and 750 nanometers. With this method a detection limit of 1 µmol could be achieved.

Fluorometry

One of the most important detection methods for hydrogen peroxide is the peroxidase- catalyzed oxidation of Amplex Red by H ₂ O ₂ to resorufin. Resorufin shows a clear fluorescence at 590 nanometers after excitation at 535 nanometers , while Amplex Red does not fluoresce. The hydrogen peroxide concentration can thus be determined with a detection limit of 5 nmol / l.

Amperometric sensors

Amperometric sensors for detecting hydrogen peroxide have been known for a long time. The measuring principle is based on the fact that hydrogen peroxide is either cathodically reduced or anodically oxidized on a working electrode at a constant potential . The resulting current is proportional to the concentration of the H ₂ O ₂ . The potential for cathodic reduction is usually between −100 and −200 mV and the potential window for anodic oxidation ranges from 600 to 800 mV in relation to an Ag / AgCl reference electrode .

Another approach is the immobilization of enzymes (such as horseradish peroxidase ) on a composite layer of carbon nanotubes and chitosan. A detection limit of 10.3 µmol / l was achieved with these biosensors. Biomimetic, non-enzymatic sensors based on magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are playing an increasingly important role. These take over the catalytic function of the peroxidase and enable a detection limit of 3.6 µmol / l. Other probes use so-called Mn-NTA nanowires (manganese-nitrilotriacetate complex), which amperometrically track the electrochemical oxidation of the hydrogen peroxide. A detection limit of 0.2 µmol / l was described.

literature

• Werner R. Thiel: New ways to hydrogen peroxide: alternatives to established processes? In: Angewandte Chemie . 111, No. 21, 1999, pp. 3349-3351 ( doi : 10.1002 / (SICI) 1521-3757 (19991102) 111: 21 <3349 :: AID-ANGE3349> 3.0.CO; 2-P ).
• Heribert Offermanns, Gunther Dittrich, Norbert Steiner: Hydrogen peroxide in environmental protection and synthesis. In: Chemistry in Our Time . 34, No. 3, 2000, pp. 150-159 ( doi : 10.1002 / 1521-3781 (200006) 34: 3 <150 :: AID-CIUZ150> 3.0.CO; 2-A ).

Web links

• Hydrogen peroxide in tooth bleaching agents (short version of a report by the Scientific Committee on Consumer Goods of the European Commission)
• ESO: Hydrogen peroxide discovered in space July 6, 2011

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Entry on HYDROGEN PEROXIDE in the CosIng database of the EU Commission, accessed on February 25, 2020.
2. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n} Entry on hydrogen peroxide (> 70%) in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on April 29, 2020(JavaScript required) .
3. ↑ ^{a b} Entry on hydrogen peroxide. In: Römpp Online . Georg Thieme Verlag, accessed on July 1, 2012.
4. ^ ^{A b} D'Ans-Lax: Taschenbuch für Chemiker und Physiker , 3rd edition, Volume 1, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Göttingen-Heidelberg 1967 ( ChemieOnline - pK _b and pK _s values ), accessed on April 27 2012.
5. ↑ Entry on hydrogen peroxide in the Classification and Labeling Inventory of the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), accessed on February 1, 2016. Manufacturers or distributors can expand the harmonized classification and labeling .
6. ↑ Data sheet Hydrogen peroxide solution from Sigma-Aldrich , accessed on May 8, 2017 ( PDF ).
7. ↑ Swiss Accident Insurance Fund (Suva): Limit values ​​- current MAK and BAT values (search for 7722-84-1 or hydrogen peroxide ), accessed on November 2, 2015.
8. ↑ PAETEC formula collection 2003 edition, p. 116.
9. ^ Louis Jacques Thénard in: Annales de chimie et de physique. 8, 1818, p. 308.
10. ↑ Craig W. Jones: Applications of Hydrogen Peroxide and Derivatives. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 978-1-84755-013-2 .
11. ^ Richard Wolffenstein : Concentration and distillation of hydrogen peroxide. In: Reports of the German Chemical Society. 27, No. 3, 1894, pp. 3307-3312, doi: 10.1002 / cber.189402703127 .
12. ↑ ^{a b c d} Foley, WT; Giguere, PA: Hydrogen peroxide and its analogues II. Phase equilibrium in the system hydrogen peroxide-water . In: Canadian Journal of Chemistry . 29, 1959, pp. 123-132, doi : 10.1139 / v51-016 .
13. ↑ ^{a b} Goor, G .; Glenneberg, J .; Jacobi, S .; Dadabhoy, J .; Candido, E .: Hydrogen peroxide in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry , 2019 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, doi : 10.1002 / 14356007.a13_443.pub3 .
14. ↑ ^{a b} Busing, WR; Levy, HA: Crystal and Molecular Structure of Hydrogen Peroxide: A Neutron ‐ Diffraction Study in J. Chem. Phys. 42 (1965) 3054-3059, doi: 10.1063 / 1.1696379 .
15. ↑ ^{a b c d} Entry on hydrogen peroxide (<35%) in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on April 29, 2020 (JavaScript required)
16. ↑ ^{a b c} Entry on water in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on April 29, 2020 (JavaScript required)
17. ↑ ^{a b} Entry on hydrogen peroxide (<50%) in the GESTIS substance database of the IFA , accessed on November 20, 2019 (JavaScript required)
18. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h} Giguere, PA; Carmichael, JL: Heat Capacities for the Water-Hydrogen Peroxide System between 25 ° and 60 ° C. in J. Chem. Eng. Data 7 (1962) 526-527.
19. ↑ L. Kolditz: Inorganische Chemie , VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin 1983, p. 459.
20. ↑ Eberhard Schweda: Jander / Blasius, Inorganische Chemie I, 17th edition, 2012, p. 202.
21. ↑ Holleman-Wiberg Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry 91. – 100. 1985 edition de Gruyter-Verlag p. 468
22. ↑ JM Wood et al. a .: Senile hair graying: H2O2-mediated oxidative stress affects human hair color by blunting methionine sulfoxide repair. In: The FASEB Journal . 23, No. 7, pp. 2065-2075, doi: 10.1096 / fj.08-125435 .
23. ↑ Pharmacist Management: Dispensing of hazardous substances in customer traffic
24. ↑ Regulation (EU) No. 98/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of January 15, 2013 on the marketing and use of precursors for explosives Text with EEA relevance . 32013R0098, February 9, 2013 ( europa.eu [accessed November 11, 2018]).
25. ^ KH Pettinger, B. Wimmer, D. Wabner : Atrazine removal from drinking water by UV-activated hydrogen peroxide. In: The gas and water compartment. Issue water, sewage. 132, No. 10, 1991, pp. 553-557.
26. ↑ Vasel-Biergans, Probst: Wound Care for Care , Scientific Publishing Company Stuttgart (2011), Stuttgart 2nd edition, p. 157.
27. ↑ German Bundestag - Printed Matter 13/1049 of 4 April 1995
28. ↑ Bernd Leitenberger: From the diamond to the Ariane 4. Europe's stony path into orbit. Books on Demand, Norderstedt 2009, ISBN 3-8370-9591-6 ( European carrier rockets. Volume 1), pp. 63-64.
29. ↑ Jander / Jahr: Maßanalyse , 15th edition, de Gruyter, Berlin 1989, p. 168.
30. ↑ P. Trinder: Determination of glucose in blood using glucose oxidase with an alternative oxygen acceptor. In: Annals of Clinical Biochemistry. 6, 1969, pp. 24-27.
31. ↑ M. Mizoguchi, M. Ishiyama, M. Shiga: Water-soluble chromogenic reagent for colorimetric detection of hydrogen peroxide - an alternative to 4-aminoantipyrine working at a long wavelength. In: Analytical Communications. 35, 1998, pp. 71-74, doi: 10.1039 / a709038b .
32. ↑ A. Zhu, R. Romero, H. R. Petty: A sensitive fluorimetric assay for pyruvate. In: Analytical Biochemistry . 396, No. 1, 2010, pp. 146–151, doi: 10.1016 / j.ab.2009.09.017 .
33. ^ Joseph Wang: Analytical Electrochemistry. 3. Edition. Wiley-VCH, Hoboken 2006, ISBN 978-0-471-79030-3 .
34. ↑ Joseph Wang: Electrochemical Glucose Biosensors. In: Chemical Reviews . 108, No. 2, 2008, pp. 814-825, doi: 10.1021 / cr068123a .
35. ↑ Joseph Wang: Carbon-Nanotube Based Electrochemical Biosensors: A Review. In: Electroanalysis 17, No. 1, 2005, pp. 7-14, doi: 10.1002 / elan.200403113 .
36. ↑ Lei Qiana, Xiurong Yang: Composite film of carbon nanotubes and chitosan for preparation of amperometric hydrogen peroxide biosensor. In: Talanta . 68, No. 3, 2006, pp. 721-727, doi: 10.1016 / j.talanta.2005.05.030 .
37. ↑ GS Lai, H. L. Zhang, D. Y. Han: Amperometric hydrogen peroxide biosensor based on the immobilization of horseradish peroxidase by carbon-coated iron nanoparticles in combination with chitosan and cross-linking of glutaraldehyde. In: Microchimica Acta . 165, No. 1-2, 2009, pp. 159-165, doi: 10.1007 / s00604-008-0114-2 .
38. ↑ Qing Chang et al. a .: Determination of hydrogen peroxide with the aid of peroxidase-like Fe ₃ O ₄ magnetic nanoparticles as the catalyst. In: Microchimica Acta. 165, No. 3-4, 2009, pp. 299-305, doi: 10.1007 / s00604-008-0133-z .
39. ^ S. Liu et al. a .: A novel non-enzymatic hydrogen-peroxide sensor based on Mn-nitrilotriacetate acid (Mn-NTA) nanowires. In: Talanta. 81, No. 1–2, 2010, pp. 727–731, doi: 10.1016 / j.talanta.2009.12.057 .

This article is about a health issue. It is not used for self-diagnosis and does not replace a diagnosis by a doctor. Please note the information on health issues !