Middle woodpecker

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Middle woodpecker
Middle Woodpecker (Leiopicus medius)

Middle Woodpecker ( Leiopicus medius )

Systematics
Class : Birds (aves)
Order : Woodpecker birds (Piciformes)
Family : Woodpeckers (Picidae)
Subfamily : Real woodpeckers (Picinae)
Genre : Leiopicus
Type : Middle woodpecker
Scientific name
Leiopicus medius
( Linnaeus , 1758)
Subspecies
  • Leiopicus medius medius (LINNAEUS, 1758)
  • Leiopicus medius caucasicus (BIANCHI, 1905)
  • Leiopicus medius anatoliae (HARTERT, 1912)
  • Leiopicus medius sanctijohannis (BLANFORD, 1873)

The middle woodpecker ( Leiopicus medius , syn .: Dendrocoptes medius , Dendrocopos medius ) is a relatively rare species of bird from the family of the woodpeckers (Picidae) in Central Europe . It is common in a comparatively small area of ​​the west and south-west Palearctic . The species needs treetops with coarse branches and trunk areas for foraging. In large parts of the distribution area, the middle woodpecker therefore shows a connection to old oak forests, but in recent years has also been found in semi-natural mixed deciduous forests without a significant proportion of oak.

Middle woodpeckers are resident birds that raise their young in self-made tree hollows. They are one of the few great spotted woodpeckers in which the differences in color between the sexes are very weak or often completely absent, so that sex determination can be problematic using field ornithology. In their area of ​​distribution, they are the only species in which both sexes have red head caps of approximately the same size.

L. medius is one of the few bird species with a distribution focus in Central Europe, around 20% breed in Germany, which is why Germany bears a special responsibility for the conservation of this species (type of responsibility ). The total stock appears to be growing slightly and is currently classified as Least Concern (LC).

Appearance

Male middle woodpecker

The medium-sized woodpecker is only slightly smaller than the great great spotted woodpecker , but significantly larger than the small woodpecker . It is the only European woodpecker in which the color dimorphism between the sexes is only very weak. The middle spotted woodpecker is a typical great spotted woodpecker with contrasting black and white plumage. The black facial signs are comparatively weak in this species, so that the face appears predominantly dirty white. In particular, this woodpecker differs from all other European great spotted woodpeckers due to the lack of a black strap . In both sexes, the crown of the head is covered by a brick-red plumage that changes to red-orange towards the nape of the neck and is not bordered with black; Very often, especially in aggressive or sexually motivated situations, the crown feathers are raised. The beak is relatively short, light gray and not very strong. The back and wings are shiny black, the shoulder area is white, the arm covers are broadly banded in white. The strong support tail is black, the outer control feathers are white with individually very different black markings. The flanks are noticeably dark gray with vertical lines. The chest of this woodpecker is pale yellow in color, the belly is pink, which becomes reddish towards the rump.

In females, the red apex coloration is often a little paler and turns reddish brown, especially at the edges. However, this minimal difference in color is not always clearly pronounced. Young birds are a little paler, less contrasting in color. Your crown plate is only hinted at reddish, the belly area is dirty white.

Dimensions and body mass

The average body length of the middle woodpecker is 21 centimeters. It is about 15 percent smaller than the great spotted woodpecker, but 40 percent larger than the small woodpecker. The wingspan is 34 centimeters. The weight of the adult middle woodpecker varies between 50 and 85 grams.

Possible confusion

The middle spotted woodpecker is an easy-to-identify great spotted woodpecker, although it can easily be confused with the great spotted woodpecker, the blood-spotted woodpecker or the white-backed woodpecker if the observation conditions are insufficient . The most important identification mark is the red parting and neck area as well as the sparse black markings on the face of the middle woodpecker. In all other great spotted woodpeckers, only the males have a red spot on the occiput, the black markings on their faces are much larger, and above all in all others the black strap extends to the base of the beak. It is more difficult to distinguish young birds of the great spotted woodpecker and the blood woodpecker from the adult middle woodpecker, as these also have a red crown in both sexes. In addition to the size difference, the safest differentiation is also provided by the black parts on the face, which are significantly more pronounced in the great spotted woodpecker and blood woodpecker than in the middle woodpecker. In particular, the presence of a black rein that extends to the base of the beak is also important in young birds. Important distinguishing features from the great spotted woodpecker are the pink under-tail coverts, which gradually merge into the white of the abdomen (in the great spotted woodpecker, red under-tail coverts with a sharp border to the white of the belly) and the black flank stripes (in the great spotted woodpecker, white flanks without stripes).

voice

The vocal repertoire of the middle woodpecker is very diverse. Some of the calls of this species are strikingly different from those of other great spotted woodpeckers. The best- known reputation is the so-called Quäken , which can be transcribed as kwääh… kwääh… kwääh or ghääh… ghääh… ghääh . This chant serves both for territorial positioning and as courtship chant. It consists of at least two, but usually significantly more (up to thirty) individual elements and is mainly, but not exclusively, performed by the male. At the beginning the plaintive series of calls is vocalized, towards the end it becomes rough and cawing. The reputation carries us very far; remotely it is reminiscent of the jay's warning call ( Garrulus glandarius ). The middle woodpecker becomes acoustically noticeable very early in the year, often in January; the singing peak is reached in the main courtship season from mid-March to mid-April. Even in late autumn the squeaking can be heard again from time to time. In addition to this most distinctive call, there is a multitude of short, often sequential vocalizations. Most often a short Gük sound can be heard, which can turn into a long series of calls in excitement situations. The sloping tone row and the emphasized first element are striking and characteristic.

Middle woodpeckers rarely drum. Apparently the area-indicating function of the drumming in this species is taken over by the quacking . The rather quiet drum rolls consist of 18-30 single beats and last just under 2 seconds. The intervals between the beats remain the same.

distribution

Distribution area of ​​the middle woodpecker

The distribution area of ​​the middle woodpecker begins in Western Europe in the Cantabrian Mountains , extends over the Pyrenees and over large parts of France and parts of Belgium to Central Europe and ends in the west of the European part of Russia. In the Netherlands, the middle spotted woodpecker only lives in the southern parts of the country, in the western and southwestern areas of the North German Plain the species is largely absent apart from small island-like occurrences; the breeding areas only reach regions closer to the coast in the vicinity of Hamburg. The species does not breed in Scandinavia after the small remaining populations in Denmark in 1959 and on Gotland in 1982 died out. In Eastern Europe, Poland, Latvia , Lithuania and Belarus are well populated by this woodpecker species, while in Estonia there is only a very small but growing population in the southern parts of the country. To the east, the distribution extends to about the Volga . In southern and southeastern Europe the species is represented in small islands in Italy, the occurrences are much more dense in Hungary and in the Balkans. In Turkey there are good deposits in the Pontic Mountains , in the Aegean coast and in the Taurus . Finally, the species breeds in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia, as well as in western Iran . Except on the Aegean island of Lesbos near the coast of Asia Minor, this woodpecker does not seem to be found on any other Mediterranean island.

The middle woodpecker is widespread in Germany, but nowhere common. The best occurrences are in Baden-Württemberg (along the entire Upper Rhine and in the Neckar Basin ), in Brandenburg ( Schorfheide Chorin ; Uckermärkische Seen ) as well as in Lower Saxony and Bavaria, especially in the Danube floodplains and in the Gerolfinger oak forest. In Austria, the middle spotted woodpecker is represented in the eastern and south-eastern parts of the country. There are good populations in the Vienna Woods and in the Vienna Prater and in the hardwood meadows along the southern Styrian Mur . In Switzerland, only the northern parts of the country are inhabited by this species of woodpecker. The largest deposits are in the Zürcher Weinland , in the area around Basel and at the southern foot of the Jura .

habitat

Breeding habitat of the middle woodpecker on the Schussen

The middle woodpecker is a character species of the warm temperate deciduous forest zone of Europe and Western Asia. It conspicuously follows the distribution area of ​​the hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ), the distribution limits of which are found only in northern Spain (where the hornbeam is not found) and in southern England (where the central woodpecker does not occur).

Until the end of the 1990s, the close connection of the middle woodpecker in Central Europe to old oaks was emphasized and the species was therefore designated as a character species of old oak forests. Since then, however, occurrences have also been found in primeval beech forests, in primeval forest-like alder forests and in the Caucasus also in areas in softwood meadows with adjacent beech forests. A new study that was carried out in the Esslingen district in Baden-Württemberg also found very high stand densities in fruit tree meadows, especially when they bordered closed deciduous forest areas. Extensive stands of old, tall fruit trees play an important role as stepping stone biotopes for dispersing young birds.

Today it is assumed that it is less the species composition of a forest area than its age and the type of management that are decisive for the occurrence of the middle woodpecker. The species needs trees with cracked bark or heavily structured dead wood for foraging . In forest-managed forests, the species is therefore dependent on oaks, as only these are sufficiently large-cracked at a younger age. In oak-free forests, a sufficient supply of standing dead wood is also the basis for a sufficient food base. The species is therefore less tied to oaks than to near-natural, deadwood-rich forests and is therefore now considered a jungle relic. Since red beeches only develop large-cracked bark and dead wood parts that can be used by the woodpecker when they are already ripe, the large-scale absence of the species in the Central European beech forests is now referred to as a "forestry artefact".

In Central Europe today, the species finds suitable habitat structures, especially in floodplain areas and in natural hillside forests. If oak stands borders on extensive old orchards or if oak stands are in large park landscapes, the middle spotted woodpecker is also able to colonize such secondary habitats. The size of the forest areas themselves is also important. Heavily fragmented forests or woodland under 10 hectares are hardly populated. Medium-sized woodpeckers very rarely breed in coniferous forest areas. In central Greece, for example, the species occurs in a mountain forest area with black pines and the Greek fir ( Abies cephalonica ), while large, old olive plantations are inhabited on Lesbos .

In Central and Eastern Europe, the medium-sized woodpecker occurs mainly in lower elevations and in the hill country; There are no known breeding sites in this zone above 900 meters. In Italy, the Balkans and Turkey, these woodpeckers breed up to altitudes of 1700 meters, from the Caucasus and Iran even higher breeding occurrences are known.

Settlement densities can be very high in optimal habitats. In the eastern Vienna Woods, for example, almost four breeding pairs were found on 10 hectares; similar maximum values ​​were determined in the area around Schaffhausen in a hardwood floodplain along the High Rhine, where a male area comprised around four hectares. Usually, medium-sized woodpecker areas are much larger; Average sizes of the summer areas are between 10 and 20 hectares; Winter areas are much larger, but their border structures are very variable.

Systematics

The middle woodpecker was and is partly still placed in the extensive genus Dendrocopos ; Dendrocopos atratus and Dendrocopos macei were considered the closest relatives. New molecular genetic studies suggest a split of three species and their taxonomic classification in a newly defined genus with the name Leiopicus (Greek λεῖος - soft, beardless) introduced by Bonaparte in 1854 for a number of woodpeckers . Thereafter, the central and its form Specht sister species Brown end Specht ( Leiopicus auriceps ) together with the yellow vertex Specht ( Leiopicus mahrattensis ) a clade . These suggestions were implemented in the updated system of the HBW, but not yet taken into account in the last version of the IOC's World Bird List (June 2014). As a result of a new, extensive investigation, Jérôme Fuchs and Jean-Marc Pons proposed in 2015 that L. medius together with L. atratus , L. auriceps and L. macei after Dendrocoptes , a view that some authorities include the IOU , but not the HBW followed.

The glacial retreat of the middle woodpecker was probably in the Balkans or in the eastern Mediterranean, from where the post-glacial expansion took place. At the moment, most authors distinguish four subspecies, which, however, differ only slightly from each other.

  • Leiopicus medius medius ( Linnaeus , 1758): The nominate form occurs in Europe and north-west Turkey. The birds from Spain are drawn a little more intensely, especially the pink color of the rump is more extensive and more intense. The Turkish woodpeckers have a somewhat more intense flank line. These coloring variants led to the description of the subspecies D. m. lilianae and D. m. splendidor , which are currently not recognized.
  • Leiopicus medius caucasicus ( Bianchi , 1904): This subspecies is widespread in northern Turkey and in the Caucasus region. The belly area is lighter than in the nominate form, the breast is clearly yellowish in color. The outer control springs are strong and regularly banded in black. The rump is redder than in D. m. medius .
  • Leiopicus medius anatoliae ( Hartert , 1912): A not generally recognized subspecies from southern and southwestern Turkey, which some authors combine with the above. The birds are D. m. caucasicus extremely similar, but slightly smaller.
  • Leiopicus medius sanctijohannis ( Blanford , 1873): The woodpeckers of this subspecies are found in northern Iran , perhaps also in northern Iraq . The breed shows a strikingly white facial markings, the underside is also largely white except for a very extensive red markings that extend from the lower abdomen over the rump to the lower tail coverts. The flanks are very tightly dashed in black.

food

Medium woodpeckers feed primarily on different arthropods and their stages of development. Tribe and bark-dwelling species outweigh those that live on branches or leaves. Wood-boring beetle larvae play no or only a very minor role. According to the number of individuals, aphids , various species of ants such as the glossy black wood ant or the strange garden ant make up the main food component, while species of wood ants are only of secondary importance in the food acquisition of this woodpecker. In addition, still form beetle , shield lice , mosquitoes , various caterpillars and flies , mosquitoes and lice components of the animal food. Most prey are small, the average length is about 8.5 millimeters. Aphids in particular are fed to newly hatched chicks; with increasing age, the nestling diet resembles that of adults.

The middle spotted woodpecker eats vegetarian food, but not nearly as much as the great spotted woodpecker , especially the blood woodpecker. In the spring of curls , he occasionally juice driving trees mainly Linden , take to tree sap to; in June and July cherries can be an important complementary food that is also fed to the young. In autumn and winter, nuts and conifer seeds play a certain, albeit subordinate role.

behavior

Middle woodpecker in the garden (Mecklenburg, Rieps / Cronskamp)

The middle woodpecker is an agile, restless and restless looking woodpecker. With constant poking he scurries up and down the trunks, climbing like a nuthatch upside down. The time spent on a food tree is often only short. He even makes small changes of location on the fly. Cross-country flight is a powerful and fast arc flight. The upward movement is achieved by a few powerful wing beats in quick succession, at the top of the arch the wings are placed close to the body. Sudden changes of direction are accompanied by a loud noise. Often it sits like a songbird across a branch and not, like most other woodpeckers, lengthways.

Activity and comfort behavior

Like all woodpeckers, the medium-sized woodpecker is diurnal, its phase of activity extends from sunrise to sunset. Before dusk falls, he can stay near his sleeping cave for a certain time before slipping into it. The night is spent in a sleeping den, occasionally in a nest box. Pronounced bad weather shortens the activity time. During the early hours of the afternoon, rest breaks are taken, which the woodpecker usually spends in the crown area and also uses them to care for their plumage. Specific comfort behaviors were rarely observed; a few times, middle woodpeckers have been seen sunbathing, bowing their heads and raising their plumage.

Territorial and antagonistic behavior

Medium-sized woodpeckers are territorial throughout the year and are aggressive towards conspecifics within the territory boundaries. They respond immediately to dummy calls, and they often fly to the sound source. Females are tolerated in the winter area, but are often driven away by particularly rich sources of food. The middle woodpecker reacts aggressively to the calls of the great spotted woodpecker and utterances of the star, although it is disputed whether there will be a real rivalry between these species, as they use different areas of life in the sometimes common feeding habitat. A few times occupied great spotted woodpecker and medium-sized woodpecker caves were found next to each other in a very small space without any evidence of aggressive behavior. But it is also certain that the great spotted woodpecker is superior in direct confrontation and occasionally takes over occupied middle woodpecker holes and kills the nestlings. On squirrels and dormice of the middle spotted woodpecker reacts vigorously hating , trying to drive them with direct flight attacks.

In front of flight enemies, in particular the sparrowhawk , the middle woodpecker remains motionless close to the trunk if it cannot escape into a cave. This freezing position is also known from other great spotted woodpeckers. Attacks by martens , the second essential predator , can usually escape adult birds by flying, while newly fledged birds and young birds often fall victim to them.

Food acquisition

Mittelspecht am Meisenring (Northwest Mecklenburg, Rieps / Cronskamp)

The middle woodpecker is a pronounced tree woodpecker, which very rarely looks for its food on the ground or on lying trunks or branches. He prefers the inner crown area of ​​coarse-barked, old deciduous trees, especially oaks, throughout the year. The upper and middle trunk sections are used significantly less frequently, the lower trunk sections comparatively rarely. However, the use of the different sections varies somewhat during the year, especially in winter the middle and upper trunk sections as well as large side branches are visited more frequently.

The middle woodpecker collects its prey from the trunk surface by poking hastily into cracks in the bark, looking for leaves and occasionally trying to catch flying insects in short flights. When searching for prey, he climbs very skillfully, also upside down and sideways on branches; He often harvests berries and cherries by clinging to a branch upside down. This species of woodpecker hacks for hidden prey comparatively rarely and does not last very long; Wood-dwelling insects and their larvae are only captured in the top layer of bark and under loose parts of the bark.

In order to be able to open nuts or to get at conifer seeds, the middle woodpecker uses simple forges . However, real blacksmiths do not create this type. In spring it curls sap-growing trees or uses sap leaks from bark injuries or curling areas of other woodpeckers.

hikes

The Middle Spotted Woodpecker is largely true to location. Even in severe winters, the species remains in the breeding area, which, however, is expanded over a large area during the winter months. Occasionally pass means woodpeckers are then observed winter in favorable feeding areas and can be used in parks or at feeding sites. The youth dispersion usually only leads over short distances, but a nest-ringed bird was found 55 kilometers away. Occasionally there are small-scale migratory movements and extended dispersion flights, as shown by the regular appearance of medium-sized woodpeckers in the former southern Swedish breeding areas, which are apparently Baltic woodpeckers.

Breeding biology

Courtship and pairing

Middle woodpeckers become sexually mature at the end of their first year of life; they lead a largely monogamous breeding season marriage. The partnership loosens after the breeding season, but should often continue to exist easily over the winter and be renewed during the main mating season. As with all woodpeckers, the intraspecific aggression is very great, it is slowly reduced with the establishment of the breeding area and with the construction of the cave, but never completely disappears even with mated middle woodpeckers. As early as the end of January, but more often in February and increasingly in March, the male roams through his feeding ground with loud Quäk calls. When a female approaches, the male intensifies the squeaking and flies around it in a conspicuous fluttering flight. Then it lures the female to finished or started caves, which are indicated by tapping. The feathers of the red headstock are ruffled. The female inspects the caves and can soon encourage copulation by crouching. The first copulations take place in February, but they do not become more frequent until March.

Nesting site and cave construction

Feeding an almost fully fledged nestling

The middle woodpecker builds his burrows exclusively in trees with soft woods such as poplar , willow or alder , or in those that have already been severely damaged by fungal attack. Often the caves are created in standing dead wood. Typical for middle woodpecker caves is their frequent location in strong, horizontal side branches, with the entrance hole often on the underside of the branch, or the location under the canopy-like cover by a tree fungus such as a tinder sponge . Both partners build on the cave, but the male builds more often and more persistently than the female. The depth of the cave is between 20 and 35 centimeters with a width of about 12 centimeters, the entry hole is approximately round and measures at least 34 millimeters. Medium-sized woodpecker caves can be located close to the ground in exceptional cases, but are mostly at heights between 5 and 10 meters, occasionally at a height of over 20 meters. The construction time is at least one week, but mostly two to 4 weeks; occasionally, great spotted woodpecker caves are adapted, old ones are reused or those of the small woodpecker are expanded.

Clutch and brood

Gelege, Museum Wiesbaden collection

Egg-laying begins in Central Europe at the beginning of April at the earliest, a little earlier in the Balkans and Turkey, and a little later in Northeastern Europe. The clutches consist of 5–6 (4–8) oval, pure white and shiny eggs with an average size of 23 x 18 millimeters; their weight is just over 4 grams. The firm brood begins after the last egg has been deposited; beforehand, the eggs are only protected from cooling. Both sexes breed in roughly equal proportions, as in all woodpeckers the male does during the night. If the clutch is lost at an early stage, a replacement brood occurs; normally medium woodpeckers only breed once a year. The young hatch after 10 days at the earliest, but usually not until the 12th or 13th day after the start of breeding. The nestling period varies between 20 and 24 days, during which they are cared for by both parents in roughly equal proportions. However, only the male seems to be responsible for removing the faeces . After fledging, the young birds are quickly lured away from the nest cavity and often divided into two groups even up to two weeks supervised by a parent before they are largely self-employed and in the surrounding area dismigrieren .

There are only a few larger studies on breeding success. In 35 broods examined in northern Switzerland, an average of 2.3 young fled; a significantly higher leakage rate of 5.2 boys was found in a small study in southwestern Russia.

Inventory and inventory trends

The middle woodpecker is one of those woodpecker species that are difficult to map. The species can practically only be determined by its vocalizations, and these can be inconspicuous in isolated couples. In this way, it could be that some smaller populations have been overlooked so far. The population developments are inconsistent: the small Danish and Swedish populations have died out, but the species has been able to re-establish itself in the Netherlands with a small but stable population. The deposits in the key countries Germany, Poland and Greece are stable, in Belgium and the Czech Republic the stocks are increasing strongly. An extensive population survey in the Esslingen district south-east of Stuttgart resulted in much higher populations than previously assumed, so that the authors of this study estimate the total population of this species in Baden-Württemberg to be over 10,000 breeding pairs; In 2004, Südbeck and Flade assumed a maximum of 2500 breeding pairs. The predominantly mild winters of the last decade, the increase in wood-dwelling and wood-breeding insects, as well as the longer average forestry rotation period are given as reasons for this population increase .

Strong decreases have been reported from Romania and Serbia, and in Switzerland, too, stocks are currently developing negatively despite intensive protective measures. The trend in stocks in France is unclear, and there are hardly any reliable figures from Turkey either. At least 140,000 pairs are currently breeding in Europe, which is more than 90 percent of the total population. In Germany, the breeding population is estimated to be at least 10,000 pairs, in Austria to around 3,000 and in Switzerland to 250. The IUCN estimates the population of this woodpecker species as least concern , Birdlife europe as secure .

Despite this generally not unpleasant situation, the Central European stocks are by no means secured in the near future. The greatest danger for this habitat specialist continues to come from habitat destruction . Many of the current occurrences are very fragmented and small, a fact that harbors the risk of genetic isolation, all the more so as the dismigration distances are very small for this species. The middle woodpecker depends on old, coarse-barked deciduous trees, especially oaks. Middle forests meet its habitat requirements very much, but this forest management method has largely been abandoned. There where medium forest structures are maintained again, for example in Niederholz near Zurich or in the Gerolfinger oak forest, good occurrences of medium woodpeckers can be found. Another danger is that the production of precious wood from oak logs fell sharply in Central Europe in the 1920s and hardly any oaks were replanted. Only in the last 20 years has there been more intensive reforestation with oaks. So a whole generation of oaks is missing across the board; the existing stocks are old, partly weakened and so more susceptible to pest gradations , such as the mass reproductions of the oak moth , which have become particularly common in recent years.

protection

The middle woodpecker is protected according to Appendix I of the EU Birds Directive .

literature

  • Hans-Günther Bauer, Peter Berthold : The breeding birds of Central Europe. Existence and endangerment. 2nd, revised edition. Aula, Wiesbaden 1997, ISBN 3-89104-613-8 , p. 290.
  • Mark Beaman, Steve Madge : Handbook of Bird Identification - Europe and Western Palearctic. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1998, pp. 534f, ISBN 3-8001-3471-3 .
  • Hans-Heiner Bergmann , Hans-Wolfgang Helb: The voices of the birds of Europe. BLV, Munich 1982, ISBN 3-405-12277-5 .
  • Michael Dvorak u. a. (Ed.): Atlas of the breeding birds of Austria . Umweltbundesamt, Bonn 1993, pp. 260f, ISBN 3-85457-121-6 .
  • Wulf Gatter and Hermann Mattes: Will the middle woodpecker Dendrocopos medius or the environmental conditions change? A case study from Baden-Württemberg. In: Vogelwelt 129: 73-84 (2008).
  • Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim (Hrsg.): Handbook of the birds of Central Europe (HBV). Edited by Kurt M. Bauer and Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, among others. Columbiformes - Piciformes . Volume 9. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1994, pp. 917-942 (2nd edition), ISBN 3-89104-562-X .
  • Gerard Gorman: Woodpeckers of Europe. A Study to European Picidae. Bruce Coleman, Chalfont 2004, pp. 106-116, 44, 35, ISBN 1-872842-05-4 .
  • Hartmut Heckenroth, Volker Laske: Atlas of the breeding birds of Lower Saxony and Bremen 1981–1995. Nature conservation and landscape management in Lower Saxony. Volume 37. Hannover 1997, 1–329, ISBN 3-922321-79-8 .
  • Jochen Hölzinger , Ulrich Mahler: The birds of Baden-Württemberg. Non-songbirds. Volume 3. Ulmer, Stuttgart 2001, pp. 420-447, ISBN 3-8001-3908-1 .
  • Josep del Hoyo et al. a .: Handbook of the Birds of the World (HBW). Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2002, ISBN 84-87334-37-7 .
  • Peter Südbeck u. a .: Method standards for recording breeding birds in Germany. Radolfzell 2005, ISBN 3-00-015261-X , pp. 456-457.
  • Peter Südbeck and Martin Flade: Population and population development of the middle woodpecker Picoides medius in Germany and its importance for forest conservation. In: Vogelwelt. 125, 2004, pp. 319-326.
  • Hans Winkler , David Christie, David Nurney: Woodpeckers. A Guide to Woodpeckers, Piculets, and Wrynecks of the World. Pica Press, Robertsbridge 1995, ISBN 0-395-72043-5 .

Web links

Commons : Mittelspecht  - Album with pictures, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Mittelspecht  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Gorman (2004) p. 119.
  2. ↑ a b c d Winkler (1995) p. 270.
  3. ↑ Bergmann (1982) p. 218.
  4. ↑ HBV (1994) Volume 9, p. 1060.
  5. ↑ Breeding Bird Atlas Lower Saxony (1997)
  6. ↑ Bauer (1997) p. 291
  7. ↑ Gorman (2001) p. 126
  8. ↑ Hölzinger (2001) p. 438
  9. ↑ Dvorak (1993) pp. 262-263
  10. ↑ Sempach Ornithological Center - Mittelspecht
  11. ↑ F. Hertel: Habitat use and food acquisition of great spotted woodpecker Picoides major, medium spotted woodpecker Picoides medius and nuthatch Sitta europaea in managed and uncultivated beech forests of the northeast German lowlands. Bird life 124; 2003: pp. 111-132.
  12. ↑ S. Weiß: Alder forests as a previously neglected habitat of the middle woodpecker Dendrocopos medius. Bird life 124; 2003: pp. 177-192.
  13. ↑ J. Kamp & V. Sohni: Habitat use and population densities of the Middle Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos medius caucasicus in the NW Caucasus mountains (Russia). Bird life 127; 2006: pp. 65-70
  14. ↑ Gatter & Mattes (2008) p. 73 f.
  15. ↑ F. Hertel: Habitat use and food acquisition of great spotted woodpecker Picoides major, medium spotted woodpecker Picoides medius and nuthatch Sitta europaea in managed and uncultivated beech forests of the northeast German lowlands. Bird life 124; 2003: p. 124.
  16. ↑ Gorman (2004) p. 122
  17. ↑ Dvorak (1993) p. 262
  18. ↑ Hölzinger (2001) p. 450
  19. ↑ Hans Winkler, Anita Gamauf, Franziska Nittinger, Elisabeth Haring: Relationships of Old World woodpeckers (Aves: Picidae) - new insights and taxonomic implications In: Annalen des Naturhist. Mus. Vienna, B Series 01/2014; 116: 69-86 p. 75
  20. ^ H. Winkler, DA Christie, GM Kirwan, E. de Juana: Middle Spotted Woodpecker (Leiopicus medius). In: J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, DA Christie, E. de Juana (Eds.): Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2014 ( hbw.com accessed September 30, 2014)
  21. ↑ Species list woodpeckers IOC 4.3
  22. ↑ JérômeFuchs and Jean-MarcPons: A new classification of the Pied Woodpeckers assemblage (Dendropicini, Picidae) based on a comprehensive multi-locus phylogeny. In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Issue 88, July 2015, pages 28-37. doi : 10.1016 / j.ympev.2015.03.016
  23. ^ IOC Checklist
  24. ↑ Hölzinger (2001) p. 436
  25. ↑ HBW (2002) Volume 7, pp. 482-483
  26. ↑ Gorman (2004) p. 124
  27. ↑ HBV (1994) Volume 9, p. 1071
  28. ↑ a b Hölzinger (2001) p. 459
  29. ↑ Gorman (2004) p. 126
  30. ↑ a b HBV (1994) Volume 9, p. 1069
  31. ↑ Hölzinger (2001) p. 458
  32. ↑ Südbeck (2005) p 457
  33. ↑ Gatter & Mattes (2008) p. 82
  34. ↑ Südbeck & Flade (2004) p. 326
  35. ↑ Gatter & Mattes (2008) p. 86
  36. ↑ Factsheet IUCN (2007)
  37. ↑ Factsheet Birdlife europe (2004)
  38. ↑ Hölzinger (2001) p. 444
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on January 10, 2008 in this version .