Musical aesthetics

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As a philosophical discipline, music aesthetics is part of thinking about music with the specific reference point of reflection and aesthetic experience of musical works and processes. The subject and methods of music aesthetic considerations vary. The conceptual and scientific systematic conception of a discipline of aesthetics in the, for modern philosophy, formative sense took place in the middle of the 18th century by A. G. Baumgarten ; According to his design, it should deal with sensual knowledge in general, with the knowledge of art and the beautiful in particular, and with the understanding and evaluation of works of art in historical contexts.

Antiquity

Even if the term was not used before the 18th century, people have always reflected on their intellectual products, including the music they created. In the myths of antiquity , music and its effects often play an important role, such as in the myth of Orpheus . Music has a special meaning in the philosophy of the Pythagoreans : They considered harmony and number as the basic principle of beings, music and its interval relationships as the paradigm of this all-encompassing order.

For Plato , music in his “ Symposion ” dialogue as techné (in the sense of artful, handcrafted activity) is only a transit point for the knowledge of beings, because it can evoke a love of the sensual and beautiful. In Plato's Politeia (Eng. "The State") music is seen as an instrument for the education of the members of the community, but as such is subject to narrow restrictions in terms of content and execution. With Aristotle , too, music is mainly a means to the end of influencing character and soul: Since the eidos (the archetype) of art lies in the soul of the maker, mimesis (imitation) in works of art is related to the human soul movements and affects . Therefore music can also influence people's affects, ideally for the better.

middle Ages

The musical aesthetic utterances of medieval thinkers relate exclusively to liturgical music . In the early Middle Ages (e.g. with Boethius ) the main focus was on interpreting music as a mathematical science and ascribing its beauty when it depicts the harmony of the cosmos . Later, considerations of music practice came to the fore: with the introduction of the Roman liturgy into Franconian worship in the 9th century, thought was given to the position of song in worship . All thinkers agree that song can convey the word of God more effectively than language alone. But this also means that music is seen solely as a “means of transport” and cannot exist on its own. Music has its right to exist only in connection with the liturgical text. Just as there were few individual composers in the Middle Ages , there was also no such thing as the idea of ​​“absolute music” that can exist independently of a purpose. With the advent of musical notation and polyphonic singing in the 11th century, there was increasing reflection on the type of composition. Among others, Guido von Arezzo developed a theory - based on the grammar of language - about how melodies must be structured so that they are perfect. The reflections on the practice of organum singing are numerous, the best known being the “ Musica enchiriadis ” from the 9th century. The dispute between representatives of the Ars antiqua and the Ars nova in the 14th century, between the “new” way of making music, which developed from secular and practical needs (development of the motet as a sociable form of making music with greater rhythmic freedom) and the "old" way, which referred to the strict liturgical style of music.

Modern times

The humanism of the 15th century brought a new interpretation of the ancient authors and also a redefinition of the value of musical creation. The mathematical-speculative view of music takes a back seat in favor of a view that places music in a context with human life. Zarlino pointedly: The purpose of music is "to spend time at leisure and away from everyday life and to occupy yourself with class". The Florentine Camerata at the end of the 16th century called for a “new simplicity” in compositional technique . The unity of language and music (allegedly) existing in antiquity is seen here as an ideal. Thus, for the members of the Camerata, monody should be given priority over complex productions of polyphonic compositions. In the Enlightenment the separation between science and art is made. The concept of artistic subjective taste is now being discussed, in contrast to objective knowledge . Phenomena of nature can serve as a model for music, but go beyond pure illustration. In the middle of the 18th century, referring to Romanticism , the concept of the expression, which is supposed to express the unspeakable, appears. With this aesthetic concept, pure instrumental music takes precedence over vocal music, since only through this can the increasingly abstract content of music be adequately represented.

19th century

The party struggle between the two music- aesthetic positions of program music and absolute music is characteristic of the musical aesthetics of the 19th century . In program music, a program, usually described in language, belongs to the aesthetic object of the music. On the other hand, with the emergence of the idea of ​​absolute music, an instrumental music independent of language and context, whose aesthetic point of reference is solely the formal, structural unity of the music itself, a paradigm shift takes place in the musical discourse.

ETA Hoffmann

The early romantic musical aesthetic still falls into the time of the Viennese Classic and finds its starting point there. The essential characteristic of romantic thinking, the conviction that “pure, absolute musical art” is the actual music, can already be found in ETA Hoffmann's review of Beethoven's 5th Symphony (1810), which for him is the historically most effective manifestation of the romantic spirit in musical aesthetics represents. Hoffmann describes absolute instrumental music as the most romantic of all arts. It overcomes the imitation of an external, conceptually determinable world of senses as an aesthetic substance by pointing to the “inexpressible” and thus going beyond language. The aesthetic substance included - in contrast to the specific affects of vocal music - indefinite feelings, which Hoffmann hears from Absolute Music as the “spiritual realm of tones”. An enthusiastic, metaphysical exaggeration of the music sets in with Hoffmann as well as with other early romantics, but Hoffmann formulates an internal musical requirement for absolute music with the differentiated and closed form of the musical work.

Eduard Hanslick

Eduard Hanslick, as an important music aesthetician of the 19th century, demands a scientific aesthetic related to the given work of art instead of the romantic transfiguration with its subjective feelings and reactions. Hanslick positions himself clearly against the aesthetic of feeling, which sees the essence of music in the feelings aroused by it. According to Hanslick, the object of musical aesthetics is only the objectively given of the musical work: its tones and the peculiarities of their connection through melody, harmony and rhythm. So Hanslick regards the content and object of the music as the individual result of the compositional work of the mind "in mental material" and calls this pure part of the music "sounding forms". Only pure instrumental music can count as musical art. The special achievement of Hanslick can be seen in the synthesis of form and content aesthetics, especially in the emphasis on the importance of a formal analysis of the musical work for its aesthetics. Hanslick does not deny the music the process of emotional expression and arousal, but wants to keep it out of the analysis of the music because nothing is available for its aesthetic consideration that is outside the work of art itself.

Friedrich Nietzsche

Friedrich Nietzsche's musical aesthetic does not follow a consistent line of development. Under the influences of initially Richard Wagner and Arthur Schopenhauer , later Eduard Hanslick, Nietzsche's music-aesthetic considerations range between the two extremes of feeling and form. When he got to know Wagner at the end of 1868, Nietzsche took a corresponding position for the anti-formalist camp. Confessing himself to Wagner and his conception of music as an expression of emotion understood by the recipient and under the influence of Schopenhauer, Nietzsche took the view at the time of his birth of tragedy that the essential achievement of music was the “greatest possible conveyance of emotional content”. But as early as 1871 he formulated in fragment 12 [1] moments of a radical rejection of the aesthetic of feeling. With regard to the opposition between Wagner and Hanslick, however, these first signs of the later criticism of Wagner are incumbent on Nietzsche's strict self-censorship. By turning away from Wagner and Schopenhauer, he developed a formalistic view that closely approximated Hanslick's aesthetics. The feeling abdicates as the decisive analytical authority for Nietzsche, while the form comes to the fore.

20th and 21st centuries

In contrast to the 19th century , musical aesthetic developments in the 20th century are no longer primarily discussed in terms of philosophical musical aesthetics. Rather, there is a music-aesthetic discourse in reflective or programmatic writings by individual composers . Although a differentiation of musical styles into individual aesthetics can be observed in the 20th century , the turning away from the musical aesthetic ideals of the 19th century is a fundamental motive. While in the 19th century the tonal language ( major-minor system , tonality , voice guidance , clock - metric structure) was focused, in the 20th century the restructuring of the musical material was in the foreground. The grammar and syntax of the music were fundamentally changed, and the melodic , harmonic and rhythmic contexts of the 19th century were decomposed. Central musical aesthetic aspects of the 20th century are the dissolution of tonality, the emancipation of dissonance and questions about the relationship between new music and tradition. In the 20th century, Theodor W. Adorno's statements overlay in quantity and quality all other contributions to music philosophy and aesthetics. The reception of French post-structuralism , such as Roland Barthes , Jacques Derrida (Hauntology), Gilles Deleuze , Jean Baudrillard and Pierre Bourdieu, is correspondingly underrepresented . While Walter Benjamin's ideas about art have found their way into musical aesthetics in connection with Adornos, many philosophers deal on the margins with aesthetic aspects of music or can be transferred to the field of musical aesthetics, according to Hans-Georg Gadamer , Giorgio Agamben , Alain Badiou and others. The first series of books on music aesthetics, Studies on Valuation Research , appeared in 1968. Since 1997 the journal Musik & Ästhetik has been published . The Institute for Music Aesthetics in Graz has been realigning itself since 2007 in the direction of music philosophy, based on “valuation research” . The appraisal of an aesthetic of popular music has not yet been carried out and was pushed into the background by research work initially in the context of music sociology in the second half of the 20th century and then a dominant focus on the connections between media, especially mass media , and music. It is worth mentioning publications by Ventil Verlag , especially from the Testcard series . Aesthetic music issues have been discussed since its inception, especially in the context of ethnomusicology .

expressionism

Since around 1920 the term expressionism has also been used in relation to music in order to be able to explain and classify the appearance of new music-aesthetic phenomena at the beginning of the 20th century. As a counter-term to musical impressionism , musical expressionism is the art of expression, the art of expressing one's inner self. Through it, aesthetic ideals and norms of the 19th century - beautiful sound, diatonic , metric - are distorted. Expressionism found its basic idea of ​​establishing expression as the counter-term to form in the conception of the New German School , but it turned other conceptual approaches of this into the opposite. In the compositions of Expressionism, the idea that an understanding of the listener is part of the essence of the expression of the music itself is no longer found. Thus, compositions are not geared towards the demands or expectations of the listener. Rather, they show attempts to try to realize possibilities of musical expression of feelings. In crossing the boundaries of consciousness, one should approach one's own being, which lies beyond consciousness.

In the practice of composition, these attempts become audible as an extension when the tonality is exceeded . In Expressionism, musical genres ( symphony , symphonic poetry , chamber music , song , ballad , opera , cantata ) are intrinsically mixed and their limits are exceeded. Arnold Schönberg tries to realize the idea of synaesthesia by using different art genres in "The Happy Hand" (1924) . Important composers of musical expressionism include a. Charles Ives , Igor Stravinski , Béla Bartók , Arthur Honegger and Paul Hindemith .

Neoclassicism

From the 1920s onwards, the generic term neoclassicism denotes the use of forms in the field of free tonal or atonal music that have developed in the field of tonal music of classical validity. These adopted forms were to be used as a formal element in neoclassical works and aesthetically reflected in the shape as envelopes in a new arrangement of tones . The musical elements are made clear by emphasizing the formal properties and their arrangement through the principle of alienation. The characteristics of the musical composition then do not merge into a unity, but function as freely composed mechanisms. This formalistic process was first developed on given works, tone sets or tone set types of the classical or pre-classical period, then later applied in free compositions. Here, too, the origin is mostly in the Classical era, but can no longer be clearly identified as such. In the further development of neoclassicism, contemporary works by Schönberg or Webern are also used in a formalistic-neoclassical process.

In Stravinsky in particular , the application of the procedure should make the reception of the music more conscious. The aesthetic appearance of a matter of course or naturalness of the musical sequence should be withdrawn from reception. Theodor W. Adorno saw reactionary tendencies in the procedures of neoclassicism due to its restorative procedures, which he referred to as "music on music". Contrary to this view, neoclassicism can also be classified as productive eclecticism in contrast to the subjectivist originality claims of expressionism.

Atonality

From around 1908, atonality describes musical developments that evade the prevailing ideal of tonality and its sound and form formation. In these musical developments, atonality denotes the further development or negation of tonality. In the context of this designation, the terms tonality and atonality are to be understood as relative. Atonality does not represent a contradicting principle to tonality; rather, tonality is a music-historical prerequisite for an idea of ​​atonality. Composers like Arnold Schönberg, Alban Berg or Anton Webern, who used the principle of atonality, saw their works themselves embedded in a traditional context of musical history.

Atonality does not mean the mere exclusion of tonal relationships - although the arrangement of the tones does not have to be related to the tonality - but the dissolution of a tonal center and the guiding tone . The tone itself remains tonal, but goes beyond the principle of tonality. The different pitches of a chromatic scale appear to be equivalent. Schönberg sees this principle as the "emancipation of dissonance": The qualitative distinction between consonance and dissonance is canceled out to make all interval combinations equal . This principle can also be viewed as a lack of functionality in the sense of a defunctionalization of musical phenomena in the harmonic course. Atonality serves the possibility of experiencing tone relationships outside of the tonality. Expected as well as familiar become unexpected and unfamiliar aesthetic phenomena. Arnold Schönberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg and Josef Matthias Hauer develop different composition techniques in the area of ​​atonality. In musicological terms, a distinction is made between free atonality and the atonality, which is linked to the twelve-tone method, but these do not differ fundamentally.

The principle of atonality finds its practical application in compositional procedures of the twelve-tone technique . The term twelve-tone technique covers musical works that derive their fundamentals from the programmatic writings of Arnold Schönberg ( series technique ) or from Hauer's tropical technique . The elementary principles of the twelve-tone technique are the complete abstraction of the chromatization of the tone language to equate all tones as well as the ubiquity of certain interval relationships. Due to these principles, the individual tones break away from their apparently natural characteristics.

The twelve-tone technique, because of its denial of beauty and harmony, is the only authentic composition practice for Theodor W. Adorno in view of the development of world history at the beginning of the 20th century. In its lonely subjectification, the twelve-tone technique contains emancipatory potential and thus shows the possibility of a change in social conditions. For Ernst Bloch , too , music has a utopian character. She can show utopian ideas in her language, but not realize them. Bloch recognizes these utopian qualities of music primarily in Schönberg's twelve-tone technique.

Serial music

The term serial music has been used since the late 1940s. Serial music tries to structure the sound material in series in order to expand Schönberg's series principle to include the central musical parameters ( tone duration , volume , timbre ). This structuring, as well as the method of making the parameters interdependent by linking, is based on the music-aesthetic approach that a musical sense can also be generated through a total organization of all musical parameters. Serialism is thus the attempt to establish music as a sensual reflex of a regular order of its sound phenomena. Through a critical examination of the principles of serial composition, modifications and corrections were made in the practice of composition. While at the beginning of serial music in the development of a composition a structured material was to be inferred from a structured form, later superordinate design features were a fundamental principle. Important representatives of serial music are above all Olivier Messiaen and Pierre Boulez .

Electronic music

Electronic music is music made from electronically generated sounds . Forms of electronic music developed as early as the early 20th century, but did not experience their full expression until the 1950s. The reasons for the emergence were technical developments (invention of the electron tube and development of the magnetic sound process ) as well as musical aspects. The deconstruction of established notions of form as well as the differentiation of tonal and rhythmic characteristics could only develop in the limited possibilities of playing technique. Using electronic music, an attempt was made to resolve the contradiction between the intentional structuring of the material and the material actually used.

The musical aesthetic approach in the field of electronic music was to carry out an elementary structuring of musical processes according to the serial concept. Since the pitches could now be arranged as desired, there were also no structural restrictions. Different methods of electronic sound generation by various devices enabled a high degree of flexibility in the practice of composition. In the context of electronic music production, the boundary between composer and performer also disappears . In composing practice, the composer can also act as an interpreter. The initial claim to autonomy of electronic music is canceled by the integration of vocal and instrumental sounds. In its development, electronic music differentiates itself into individual disciplines. The terms musique concrète , tape music, electronic music in the form of the Cologne school around Karlheinz Stockhausen and live electronics should be mentioned here . Electronic dance music emerged in the direction of popular music . Electronic instruments have also increasingly been used in jazz since the 1960s. With these developments a stronger integration and differentiation of noisy elements of music established itself. The sampler has given the forms of reception of music since the 1980s, an additional referential note.

Aleatoric

As a generic term, aleatoric refers to compositional procedures that lead to an unpredictable musical result through a regulated random process. Any choice of musical material is limited by the possibilities of the material supply. Nonetheless, aleatoric music is determined by variable, indeterminate and ambiguous patterns that reject the prevailing ideal of causality in the musical course. In contrast to the procedures of serial music , that of aleatoric is non-systematic. Although aleatoric music is determined by the variable interaction of momentary events, a clear distinction to the principle of improvisation is necessary.
Aleatoric has a changing effect on the practice of interpretation through its compositional process . Since aleatoric music and its notation have to open up through their random process before interpretation, the independence and responsibility of the performer increases significantly. The interpretation of aleatoric works should therefore also be thought of as an extension of the composition , since the musical text and interpretation do not necessarily have to match.

Various compositional practices have developed in the field of aleatoric music. Aleatoric procedures in Karlheinz Stockhausen and Pierre Boulez are understood as a continuation of serial compositions. Boulez describes his approach as directed chance . John Cage, on the other hand, deliberately dispenses with the term aleatoric and contrasts it with the terms chance and indefiniteness . In summary, three types of aleatoric procedures can be identified:

  1. Aleatoric as a composition of partial structures and individual moments in music. The arrangement, sequence and completeness of the musical process is left to the interpreter. The form, duration, beginning and end of the composition are therefore free.
  2. The composer adheres to a binding structure for the entire composition. Details of the composition can have different meanings here.
  3. The piece as a whole and its partial structures are of equal importance. The interpreter is given the greatest possible freedom of interpretation.

Minimal music

The term minimal music has been used since the early 1970s. It is mostly used as a synonym for the music of La Monte Young , Terry Riley , Steve Reich and Philip Glass . This contradicts the fact that the composers of minimal music represent different compositional approaches and that they have also developed their compositional methods.

The term minimal music includes two of its most fundamental principles: the reduction of the musical material and the simplicity of the formal idea. But only through the principle of repetition does the scheme of reduction serve as a sufficient characterization of the music. Since repetition always involves change, as minimalist musicians have recognized, the repetitive patterns in the musical structure of a piece change. In the development of minimal music, the idea of harmony as a coherent form of musical events is replaced by a sound structure as a modality that can be characterized by the simultaneity of the polyphonic lines. The melody is no longer understood in minimalist music as temporal and intentional idea, but as a result of a musical process. The rhythm serves as the carrier of the musical process. As a music-aesthetic approach, Reich coined the idea of ​​music as a process, whereas Glass understands music as a mosaic. Both conceptual approaches have their potential infinity in common, which ultimately negates the musical form of the work by overcoming time limits.

magazine

Book series

  • The studies on valuation research , which have been published since the 1960s, are primarily devoted to questions of music aesthetics , published first by Harald Kaufmann (from 1967 to 1970), then by Otto Kolleritsch (from 1971 to 2003) and currently (since 2004) by Andreas Dorschel . The authors of this series included Theodor W. Adorno, Carl Dahlhaus , Ernst Krenek , György Ligeti and Philip Alperson. The only book series devoted exclusively to the topic of music philosophy is entitled "Music Philosophy", has been published by Alber Verlag since spring 2011 and is edited by the two musicologists Oliver Fürbeth and Frank Hentschel and the two philosophers Lydia Goehr and Stefan Lorenz Sorgner: Information page of the publisher .

literature

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  • Ralf von Appen: The value of music. On the aesthetics of the popular . (= Texts on popular music, vol. 4). Transcript-Verlag, Bielefeld 2008.
  • Barbara Boisits: Music Aesthetics. In: Oesterreichisches Musiklexikon . Online edition, Vienna 2002 ff., ISBN 3-7001-3077-5 ; Print edition: Volume 3, Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Vienna 2004, ISBN 3-7001-3045-7 .
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  • Carl Dahlhaus: Classical and Romantic Music Aesthetics . Laaber-Verlag, Laaber 1988.
  • Ulrich Dibelius : Modern Music 1945–1965 . R. Piper & Co Verlag, Munich 1966.
  • Diedrich Diederichsen : About pop music . Kiepenheuer & Witsch 2014
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  • Stefan Lorenz Sorgner, H. James Birx, Nikolaus Knoepffler (eds.): Wagner and Nietzsche: Culture-work-effect. A manual . Rowohlt, Reinbek near Hamburg 2008.
  • Stefan Lorenz Sorgner, Oliver Fürbeth (Hrsg.): Music in German Philosophy. An introduction . Metzler, Stuttgart 2003.
  • Stefan Lorenz Sorgner, Michael Schramm (Ed.): Music in ancient philosophy: An introduction . K&N, Würzburg 2010.
  • Hugo Riemann : Basic lines of music aesthetics: how do we hear music? Hesse, Berlin 1919.
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  • Ferdinand Zehentreiter: music aesthetics. A construction process. Wolke, Hofheim 2017, ISBN 978-3-95593-074-5 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ For an overview of ancient aesthetics, cf. z. B. also J. Krueger (Ed.): Ästhetik der Antike , Berlin 1964; very compact with information on more recent literature: Stephen Halliwell: Aesthetics in antiquity , in: Stephen Davies, Kathleen Marie Higgins, Robert Hopkins, Robert Stecker, David E. Cooper (eds.): A Companion to Aesthetics , Blackwell, London 2. A. 2009, pp. 10-21; more specific to music aesthetics e.g. B. Herbert M. Schueller: The idea of ​​music . An introduction to musical aesthetics in antiquity and the Middle Ages, Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan 1988; Thomas Mathiesen: Greek Music Theory , in: Thomas Christensen, (Ed.), The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2002, pp. 109-135; Frieder Zaminer: Harmonics and Music Theory in Ancient Greece In: Thomas Ertelt , Heinz von Loesch , Frieder Zaminer (Ed.): History of Music Theory. Volume 2: From Myth to Specialized Discipline: Antiquity and Byzantium. Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt 2006, pp. 47–256.
  2. ^ Carl Dahlhaus: Absolute Music. In: Sabine Ehrmann-Herfort, Ludwig Finscher, Giselher Schubert (eds.): European music history. Volume 2. Kassel 2002, p. 679.
  3. ↑ ETA Hoffmann: Complete Works. Volume 3. Friedrich Schnapp (Ed.) Munich 1963, pp. 34–51.
  4. ↑ Eduard Hanslick: From the musically beautiful. A contribution to the revision of the aesthetics of music. Unchangeable reprograph. Reprint of the 1st edition Leipzig 1854. Darmstadt 1991.
  5. ^ Hans Gerald Hödl: Music, science and poetry in the educational program of the young Nietzsche. In Günther Pöltner, Helmuth Vetter (ed.): Nietzsche and the music. Frankfurt / M. 1997, p. 21.
  6. ↑ u. a. Christoph Landerer: Form and feeling in Nietzsche's musical aesthetics. In: Nietzsche research. Volume 13. Berlin 2006. pp. 51-58.
  7. ^ Walter Gieseler: Composition in the 20th century. Details - connections. Celle 1975, pp. 13-14.
  8. ^ Rudolf Stephan: Expressionism. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in the past and present. Sachteil, Volume 3: Eng – Hamb. Kassel / Stuttgart a. a. 1998, col. 249-250.
  9. ^ Rudolf Stephan: Expressionism. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in the past and present. Sachteil, Volume 3: Eng – Hamb. Kassel / Stuttgart a. a. 1998, col. 250-251.
  10. ↑ Rudolf Stephan: Classicism II. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in past and present. Factual part, volume 5: Kas – Mein. Kassel, Stuttgart a. a. 1996, col. 251-253.
  11. ^ Theodor W. Adorno: Philosophy of New Music. In: Rolf Tiedemann (ed.): Collected writings. Volume 12, Frankfurt a. M. 1975, pp. 166-169 et al. 187-191.
  12. ↑ Rudolf Stephan: Classicism II. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in past and present. Factual part, volume 5: Kas – Mein. Kassel, Stuttgart a. a. 1996, col. 252.
  13. ↑ Ulrich Dibelius: Modern Music 1945–1965. Munich 1966, p. 317 and MGG Sp. 947.
  14. ↑ Elmar Budde: Atonality. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in the past and present. Material part, volume 1: A – Bog. Kassel, Stuttgart a. a. 1994, col. 945-949 et al. 953.
  15. ^ Rudolf Stephan: twelve-tone music. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in the past and present. Sachteil, Volume 9: Sy – Z. Kassel, Stuttgart a. a. 1998, col. 2506 and 2519.
  16. ^ Theodor W. Adorno: Philosophy of New Music. In: Rolf Tiedemann (ed.): Collected writings. Volume 12, Frankfurt a. M. 1975, pp. 118-126.
  17. ↑ Enrico Fubini: History of musical aesthetics. From antiquity to the present. Stuttgart, Weimar 1997, pp. 373-374.
  18. ↑ Ulrich Dibelius: Modern Music 1945–1965. Munich 1966, pp. 342-343.
  19. ↑ Ulrich Dibelius: Modern Music 1945–1965. Munich 1966, p. 323.
  20. ↑ Ulrich Dibelius: Modern Music 1945–1965. Munich 1966, pp. 322-325.
  21. ^ Klaus Ebbeke: Aleatoric. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in the past and present. Material part, volume 1: A – Bog. Kassel, Stuttgart, a. a. 1994, col. 436.
  22. ^ Klaus Ebbeke: Aleatoric. In: Ludwig Finscher (Hrsg.): Music in the past and present. Material part, volume 1: A – Bog. Kassel, Stuttgart, a. a. 1994, col. 439-443.
  23. ↑ Ulrich Dibelius: Modern Music 1945–1965. Munich 1966, p. 315.
  24. ^ Ulli Götte: Minimal Music. History - aesthetics - environment. Wilhelmshaven 2000, pp. 235-252.