Salafism

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Salafism or Salafitentum (including Salafi , from Arabic السلفية as-salafiyya ) is regarded as an ultra-conservative movement within Islam , which is a spiritual return to the "ancestors" ( Arabic سلف Salaf's  ancestor; Predecessor '). The term also stands for certain teachings of Sunni Islam. According to their self-image, these are based on the time of the "ancestors". The contemporary currents include on the one hand the student body of the - in contrast to Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb - in several areas liberal reformer Muhammad Abduh , whoadvocatesa compatibility of Islam and modernity , and on the other hand conservative tendencies, which refer to Ibn Taimīya and notrejectonly modernity, but also developments in Islamic theology and religious practice such as the traditions of certain schools of law or Sufism . The Salafists also include the Wahhabis ; especially the term is used for non-Saudi Wahhabis. These include, for example, the Ahl-i Hadîth , Tariqa-yi Muhammadiya and the Muhammadiyah .

The leader of the Egyptian Salafist group “ al-Da'wa ” , Abdel Moneim El Shahat in Tahrir Square ; The long, unshaven beard, which is Sunna , often serves as a sign .

The term Salafism

definition

The term “Salafiyya” is made up of the Arabic word for “predecessor, Altvordere” (salaf) and the feminine form of the Nisbe ending (-iyya), a very productive abstracta-forming suffix that corresponds to the German -heit , as well as the formation of / -isms / . The term Salafiyya can therefore be freely reproduced as "the orientation towards the pious ancestors". At different times movements have emerged whose understanding of Islam is based on the early days of religion and which is therefore regarded by their followers as unadulterated. Depending on the context, these radical currents were shaped differently and had different demands. What they have in common, however, is a fundamentalism in the literal sense of the word, since many centuries of theological development are ignored in order to go directly back to the sources Koran and Sunna . A follower of Salafiyya is known as a Salafi , the now common term Salafist mostly only refers to the contemporary movement.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the reformist current of modernism was called Salafiyya and thus had a positive connotation. In the meantime, the term has expanded in meaning and is sometimes used in an inflationary manner. It reaches as far as the neo-fundamentalist currents of Islam and in everyday use describes the "backward agility" of Muslims who try to live the customs of the 7th century as a tradition in the modern world. Militant groups are sometimes also referred to as Salafist; the Salafist group for preaching and fighting in Algeria , inspired by Osama bin Laden , has the term itself in its name.

The Salaf aṣ-Ṣāliḥ

The venerable, righteous ancestors (Arabic as-Salaf aṣ-Ṣāliḥ) are the first three generations of Muslims . These were either in direct contact with the Prophet Mohammed and were his “companions and companions” (Arabic Sahāba ), or they knew his successors (Arabic Tabi'un). Those who knew the tabi'in in turn belong to the third generation, successors to the successors (arab. Atba 'at-tabi'in). According to the doctrine, it is crucial that the acquaintance took place in the state of faith and that this state continued until death. The last Sahaba was Anas ibn Mālik († 710 or 712 AD), the last salaf of the third generation is Ahmad ibn Hanbal , the founder of the Hanbali school of law , who died in 855 AD. They were instrumental in the spread of Islam and its transmission.

Some of the later scholars still belong to the Salaf, such as Ibn Taimīya (1263-1328) and Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792), the founder and pioneer of Wahhabism .

Wahhabis as part of Salafism

A question that is asked again and again by Muslims is that of the difference between Salafiyya and Wahhabiyya . The fatwa portal IslamWeb.net , which is subordinate to the Ministry of Religions of Qatar , described in a response to a request in 2003 the "Wahhabis" as part of the Salafi movement, and every rational person knows that the Wahhabi movement deserves the credit, the "Salafi Da'wa " to have spread in the various areas of the inhabited world. The fatwa also indicates that the followers of Sheikh Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb do not call themselves Wahhabis because he did not give his movement a specific name. Rather, this is a derogatory term used by the opponents of the movement. According to the fatwa, the Salafis have different names depending on the country: While some of them called them Wahhabis, in Egypt and Sudan they were called Anṣār as-sunna al-Muḥammadīya , on the Indian subcontinent Ahl-i Hadīth and in Nigeria Ǧamāʿat Izālat al-bidʿa wa-iḥyāʾ as-sunna . All of these terms were used to distinguish them from the people of the Bidʿa . According to this fatwa, the term “Wahhabis” is only a foreign name for a group of Salafis, namely those who consider Muhammad ibn ʿAbd al-Wahhāb to be their sheikh .

The controversy over the beginnings of Salafism

The question of the beginnings of Salafism is controversial. While until the turn of the millennium, following the early studies of Henri Laoust, it was assumed that the Salafiyya movement took shape as early as the 1870s and 1880s with Jamāl ad-Dīn al-Afghānī and Muhammad ʿAbduh and al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā the first The magazine that was Salafiyya, Henri Lauzière in an article in 2010 rejected this prevailing view as a “western construct”. In his essay he showed that the concept of the “pious ancestors” (as-Salaf aṣ-Ṣāliḥ) played almost no role in the thinking of al-Afghānī and ʿAbduh. In Lauzière's view, Salafiyya did not begin to build up the Salafiyya bookstore of Muhibb ad-Dīn al-Chatīb in Mecca until the mid-1920s . This bookstore served as a center for the dissemination of Wahhabi ideas, which from then on were referred to as "Salafi".

Frank Griffel, who rejected Lauzière's thesis in 2015 in an article in the magazine Die Welt des Islams, admitted that the terms salaf and salafiyya had no meaning in the Islamic reform discourse, but said that the real essence of the Salafīya is rejection of law schools and therefore al-Afghānī and ʿAbduh and other early representatives of the Islamic movement also deserved this name. In a reply published in the same journal in 2016, Henri Lauzière criticized Griffel's use of the Salafiyya term as arbitrary and warned that Western research must break away from its earlier assumptions about the beginnings of Salafiyya because it also leads to a wrong one Assessment of this movement. The assumption that the Salafiyya is a “modern movement” is based solely on the faulty inclusion of al-Afghānī and ʿAbduh in this current.

In his book The Making of Salafism. Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century (2016), Lauzière further developed his thesis that Salafiyya did not begin until the 1920s. There he describes the rehabilitation of the Wahhabis by Raschīd Ridā as the actual starting point of Salafiyya. The following remarks on the early history of Salafiyya do not yet take into account the results of his research, but follow the conventional representation, according to which Salafiyya was created at the end of the 19th century.

Premodern Salafism

Already in the early centuries of Islam there were scholars who were critical of contemporary theology and the established tradition and who wanted to orientate themselves on the foundations of faith, the Koran and Sunna . Ideally, no regulation should be accepted that was not based on these sources. All of these points also apply to modern salafiyya. The most prominent representative to whom the later currents should fall back was Ibn Taimīya , who worked until the beginning of the 14th century. Both the Wahhabis and the modern Salafiyya should receive his writings. According to Ibn Taimīya, Imam Birgivi drew attention to Salafism in the Ottoman Empire , relying above all on the views of Ibn Taimīya.

The opposite term to Salaf is Chalaf , which describes the following generations of Muslims who have established the tradition over the centuries. Following the latter is considered pure imitation (Arabic: Taqlid ) and is rejected by the Salafists in favor of independent thinking. The Chalafs are skipped over by the Salafists who try to get as close as possible to the source. The underlying understanding of the Koran was true to the letter. The problematic sources on early Islam are ignored.

The most important criticism of the Salafists against other Muslims was the accusation of reprehensible innovation (Arab. Bid'a ), which deviated from the original Islamic practice. This first affected the Islamic theologians, who were inspired by Greek philosophy (Arabic Kalam ). Later the Sufi orders came under the crossfire of criticism.

The modernist school of the turn of the century

Basic assumptions

At the end of the 19th century, imperialism in the Islamic world raised the question of the dominance of the West. At the same time, numerous Western missionaries came to the Islamic world and their approach also impressed the Muslims.

Contrary to the empirical finding that the Islamic world was now behind, the modernists proclaimed the compatibility of Islam and modernity. Major representatives of this school of thought were Jamal al-Din al-Afghani , Muhammad Abduh , Rashid Rida , Abd al-Hamid bin Badis , al-Kawakibi and others. They did not want to take over the western way of life completely, but rather overcome the stagnation of civilization by resorting to the principles of Islam . Social and technological reforms were sought, within the framework of a historical picture, according to which the success of a society is related to its religiosity: If Islam were properly understood and practiced, the Muslim world could regain its former strength. According to this view, the root of all evil lies in the lack of unity of the Islamic community ( ummah ) and in the “contamination” of Islam by foreign influences. This worldview is based on a theory of decadence; Islam itself is therefore not determined by the actual religious practice of its followers, but only defined by its origins. Central here is the return to Koranic values ​​and traditions, which are explained and supplemented by the customs of the Prophet, the Sunna . The model of the ancestors, the Salaf, is of less importance.

The programmatic term Islāh (reform) is sometimes used synonymously with Salafiyya. It describes any improvement in the current situation, not only in law and religion (rejection of the practice of the Sufi orders), but above all in secular areas such as education, language and administration. This results in contradicting assessments of the Salafiyya - while some consider it an Islamic “Reformation”, for Elie Kedourie the two protagonists al-Afghani and Abduh were not pious Muslims at all, but “only” political activists. Liberal-minded Sunnis as well as secular thinkers took up the leitmotif Islah.

distribution

Salafiyya was initially more dominated by activists than by philosophers or theologians, and accordingly larger written treatises came into being late. A consistent description of the modernist movement is not possible because its own representatives not only set different accents, but also modified their points of view as a result of biographical and historical changes. There is also no comprehensive dogmatics. The theological views were also initially less explosive than their social and political demands. The main medium of Salafiyya was initially the magazine " al-'Urwa al-wuthqa " (the firmest volume), which was published in 1884 by Abduh and al-Afghani , but was soon banned. From 1898 onwards, al-Manār (The Lighthouse) became the movement's main publication. It was edited by Rashid Rida and initially served as a mouthpiece for his mentor Abduh. The legal opinions of the two thinkers as well as an influential Koran commentary, the "Tafsir al-Manar", appeared here. After the death of Abduh, the Tafsīr of Rida was continued. In the Maghrib, Abd al-Hamid bin Badis published the magazine "asch-Schihab" (The Meteor) from 1924. With the spread of the publications, Salafiyya adherents increased in number throughout the Arab world, with the urban middle class as their social base and their greatest concentration in Cairo. In Damascus , too , the works of Ibn Taimīya were increasingly received by a circle around Jamal ad-Din al-Qasimi and Abd ar-Razzaq al-Bitar, who had enjoyed a traditional education as religious scholars and were influenced by Sufism . Neither her contacts with the modernists in Egypt nor her independent ijschtihad was welcomed by the local religious scholars.

Theological principles

Theologically, the focus was on the concept of tawheed (unity and uniqueness of God), as was the case with the Wahhabis. The opposite of tawheed is shirk , the "addition" of other gods to the worship of one god, i.e. polytheism , the rejection of which is an important part of Islam. This has been accused of some Sufi orders, which, according to the Salafiyya, are guilty of invoking "mediators" of the shirk. The modernists also denounced widespread popular Islamic practices such as superstition, grave cults and the celebration of Muhammad's birthday , which have no basis in the Koran .

The distinction between the different schools of law (Arabic Madhhab ) is rejected as a tradition or imitation and division of the Umma. Instead, one follows a kind of “legal school” of the Salaf, whose consensus (Arabic: ijma ) should be groundbreaking for all later generations.

The religious scholars (arab. Ulama ) were seen on the one hand as government puppets and on the other hand as frozen traditionalists who unquestionably adopted the ideas of theological schools without making an independent effort to understand Islam. The representatives of the Salafiyya rejected this as a blind imitation (Arabic: Taqlid ), but this in no way prevented them from using traditional, conventional argumentation patterns in their theology. In general, however, they practiced ijtihad , the independent legal finding with the help of sources considered to be authentic. In addition to the Koran, this is the Sunna , whereby the Salafis only considered a very small part of the hadith to be genuine and forgery-proof, namely the hadiths that have been handed down several times. In this respect, they were based almost exclusively on the Koran. Their understanding of ijschtihad was similar to the principle of inference by analogy and could only be used if there was no provision in the sources or no consensus from the Salaf. Since the 10th century, the independent ijschtihad had been given up in favor of the tradition that had grown up to that point. By rejecting Taqlid, the Salafiyya wanted to reopen "the gate of ijschtihad". The practice of ijtihad should be limited to the secular areas of law and coexistence; Practicing ijtihad in religious questions in the narrower sense of the word was rejected by Salafiyya as heresy, as long as it did not only serve to clarify unclear passages from the Koran. In this respect, even in this seemingly rationalistic movement, the place of reason was by no means absolute; it had its limits in divine revelation. The basic assumption that the latter and reason produce essentially identical results, followed the correspondence between Islam and modern natural science. This should refute the thesis of the orientalist Ernest Renan , according to which Islam and scientific thinking are incompatible. In the extreme case, the backlash led to the emergence of the Koran commentaries which supernatural phenomena within the Koran with the help of modern technology and science tried to explain. This is based on the assumption that all progressive achievements are already mapped out in the Koran. One example are spirit beings, the jinn , which Abduh interpreted as the microbes recently discovered under the newly invented microscope. Abduh also wanted to read the evolutionary principle into the Koran as a “habit of God” . A prerequisite for this was that, unlike the Salafiyya movements of other eras, modernism was not literalistic. On the other hand, the dogmas of the imperfect nature of the Koran and of its divine character prevented further rationalistic interpretations. The literal commentary ( Tafsīr ), according to Islamic tradition , often replaced symbolic interpretation . The balancing act between the model of the ancestors and a modern Enlightenment was consequently marked by contradictions.

Da'wa or mission, literally the invitation to Islam, depicts Abduh as an individual duty (Arabic: fard 'ain) as opposed to an obligation of the community. Rashid Rida also strived to establish an Islamic counterpart to Western missionary activities. Education was particularly important in this context. The Salafiyya understanding of da'wa included all measures that should lead to a “more Islamic society”. In addition to the spread of Islam in general, there was also a role model function through an Islamic lifestyle and the eradication of corruption and atheism from public and private life. In the Koranic regulations - going back to Ibn Taimīya - a distinction was made between changeable and unchangeable. The latter are "eternal" regulations of the worship of God and the religious rituals that are written into the Koran and authentic hadiths (Arabic 'Ibadat). Any change to these regulations is an unauthorized innovation (Arabic bid'a ). On the other hand, the changeable regulations relate to social issues on this side (Arabic: mu'amalat). As times change, answers should be found for social relationships that are appropriate to modern times. By means of an unorthodox rule of law, which had been developed by Ibn Taimīya , the common good (arab. Maslaha) was to be observed and taken into account by the men with authority (arab. Ulu-l-amr) in the legislation.

Political visions

Politically, most of the Salafiyya supporters were principally anti-colonial . Only the Indian modernists strove for closer ties to the British, but their Middle Eastern like-minded people also knew about the freedoms under British rule in Egypt in contrast to the Ottoman "despotism" (al-Kawakibi). In contrast to the declining Ottoman Empire and the emerging nationalism of the Young Turks , parts of the Salafiyya saw themselves as an emphatically Arab movement. The pan-Islamic idea was therefore closely linked to Arab nationalism . In this context and in view of the imperialism of the western powers, the promotion of the Arabic language was a concern of the Salafiyya.

Alternatives to foreign rule should be forms of rule based on Islamic grounds; on the one hand, the revival of an Arab caliphate was advocated after the abolition of the Ottoman caliphate in the wake of the establishment of modern Turkey . On the other hand, classical concepts such as deliberation and consensus were used to propagate a kind of Islamic democracy - and to prove the supposed Koranic origin of this form of government. This shows that the recourse to the sources of Islam did not lead to a reactionary movement, but rather sought correspondences with modern times. Al-Kawakibi even wanted to combine democratic elements with the caliphate .

Overall, representatives of the Salafiyya resisted Ottoman rule and colonialism and sought profound changes in established legal scholars and popular Islam. This resulted in distrust or even in persecution of the other side, so that the ideas of the Salafiyya could not prevail due to their narrow social base. Although Abduh became Grand Mufti of Egypt and had great influence in this position, he met resistance here too.

Influences on Islamism and Nationalism

The thinkers of modern Salafiyya prepared the breeding ground for Islamism as a political ideology as well as for secular liberalism, both of which sought to present themselves as legitimate heirs. While the modernists mostly had religious training, the activists of Islamism did not come from the ulama . Particular mention should be made of the founder of the Muslim Brotherhood , Hasan al-Banna , who, as a primary school teacher, took the Salafiyya educational concept into his agenda. With the rise of activist, political Islam, Salafiyya disappeared as an intellectual mindset. Morality as the basis of society now came to the fore, even more than the idea of ​​education . Rashid Rida had already undergone a development that shifted from innovative ideas to conservative standpoints, and had moved closer to the Saudi Arabian Wahhabis . This development also emerged out of fear of the burgeoning liberal secularism , which the Salafiyya countered with a radicalization that was reflected in everyday life. This was accompanied by a loss of renewing vigor in the entire current, which ironically now seemed traditional itself and left the field to the Muslim Brotherhood as a modern mass movement.

Some Salafiyya concerns have also been taken up by secular intellectuals, such as nationalism . In this respect, Salafiyya paved the way for two opposing currents that did not correspond to its idea of ​​mediating between heritage and modernity. In the 1950s and 60s, the fact that the Salafiyya was no longer the engine of social renewal, but now nationalist and socialist currents gained political influence in the course of the struggle for independence, led to revolutionary upheavals in some Arab states. The fact that for a while they understood how to claim social renewal for themselves in their discourses increasingly led to the marginalization of Salafiyya.

Neofundamentalism - Contemporary Salafiyya

The disappointments about the nationalist and socialist movements in Islamic countries, especially after the Six Day War against Israel in 1967, and the Islamic Revolution in Iran in 1979 gave religious Muslim currents in the Arab states an enormous boost, in the course of which a Salafiyya movement emerged again formed.

Today's Salafiyya movement, which has emerged with it, has strayed far from the modern school. For the setting of the new formation, Olivier Roy uses the more precisely defined term neofundamentalism , which includes very heterogeneous groups. It is divided into two parts: a conservative wing and a jihadist wing.

  • The first goes back to the premodern Salafiyya of Wahhabi character and accordingly has its spiritual center in Saudi Arabia today .
  • The jihadist Salafism is militant.

While modern Salafiyya wants to restore the lost civilizational pioneering role to the Muslims by returning to original values, Islamist neo-fundamentalism wants to turn back the religious clock and regards today's world as a whole as hostile. In this respect it is diametrically opposed to the Salafiyya at the turn of the century. It is considered to be the fastest growing radical current in Islam. It is a de-territorialized movement that wants to practice the “true” religion, detached from any cultural “pollution”.

On the other hand, the Islamic scholar Rüdiger Lohlker sees small Salafist groups and individuals who think Salafism differently. For example, in Egypt the Salafyo Costa , who meet in the cafés of this name and “mean business with God, the Sharia and their coffee”. Even as Salafis, they want to live tolerantly and also work with non-Muslims for the good of Egypt.
In Saudi Arabia there is also a small current of Salafis who see Hisba as an instrument of civil society to protect individual and collective rights. The American convert Michael Muhammad Knight, on the other hand, writes that the Salafists are not radical enough for him. One cannot really know how the Prophet and his companions lived; every believer can only live for himself, as he sees fit, and no one can claim control over tradition.

Connection to terrorism

All terrorists of September 11, 2001 , the worst terrorist attack in US history, belonged to the Salafist current. In Germany, a minority of Salafists follow a violent jihadist ideology, which, according to the German constitutional protection, is incompatible with the free democratic basic order . In its analysis, the Office for the Protection of the Constitution comes to the conclusion that "the ideas spread by Salafists form the breeding ground for Islamist radicalization ..." and that "almost all of the terrorist network structures and individuals identified in Germany so far have shaped Salafists or developed in the Salafist milieu" .

Salafism today worldwide

Germany

According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV), the ideological principles of Salafism are incompatible with the principles of the Basic Law, “in particular democracy, the rule of law and a political order based on human dignity”. According to the BfV, almost all identified terrorist networks and individuals had a Salafist background. According to him, there were around 4,000 Salafists in Germany in 2011, and in December 2017 their number had risen to 10,800.

Other countries

Moroccan jihadists and Salafists at the 2011 protest against the state

Internationally, Wiktorowicz and Roy list very different organizations that can be assigned to today's Salafiyya movement:

Well-known representatives in the last few decades

See also

literature

  • Michael Muhammad Knight : Why I am a Salafi. Berkeley, Soft Skull Press, 2015.
  • Mohammad Abu Rumman: I am a Salafi: a Study of the Actual and Imagined Identities of Salafis . Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Amman, 2014. Digitized
  • David Dean Commins: Islamic Reform. Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. New York, Oxford 1990. ISBN 0-19-506103-9 .
  • Janusz Biene, Julian Junk (ed.): Salafism and Jihadism in Germany. Challenges for politics and society (= Security Policy Blog Focus 3), Frankfurt a. M. 2016. ( online )
  • Claudia Dantschke, Ahmad Mansour, Jochen Müller, Yasemin Serbest: "I only live for Allah". Arguments and Attractiveness of Salafism. Series of publications in the Center for Democratic Culture, Berlin 2011
  • Werner Ende, Pessah Shinar: Salafiyya. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 8. Brill, Leiden 1995, pp. 900-909. ISSN  1873-9830
  • Klaus Hummel, Michail Logvinov (ed.): Dangerous proximity. Salafism and Jihadism in Germany . ibidem-Verlag, Stuttgart 2014, ISBN 978-3-8382-0569-4 .
  • Elie Kedourie : Afghani and 'Abduh. An Essay on Religious Unbelief and Political Activism in Modern Islam. London 1966.
  • Henri Laoust : "Le reformisme orthodoxe des 'Salafiyya' et les caracteres giniraux de son orientation actuelle" in Revue des Etudes Islamiques 6 (1932) 175–224.
  • Henri Lauzière: "The Construction of Salafiyya: Reconsidering Salafism from the perspective of conceptual history" in International Journal of Middle East Studies 42 (2010) 369-389.
  • Leibniz Institute Hessian Foundation for Peace and Conflict Research ( PRIF ) (ed.): PRIF series of reports "Salafism in Germany" , 6 issues, Frankfurt am Main 2016.
  • Andreas Meier: The Political Mission of Islam: Programs and Criticism between Fundamentalism and Reforms. Original voices from the Islamic world. Peter Hammer Verlag , Wuppertal 1994
  • Roel Meijer: Global Salafism . Islam's new religious movement, Columbia University Press, New York 2009. Therein: R. Meijer: Introduction (PDF; 193 kB), pp. 1–32.
  • Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, pp. 141-171. ISSN  1873-9830
  • Thomas J. Moser: Politics on God's Path, On the Genesis and Transformation of Militant Sunni Islamism . IUP, Innsbruck 2012. ISBN 978-3-902811-67-7 .
  • Olivier Roy: The Islamic Way to the West. Globalization, uprooting and radicalization. Pantheon, Munich 2006, RM Book and Media , Gütersloh 2007, again BpB , Bonn 2007. ISBN 3-89331-731-7 .
  • Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World in the 20th Century. CH Beck, Munich 1994. ISBN 3-406-38108-1 .
  • Emad Eldin Shahin: Salafiyyah. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York 1995, pp. 463-469. ISBN 0-19-506613-8 .
  • Itzchak Weismann : Taste of Modernity. Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Brill, Leiden u. a. 2000. ISBN 90-04-11908-6 .
  • Quintan Wiktorowicz: The Management of Islamic Activism. Salafis, the Muslim Brotherhood, and State Power in Jordan. Albany NY 2001. ISBN 0-7914-4835-5 .
  • Imad Mustafa: Political Islam. Between the Muslim Brotherhood, Hamas and Hezbollah. Promedia, Vienna 2013 ISBN 978-3-85371-360-0 .
  • Ulrich Kraetzer: Salafists. Threat to Germany? Gütersloher Verlagshaus, Gütersloh 2014 ISBN 978-3-579-07064-3 .
  • Behnam T. Said , Hazim Fouad Ed .: Salafism. In search of true Islam. Publication series 1454, BpB, Bonn 2014 (summer). Licensed edition by Herder, Freiburg 2014. Contributions by Guido Steinberg, Joas Wagemakers, Aaron Zelin, Claudia Dantschke , Justyna Nedza, Nina Wiedl, Mohammad Gharaibeh, Bacem Dziri, Samet Yilmaz, Olaf Farschid, Benno Köpfer, Mohammed Masbah and Samir Amghar, preface by Tilman Seidensticker. ISBN 9783451332968 .
  • Michael Kiefer , Rauf Ceylan : Salafism. Fundamentalist currents and prevention of radicalization. Publication series 1407.BpB, Bonn 2014 (February). License from Springer VS , Wiesbaden 2013, ISBN 3658000902 .
  • Thorsten Gerald Schneiders (Ed.): Salafism in Germany. Origins and dangers of an Islamic fundamentalist movement . transcript Verlag, Bielefeld 2014, ISBN 978-3-8376-2711-4 .
  • Jasmin Lorch, Annette Ranko: "Salafists in the Maghreb: Political Ambitions after the 'Arab Spring'". GIGA Focus Middle East 07/2016
  • Rüdiger Lohlker : The Salafists. The uprising of the pious, Saudi Arabia and Islam. (= CHBeck Paperback 6272) CHBeck, Munich 2017. ISBN 978-3-406-70609-7 .

Web links

 Wikinews: Salafism  - In The News

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Muḥammad ʿAbduh: EGYPTIAN SCHOLAR AND JURIST www. britica.com , accessed on February 24, 2019.
  2. ↑ See for example Lutz Berger: Islamische Theologie , UTb / facultas, Vienna 2010, p. 146.
  3. ^ A b Emad Eldin Shahin: Salafiyyah. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York 1995, p. 463. ISBN 0-19-506613-8
  4. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 149. ISSN  1873-9830
  5. ↑ See Bettina Gräf: Medien-Fatwas @ Yusuf al-Qaradawi. The popularization of Islamic law . Klaus Schwarz, Berlin, 2010. p. 256.
  6. ↑ IslamWeb.net Fatwa No. 41710: al-Wahhābīyūn Salafīyūn Sunnīyūn December 22, 2003
  7. ^ Henri Laoust: Le réformisme orthodoxe des "Salafiyya" et les caractères généraux de son orientation actuelle. In: Revue des Études Islamiques , 6, 1932, pp. 175–224.
  8. ^ Lauzière: "The Construction of Salafiyya". 2010, p. 373ff.
  9. ↑ Frank Griffel: What do we mean by 'Salafī'? Connecting Muḥammad ʿAbduh with Egypt's Nūr Party in Islam's contemporary intellectual history. In: Die Welt des Islams, 55, 2015, pp. 186–220.
  10. ^ Henri Lauzière: What do we mean against what they meant by 'Salafi' A reply to Frank Griffel. In: Die Welt des Islams , 56, 2016, pp. 89–96.
  11. ^ Henri Lauzière: The Making of Salafism. Islamic Reform in the Twentieth Century . Columbia University Press, New York, 2016, pp. 60-94.
  12. ^ Itzchak Weismann: Taste of Modernity. Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Brill, Leiden u. a. 2000. ISBN 90-04-11908-6 . P. 275
  13. ↑ Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World in the 20th Century. Beck, Munich 1994. ISBN 3-406-38108-1 . P. 96
  14. ^ Charles C. Adams: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh. London 1933. p. 112
  15. ↑ Emad Eldin Shahin: Salafiyyah. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York 1995, p. 464. ISBN 0-19-506613-8
  16. ↑ a b Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 143. ISSN  1873-9830
  17. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 141. ISSN  1873-9830
  18. ↑ a b c Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 146. ISSN  1873-9830
  19. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 144. ISSN  1873-9830
  20. ↑ a b c Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 145. ISSN  1873-9830
  21. ↑ a b Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 157. ISSN  1873-9830
  22. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 159. ISSN  1873-9830
  23. ^ Andreas Meier: The Political Mission of Islam: Programs and Criticism between Fundamentalism and Reforms. Original voices from the Islamic world. Wuppertal 1994. p. 85
  24. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 150. ISSN  1873-9830
  25. ↑ Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World in the 20th Century. Beck, Munich 1994. ISBN 3-406-38108-1 . P. 49
  26. ^ Itzchak Weismann: Taste of Modernity. Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Brill, Leiden u. a. 2000. ISBN 90-04-11908-6 . Pp. 274, 279
  27. ^ Itzchak Weismann: Taste of Modernity. Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Brill, Leiden u. a. 2000. ISBN 90-04-11908-6 . P. 280
  28. ↑ Quintan Wiktorowicz: The Management of Islamic Activism. Salafis, the Muslim Brotherhood, and State Power in Jordan. Albany NY 2001. ISBN 0-7914-4835-5 . P. 114 f.
  29. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 151. ISSN  1873-9830
  30. ^ Charles C. Adams: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh. London 1933. p. 145
  31. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 148. ISSN  1873-9830
  32. ↑ a b Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 153. ISSN  1873-9830
  33. ↑ a b Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 152. ISSN  1873-9830
  34. ^ Charles C. Adams: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh. London 1933. p. 138
  35. ↑ Kerr, p. 130
  36. ↑ a b c d Emad Eldin Shahin: Salafiyyah. In: The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World. New York 1995, p. 466. ISBN 0-19-506613-8
  37. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 147. ISSN  1873-9830
  38. ^ Charles C. Adams: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh. London 1933. p. 173
  39. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 158. ISSN  1873-9830
  40. ^ Charles C. Adams: Islam and Modernism in Egypt. A Study of the Modern Reform Movement Inaugurated by Muhammad 'Abduh. London 1933. p. 175
  41. ↑ cf. Imad Mustafa (2013): Political Islam. Between the Muslim Brotherhood, Hamas and Hezbollah. Vienna: Promedia. P. 96
  42. ^ Itzchak Weismann: Taste of Modernity. Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus. Brill, Leiden u. a. 2000. ISBN 90-04-11908-6 . P. 290
  43. ↑ Werner Ende, Pessah Shinar: Salafiyya. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 8. Brill, Leiden 1995, pp. 900-909. ISSN  1873-9830 . P. 907
  44. ^ Andreas Meier: The Political Mission of Islam: Programs and Criticism between Fundamentalism and Reforms. Original voices from the Islamic world. Wuppertal 1994. p. 97
  45. ↑ David Dean Commins: Islamic Reform. Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. New York, Oxford 1990. ISBN 0-19-506103-9 . P. 142
  46. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 161. ISSN  1873-9830
  47. ↑ Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World in the 20th Century. Beck, Munich 1994. ISBN 3-406-38108-1 . P. 100
  48. ↑ Ali Merad: Islah. In: The Encyclopaedia of Islam. T. 2, Vol. 4. Brill, Leiden 1978, p. 160. ISSN  1873-9830
  49. ↑ See also Reinhard Schulze: History of the Islamic World in the 20th Century. Beck, Munich 1994. ISBN 3-406-38108-1 . P. 118
  50. ↑ Olivier Roy: The Islamic Way to the West. Globalization, uprooting and radicalization. Pantheon, Munich 2006, RM Book and Media , Gütersloh 2007, BpB , Bonn 2007. ISBN 3-89331-731-7 . P. 230
  51. ↑ Olivier Roy: The Islamic Way to the West. Globalization, uprooting and radicalization. Pantheon, Munich 2006, RM Book and Media , Gütersloh 2007, BpB , Bonn 2007. ISBN 3-89331-731-7 . P. 232
  52. ↑ Keyword: Background Salafism Tagesschau.de. June 22, 2011, Retrieved June 25, 2011
  53. ↑ Olivier Roy: The Islamic Way to the West. Globalization, uprooting and radicalization. Pantheon, Munich 2006, RM Book and Media , Gütersloh 2007, BpB , Bonn 2007. ISBN 3-89331-731-7 . P. 254f.
  54. ^ Rüdiger Lohlker: The Salafists. The uprising of the pious, Saudi Arabia and Islam. (= CHBeck Paperback 6272) CHBeck, Munich 2017. P. 154 f.
  55. ↑ Michael Muhammad Knight: Why I am a Salafi. Berkeley, Soft Skull Press, 2015. According to Rüdiger Lohlker: The Salafists. The uprising of the pious, Saudi Arabia and Islam. (= CHBeck Paperback 6272) CHBeck, Munich 2017. pp. 155–157.
  56. ↑ US State Department : September 11 (PDF; 61 kB)
  57. ^ A b Süddeutsche Zeitung : Radical Islamic proselytizing. On behalf of the Lord , April 9, 2012, accessed April 10, 2012
  58. ^ Salafists: A Koran in every household. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung . April 3, 2012, Retrieved April 3, 2012 .
  59. ↑ Die Welt : How Salafists Circumvent Bans on Koran Stalls , April 9, 2012, accessed April 10, 2012
  60. ↑ Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution : Salafist aspirations , accessed on August 17, 2012
  61. ↑ a b Salafism. Retrieved August 1, 2018 .
  62. ↑ Eckart Lohse, Berlin: Figures from the Office for the Protection of the Constitution: There are more Salafists in Germany than ever before . In: FAZ.NET . December 10, 2017, ISSN  0174-4909 ( faz.net [accessed December 10, 2017]).
  63. ↑ Quintan Wiktorowicz: The Management of Islamic Activism. Salafis, the Muslim Brotherhood, and State Power in Jordan. Albany NY 2001. ISBN 0-7914-4835-5 . P. 151
  64. ↑ International Crisis Group : Islamist Terrorism in the Sahel: Fact or Fiction? , Africa Report No. 92, March 31, 2005 (PDF).
  65. ↑ Moshe Terdman: The Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG) (PDF; 287 kB), GLORIA Center, Volume 3, Number 2, May of 2005.
  66. ^ Tine Gade: Fatah al-Islam in Lebanon: Between global and local jihad Norwegian Defense Research Establishment (FFI), December 5, 2007, p. 22 f. (PDF)
  67. ↑ Bloody power struggle in the Middle East: The Iraqi Puzzle , in: Spiegel Online, June 13, 2014
  68. ^ Report on this by Güner Y. Balci: Integration in Berlin. In the shadow of the Al-Nur Mosque ; in: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, edition of February 24, 2009
  69. ^ The casual brainwashers Zeit.de, October 4, 2007
  70. ↑ At the same time, the BpB organized a symposium at the end of June 2014, the presentations of which are online on its website, use the search engine there, search for Salafism. Including contributions on the situation in France, the Netherlands, the rest of Europe and the Arab world