Photovoltaic system
A photovoltaic system , also known as a PV system (or PVA) or solar generator , is a solar power system in which part of the solar radiation is converted into electrical energy by means of solar cells . The typical direct type of energy conversion is called photovoltaics . In contrast, other solar power plants (e.g. solar thermal power plants ) work via the intermediate steps of thermal energy and mechanical energy. According to § 3 No. 1 EEG, each module is an independent system. According to § 9 EEG, several solar modules are considered to be one system only to determine the installed power under certain circumstances.
The output of conventional photovoltaic systems ranges from the low single-digit kW range, as is common for rooftop systems, to a few MW for commercial roof systems, while open-space solar systems are usually at least in the MW range. As of January 2017, the most powerful photovoltaic system is located near the Longyangxia Dam in China and has an output of 850 MWp .
construction
Depending on the size and type of the system, individual solar modules are connected in series to form so-called strings. The solar modules, in technical use, the smallest building blocks of a solar system to be distinguished, consist of a series connection of solar cells which are hermetically encapsulated and no longer accessible for repair. With crystalline solar cells, the individual cells are first manufactured individually and then connected by metal foils. In the case of thin-film cells, the production of the connections is integrated into the processes for forming the cells.
By connecting solar cells in series, with a voltage of only about 0.5 V, and then solar modules, the voltage is added. While the maximum system voltage was limited to 110 V 20 years ago in order to meet the safety regulations, today's solar modules tested in accordance with protection class II enable a system voltage of 1000 V. A further increase to 1500 V DC, the limit value of the low voltage definition according to VDE0100, is in progress.
A square, crystalline solar cell with an edge length of 156 mm (6+ ") delivers about 8 A at the operating point at maximum solar irradiation. The current through this series connection is determined by the solar cell with the lowest current. If necessary, several of these strings with the same voltage and characteristics connected in parallel; this adds up the currents of the individual strings. Individual modules are connected in parallel in isolated operation.
The solar modules are usually attached to a substructure, which ideally aligns the modules in such a way that the highest possible or the most constant energy yield is guaranteed over the year (e.g. in Germany to the south and angled at around 30 ° for the highest energy yield or . To the south and angled at about 55 ° for constant energy yield over the year). The substructure can also track the sun (astronomical, sensory) in order to achieve a higher energy yield.
If it is a grid-connected system , the direct current generated in the solar module (s) is converted into alternating current with the help of an inverter and fed into the power grid. Apart from the conversion losses, this usually happens completely as long as the network is of sufficient quality (voltage / frequency) available. Demand-dependent feed-in (feed-in management) was made mandatory in Germany with the new version of the 2009 Feed-in Act for systems over 100 kW.
Grid-connected photovoltaic systems normally do not provide the power grid with any control power, as a maximum of regenerative energy should generally be generated. However, in Germany, in accordance with Section 9 EEG, systems with a peak output of 100 kW or more must be able to reduce their output remotely by the network operator in the event of network overloads. Likewise, in this country, systems with an installed capacity of less than 30 kW must limit the maximum active power feed-in to 70 percent of the installed capacity at the point of connection between the system and the grid, if no remote control is carried out. If required, inverters can also supply or absorb reactive power into the grid, which has also been required by the medium-voltage directive since mid-2010 for more powerful systems that feed in at medium-voltage level . Due to the now relevant output of the photovoltaic systems installed in Germany (as of the beginning of 2013: around 32 gigawatts peak output), photovoltaics is increasingly being included in grid control. For this reason, a corresponding guideline for the low-voltage network in Germany was passed in August 2011.
In off-grid systems , the energy is temporarily stored if it is not used directly. Storage in energy storage systems, usually lead-acid batteries , requires the use of a charge controller . In order to be able to use the stored energy for conventional electrical devices, it is converted into alternating current with the help of a stand-alone inverter. For grid-connected systems with storage systems, a trend towards lithium batteries can now be seen. Advantage: smaller dimensions with the same storage capacity. Disadvantage: more expensive.
Off-grid power supply (stand-alone system, stand-alone system)
The essence of an off- grid solar power system ( island system ) is the permanent - or also temporary - separation from the public power grid. This can be necessary for various reasons: Either because there is no power supply, or to implement a backup system that separates the consumer system from it within a very short time in the event of a power failure in the public network. With the help of solar batteries and stand-alone inverters, an island system based on the usual AC mains voltage is usually set up within milliseconds in order to maintain the household supply. Such backup systems are also suitable for increasing self-consumption in conventional grid-connected solar power systems - during the day, the unused electricity is initially temporarily stored in order to be used later when required.
The island systems mentioned above, which are operated permanently without a network connection, are based on a consumer system operated with 12 or 24 volt direct voltage for smaller applications. Such a system essentially consists of four components: the solar generator, the charge controllers, the batteries and the consumers. All these components of the system should be harmoniously matched to the existing load profile of the electrical consumers in order to ensure a high degree of utilization.
history
Space travel
Photovoltaics received significant development impulses from space travel . While the first artificial earth satellites only carried batteries , solar cells were soon used for energy supply and were among the first applications of photovoltaics. In view of the lack of cheaper alternatives for spacecraft, even the immense costs at the beginning of solar module development were negated. Nowadays, the solar cell is by far the most widely used solution in space travel.
Almost all satellites and space stations use solar cells for their power supply and to operate the installed instruments - radionuclide batteries are only used for missions far from the sun , and chemical batteries are sometimes used for very short missions.
Solar cells on spacecraft are exposed to high levels of radiation and suffer a loss of performance ( degradation ). The cause are the crystal defects caused by high-energy particle radiation from cosmic rays .
Telegraph station
Another driving force behind the development is the telecommunications industry. The first electrical relay stations (which were located remotely between the mostly larger cities) for forwarding Morse code were still made with lead-acid batteries that were connected to 48-volt DC systems. The discharged batteries were replaced with carts that were often on the move for weeks. The first solar modules were developed to safely charge a 12 V lead-acid battery even at high outside temperatures. This is how the 36-cell 12 V solar module was created after it was discovered that the battery could not be safely charged with 34-cell modules. Four solar modules connected in series were used to charge the battery systems in relay stations. This historical reason explains why 48 V DC devices are still used in the telecommunications industry today.
Systematics
Industrial applications
The characteristic of this application group of solar energy supplies is the very precisely defined, often low energy requirement.
- Mobile applications such as calculators / clocks, mobile phone chargers, solar toys, solar fountains, luminous path markings, ...
- Stationary applications, such as parking machines, automatic traffic signs (e.g. on motorways), solar-powered measuring points (drinking water, waste water, flooding, traffic), slide devices for drinking water or waste water, solar ventilation, shipping signs , ...
- Applications for telecommunications, such as receiving stations for mobile phones, WLAN hotspots, radio links, satellites, ...
Many of these applications are also economical in areas with the highest power grid density, since the costs for a grid expansion / grid connection are in no relation to the self-sufficient supply.
SHS (Solar Home System)
SHS is the name for a simple photovoltaic island system, the main purpose of which is usually only to supply simple huts with light. Typical system sizes are 50–130 W p , which is usually enough to operate 12 V DC energy-saving lamps . The systems are often used to charge cell phones or to operate a small television / radio. Sometimes such a system is also used to run a 12 or 24 V DC refrigerator.
Solar pumping systems
Solar pump systems usually consist of directly connected pumps without a buffer battery. In this case, the storage is carried out by a high water tank, which ensures the supply at night or in bad weather. In the case of irrigation systems, the tank can often be dispensed with. Systems of this type are characterized by an extremely long service life (> 20 years). The DC-operated submersible pumps used can reach delivery heights of up to 250 m.
Hybrid / minigrid
Hybrid / minigrid are mostly larger systems that ensure the supply of small villages, schools, hospitals / stations or GSM stations. A hybrid system is characterized by the presence of more than one energy source (e.g. photovoltaics and diesel generator). Sun, water, wind, biomass, diesel, ... are available as energy sources. The intermediate buffering of the energy is usually done by accumulators (short-term storage). For medium-term storage, for example, the redox flow cell or hydrogen are possible solutions.
In principle, there are two options for electrical coupling available.
The former consists of a coupling on the direct current side into which all producers supply their energy. The photovoltaic system with the help of a charge controller, the diesel generator with a charger. All other energy producers (e.g. wind generator, water turbine, ...) need their own charger to provide their energy on the direct current side. A large stand-alone inverter takes over the provision of alternating current.
Another possibility is the coupling on the AC side. In this case there is only one charger that manages the charging of the batteries. All energy generators supply alternating voltage, which is either consumed directly or is buffered in the accumulator by the charger. If there is a lack of energy, a stand-alone inverter generates the missing energy for the consumers. Since this second version of the coupling causes difficulties in synchronization / regulation, it could only be implemented with the availability of fast microcontrollers. This type of coupling can be described as the second generation of hybrid systems.
Plant engineering
When using accumulators to store the energy, types are used that have a high cycle stability (charge and discharge), so-called solar batteries . These have a slightly different structure than starter batteries, such as those used in motor vehicles. Compared to all other types of accumulator, the lead accumulator has the lowest costs per stored energy unit (kWh).
A charge controller is required when using accumulators to store solar energy . Its main purpose is to protect the accumulator from deep discharge (through load shedding) and from overcharging. A deep discharge damages a lead accumulator irreversibly.
To operate AC consumers (e.g. 230 V television sets), an island inverter converts the battery voltage (usually in the range of 12, 24 or 48 V DC) into AC voltage. Stand-alone inverters belong to the group of grid-forming systems. This means that they independently generate a mains voltage (e.g. 230 V, 50 Hz) and provide active and reactive power. Network builders cannot be connected to the public power grid (violation of competence). In contrast, line-commutated inverters (line followers) are required to feed into the grid (see below).
In areas with an unstable electrical supply from the public grid, it is advisable to operate a system that is normally powered by the grid with solar power in the event of a power failure (as a so-called backup grid system ) - if the grid fails , the system is automatically or manually switched to island operation. This changeover means a brief power failure, in order to avoid this you can use an uninterruptible power supply .
Grid-connected system
The connection to a large network (e.g. the public power grid) ensures that there are enough consumers available at all times to use the solar power immediately. Intermediate storage and buffering are unnecessary. This operating mode is also called network-parallel operation.
to form
Rooftop system
The most common type of system is the roof-top system, in which the existing building supports the substructure for the PV system. The highest possible funding is possible, since the legislator regards the roof areas as already existing “natural” reception areas without additional space requirements. With sloping roofs , you can usually do without a substructure for aligning the solar surfaces. But the roof pitch and the horizontal alignment of the house often prevent the system from being properly aligned.
A solar system is mounted on the flat or inclined roof surface with a basic framework using roof hooks mounted on the rafters - this can be implemented with or without a substructure.
The first grid-connected rooftop system was built in May 1982 on a roof of what is now the technical college in Italian-speaking Switzerland . The system has a peak power of 10 kW and was as of May 2017, i. H. 35 years after commissioning, still in operation. The currently largest accessible roof-top system in Europe is located in Heiden . It is the sample exhibition of an energy company with a total of 2423 modules of different module types and is expected to produce 334,789 kWh per year.
In-roof systems (building-integrated system)
In this type of system, the photovoltaic system replaces parts of the building envelope , i.e. the facade cladding and / or the roof covering. The advantage is that roof or facade elements that are required anyway are replaced by the photovoltaic system. In addition, aesthetic arguments are given for this type of construction, because the elements, which are often color-matched to traditional roof coverings, are less visually noticeable than conventional systems mounted on the roof cladding. However, building-integrated systems are usually less well ventilated, which results in a reduced degree of efficiency. Façade elements are seldom oriented towards the sun in a yield-optimal manner; areas can be used for this that are otherwise not available for energy generation. The solar modules must meet the same requirements as other parts of the building envelope (tightness, break resistance, load-bearing capacity, etc.). The market offers specially approved modules that have the necessary certificates and approvals, otherwise individual verification is required for the planned system.
Plug-in systems
Plug-in photovoltaic systems (also known as Plug & Save ) are small and simple systems that are equipped with an integrated microinverter and are offered to the end user ready-to-use. Such uncomplicated, community-based solar modules can also be connected to the domestic AC grid without a specialist. In this way, you may lower your private electricity bills, but they are not intended to supply electricity to the public grid or even to receive financial reimbursement from the network operator.
Outdoor installation
In the open air, solar modules are either placed in long rows one behind the other with the help of a suitable substructure or attached to tracking systems (solar trackers ), which are at a distance from one another without shading . For economic reasons, central inverters are mostly used to convert the direct current from the PV modules into alternating current. The alternating current generated is usually fed directly into the medium-voltage network, since the power in the low-voltage network can no longer be consumed.
Areas that are difficult to use for other purposes are considered particularly suitable (landfill areas, e.g. photovoltaic system on a disused circular landfill in the Ringgenbach district, abandoned military sites, e.g. Waldpolenz solar park , photovoltaic system on a former military airfield in the municipalities of Brandis and Bennewitz, Brachland, ...), as it does not reduce the usable agricultural area. The use of area can be specified in kWp per square meter and is the example of the solar park Lieberose at about 32 W p per square meter. This corresponds to a yield of approximately 30 kWh per year per square meter.
The necessary investment capital is often raised by civil societies.
Plant engineering
In order to feed the solar energy into the power grid, the conversion of direct current into alternating current is necessary as well as synchronization with the existing grid, which is accomplished by a solar inverter . These inverters are called grid-connected.
In Germany, single-phase systems are only allowed to feed into the power grid up to a maximum output of 5 kW p (4.6 kW continuous output ). Systems with outputs from 100 kW p have the option of reducing active power in four stages, which are controlled by a ripple control receiver . Systems with a peak output of more than 100 kW feed into the medium-voltage network and must meet the medium-voltage directive to ensure network stability .
An exception, which does not require conversion, is feeding into separate DC operating networks, for example feeding the solar generator directly into a tram operating network . A few pilot systems for such an application have been tested for several years. An example is the system at the tram depot in Hannover-Leinhausen.
Energy yield of a solar power system
The nominal output of the solar modules in a system is measured in kilowatts peak (kW p (eak) ), which are determined under defined test conditions (at a certain temperature and maximum or ideal solar radiation, which is rarely achieved, however). Depending on the type and efficiency of the solar cells, 5 to 10 m² of module surface are required for 1 kW p .
With solar systems in Germany, an average energy yield of around 650 to 1150 kWh per kW peak of installed capacity can be expected. This corresponds to a degree of utilization (ratio of the practically achievable and the theoretically achievable energy yield at 8760 annual hours) of 7.5% to 13%. Permanently installed systems without sun tracking can generate up to 8 kWh / kW p on peak days.
Achieving these values is influenced by the following factors:
- interpretation
- The slight oversizing of the PV generator, which is common in Germany, leads to a higher yield over the year, but limits the amount of the peak yield in the midday hours of sunny spring and summer days. The inverter drives into the limit on such days; that means parts of the energy supply cannot be used.
- Alignment and assembly
- In order to achieve peak performance with maximum solar irradiation, it would be necessary to set it up perpendicular to the sun at midday at the beginning of summer (approx. 47 ° module inclination), but this would lead to a lower yield over the year. In order to achieve the highest possible annual yield, a module inclination is required that offers the optimal yield conditions twice a year. The type of installation also influences the yield; Better rear ventilation of the modules leads to better cooling and thus to higher efficiency. In Central Europe, roof pitches of 30 ° and orientation to the south provide the highest yield; however, due to the high proportion of diffuse radiation, systems that are oriented to the north can still achieve approx. 60% of the yield of an optimally oriented system with a roof pitch of 35 °.
- Weather conditions
- A cloudless day with clear and cool air is necessary to achieve a top yield. A peak energy yield would be achieved if a nocturnal rain shower washed the aerosols out of the atmosphere - which contributes to an increase in the direct radiation on the module surface, and a steady wind also ensures that the modules are cooled. In contrast, high temperatures lead to a decrease in the efficiency of the solar cells. Clouds, haze and fog affect the irradiation, especially when the sun is low.
- Height of the day sheet
- In summer, the length of the clear day increases the closer a system is to the pole . This means that the differences in daily yields between winter and summer decrease towards the equator. In Germany the max. Difference in day lengths on the days of the summer solstice and winter solstice 1:23 h, measured at the northernmost point ( List on Sylt ) and southernmost point ( Haldenwanger Eck ). Even on long summer days, the sun is lower in the north than in the south at midday.
- This has the following effects on the electricity yield:
- Since the sun is usually higher in the south than in the north, the intensity of the solar radiation and thus the electricity yield is significantly higher there than in the north. The fact that the duration of sunshine is longer in the north than in the south does not have a positive effect (at least in the case of permanently installed systems). In the hours after sunrise and before sunset, the sun is north of the solar system on the long summer days, and the solar surfaces are in the shade or are only grazed by the sun's rays - while the lower position of the sun is in the midday hours and then the shorter day length in autumn - and the winter months significantly reduce yields.
- Age of the photovoltaic system
- The degradation of solar modules leads to an age-related loss of performance over the course of their service life.
In the last sunny years in particular, there was even yields of over 1200 kWh per year and installed kW peak in southern Germany , which corresponds to a degree of utilization of around 14%. Considerations on the space requirements of photovoltaic systems can be found in the chapter " Potential " of the article Photovoltaics . However, the higher values in particular can only be achieved in good locations (predominantly in southern Germany or in mountainous areas as well as on Rügen ) for open-air and roof-top systems. Depending on the local climatic conditions , the value can also be slightly higher or lower and, depending on the weather, differ from year to year by up to 20 percent from the previous year's results. Location-dependent shading, self-shading and short-term shading can lead to yield losses. Location-dependent shading can occur from flagpoles, trees and neighboring buildings. Soiling such as leaf deposits, bird droppings, layers of dust, hailstones and snow are assigned to short-term shading.
Further losses lie in the cabling - too thin cross-sections or long cable runs noticeably reduce the yield of a system. You can measure already installed strings with the help of so-called characteristic curve measuring devices or analyzers (TRI-KA, PVPM). In some cases, the income from systems can be viewed directly on the Internet (see web links). There are also numerous manufacturers of PV simulation programs that can calculate yields before the system is installed.
The overall efficiency of a system depends on the components used. The core components are the solar cells and the inverters . The latter in particular have seen improvements in efficiency and reliability thanks to the increased expansion of photovoltaics through state funding ( EEG ).
Up-to-date feed-in data (for Germany) for the years from 2011 onwards are freely accessible on the Internet.
Pollution and cleaning
As on any surface outdoors (comparable to windows, walls, roofs, cars, etc.), different substances can also settle on photovoltaic systems. These include, for example, leaves and needles, sticky organic secretions from lice, pollen and seeds, soot from heaters and engines, dust and organic substances from stall ventilation (from agriculture in general), feed dusts from agriculture, growth of pioneer plants such as lichens, algae and Mosses and bird droppings. The “self-cleaning” of the modules (through rain and snow) is often not enough to keep the system clean for years or decades. Because dirt is deposited on the photovoltaic system, less solar energy reaches the module. The pollution acts like a shadow and a loss of yield is the result. This loss of yield can be up to 30% in systems with extreme pollution (e.g. stable exhaust air). In the German federal average, a dirt-related yield loss of 6–8% is assumed. In order to ensure constant yields, a large number of systems would have to be regularly checked for contamination and, if necessary, cleaned. The state of the art is the use of fully desalinated water ( demineralized water ) to avoid limescale stains. Water-bearing telescopic poles are used as a further aid for cleaning. The cleaning should be carried out gently in order not to damage the module surface - for example by using scratchy cleaning equipment (change in the gloss structure of the surface). The manufacturer's instructions for cleaning must be observed. In addition, modules should not be entered at all and roofs should only be entered with appropriate safety precautions.
lightning strike
If the building has lightning protection, a photovoltaic system must be integrated into the lightning protection system.
When external lightning protection shall be taken of:
- Since modules, brackets and any cable trays are electrically conductive, they must be installed at a distance from the lightning protection equipment.
- Air-termination rods or the like can cast shadows and thus reduce the yield of the PV system. This complicates the planning of an external lightning protection concept.
If the PV system itself is part of the lightning protection or the separation from the external lightning protection cannot be avoided, the following must be observed when installing the internal lightning protection :
- DC lines from the PV generator that penetrate the building envelope require an arrester with direct current capability at the penetration point. Since the PV generator can be live in the event of a trip (usually during the day when the sun is shining), the direct current would cause a permanent arc in the spark gap of the arrester. This could result in a fire.
In order to avoid indirect lightning damage to the system, the principle of avoiding large spanned areas (see electromagnetic induction ) applies, i.e. the plus and minus lines should be parallel as far as possible.
Dangers from a photovoltaic system
As with any structural system , construction, operation and dismantling involve dangers. However, these do not differ from those of other civil engineering systems (e.g. cable ducts in open-air systems).
However, peculiarities must be taken into account with the following dangers:
Fire hazard
If high contact resistances occur in parts of the PV system (e.g. modules, plug-in contacts, distributors, ...), cable and smoldering fires can occur. In the event of fires that were not caused by the PV system, it can also affect the extinguishing work. The special feature of the extinguishing is that the system is still live even when it is switched off, since the modules themselves are the voltage sources.
In Germany, switch disconnectors in the inverter and generator junction box have been required by law since June 1, 2006 , but there is no state requirement to disconnect the modules themselves from voltage.
In 2010, the German Fire Brigade Association issued recommendations for action that specifically address photovoltaic systems and explain the minimum clearances that must also be observed for all other electrical low-voltage systems. A position paper also calls for a better shutdown device for photovoltaic systems from the industry . The procedure in the event of fire is regulated in VDE 0132 "Fire fighting in electrical systems" . Special training courses on fire protection are carried out for the fire brigades, and fire brigades and insurers are now of the opinion that photovoltaic systems do not represent a particularly increased risk of fire compared to other technical systems.
Electric shock
A PV generator is always live, even when the system is not in operation (comparable to a battery system). The installation or maintenance of a solar system can include working under voltage . This also requires specialist knowledge of high DC voltages, as can also occur in battery systems.
For small, off-grid PV systems, protective extra-low voltage is a suitable type of protection against dangerous body currents. In order to achieve the safety extra-low voltage, modules are connected in parallel. However, this leads to proportionally higher currents. This possibility of energy transfer in larger systems for grid feed would lead to large losses in the lines or disproportionately thick line cross-sections. This type of protection is therefore not practical for grid-connected PV systems.
Recently a warning sign about the presence of a PV system has been found on houses in Austria near the entrance, probably as a hazard warning to the fire brigade and crane drivers.
standardization
With the increasing spread of photovoltaics and its integration into existing structures and techniques of energy supply and distribution, the need for general standards and specifications for photovoltaic components and systems increases.
The standards are drawn up by the International Electrotechnical Commission ( IEC ) and adopted as a European standard by the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization ( CENELEC ). The DKE implements them in the German set of standards with standard projects for example on: solar cells, solar panels, verification of simulation programs (test data sets), connectors for PV systems, photovoltaics in construction, overall efficiency of inverters, data sheet information for inverters. In addition, there are standards for the following areas: measurement methods, requirements for the construction of PV products, test sequences for approval tests, requirements for electrical safety.
The association of electrical engineering, electronics and information technology specifies the regulations to be observed for the construction of photovoltaic systems; since August 2011 there are For example, the application rule "VDE-AR-N 4105: 2011-08 generating plants on the low-voltage network, minimum technical requirements for connection and parallel operation of generating plants on the low-voltage network".
Solar system and monument protection
Solar systems and monument protection are in a tense relationship, since solar systems on the roof usually interfere with the substance of the building and / or its visual effect. Since resource conservation and sustainability are part of the legal mandate of monument protection and monument preservation, there have been efforts of monument preservation for many years (as of 2010) to find sensible solutions. In order to erect solar systems on a listed building, it is often necessary to deal intensively with project and solution proposals for the integration of solar modules. In case of doubt, a judicial clarification may be necessary. In the last few years (as of 2012) the tendency of the jurisprudence - depending on the concrete aspects - is no longer unreservedly friendly to monument protection.
Large systems in DACH
Germany
Senftenberg solar complex with an output of 168 MWp.
See: List of solar power plants in Germany
Austria
Austria's (as of 2014) largest PVA on the roof of a building went online on November 17, 2014 in Weißenstein , Villach-Land, Carinthia. 42,000 m 2 of PV modules with a 3,400 kilowatt peak and an expected annual yield of 3,740 MWh were installed on the roof of the Hofer KG logistics center. The (co-) installer and operator is HHB Energie, Vienna.
Austria's largest free-standing PV system has been working in Flachau on a 3.5 hectare south-facing slope at an altitude of 1,200 meters on the Eibenberg since around October 2015 . Operators are the rural property owners. The concept dates back to 2010, the funding from 2013. The facility is used to feed into Flachau's local network by means of a 1.4 km long underground cable. Sheep graze in the same area. The planned annual yield is around 3.7 million kWh .
In the Weinviertel (Lower Austria), Austria’s largest PVA from OMV and Verbund is planned to go into operation at the end of 2020. On an area of 20 ha with a planned 18 GWh annual yield.
Switzerland
The largest photovoltaic system in Switzerland was installed in warehouses in Estavayer-le-Lac . It has an area of 49,000 m² and an output of 8.3 megawatts peak. The annual production is around 8 GWh.
The largest solar system on a single roof in Switzerland is on the roof of a logistics center in Perlen, Lucerne . It has an expected output of 6.46 megawatts peak and annually produces as much electricity as 2150 two-person households consume.
See also
literature
- Heinrich Häberlin: Photovoltaics - electricity from sunlight for integrated networks and island systems. AZ, Aarau / VDE, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-905214-53-6 (AZ) / ISBN 978-3-8007-3003-2 (VDE).
- Ralf Haselhuhn, Claudia Hemmerle u. a .: Photovoltaic systems - guidelines for electricians, roofers, specialist planners, architects and builders. 3rd edition, German Society for Solar Energy e. V., Berlin 2008, ISBN 3-00-023734-8 .
- Martin Kaltschmitt , Wolfgang Streicher, Andreas Wiese (eds.): Renewable energies. System technology, economy, environmental aspects . Springer Vieweg, Berlin / Heidelberg 2013, ISBN 978-3-642-03248-6 .
- Konrad Mertens: Photovoltaics. 3rd revised edition. Hanser Fachbuchverlag, 2015, ISBN 978-3-446-44232-0 .
- Volker Quaschning : Regenerative Energy Systems. 9th edition. Hanser, Munich 2015, ISBN 978-3-446-44267-2 .
- Volker Quaschning: Renewable energies and climate protection. 4th edition. Hanser, Munich 2018, ISBN 978-3-446-45703-4 .
- Hans-Günther Wagemann, Heinz Eschrich: Photovoltaics - solar radiation and semiconductor properties, solar cell concepts and tasks . 2nd edition, Vieweg + Teubner, Wiesbaden 2010, ISBN 978-3-8348-0637-6 .
- Viktor Wesselak , Thomas Schabbach , Thomas Link, Joachim Fischer: Handbuch Regenerative Energietechnik , 3rd updated and expanded edition, Berlin / Heidelberg 2017, ISBN 978-3-662-53072-6 .
Web links
- Photovoltaics - innovations in solar cells and modules (BINE information service)
- Energy advice photovoltaic consumer center
Individual evidence
- ↑ Renewable Energy Sources Act - EEG 2017 § 3 Definitions
- ↑ a b Renewable Energy Sources Act - EEG 2017 § 9 Technical Specifications
- ↑ Omar Ellabban, Haitham Abu-Rub, Frede Blaabjerg, Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 39, (2014), 748–764, p. 754, doi : 10.1016 / j.rser.2014.07.113 .
- ↑ China builds world's biggest solar farm in journey to become green superpower . In: The Guardian , January 19, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
- ↑ VDE-AR-N 4105: 2011-08 - Technical connection conditions. VDE, August 1, 2011, accessed on July 10, 2016 .
- ↑ Damage to solar systems: The roofer must demonstrate his competence (Dachbaumagazin; February 27, 2011)
- ↑ Solar module support plates - Avoid damage from incorrect installation of solar systems
- ↑ Swiss photovoltaic system on the grid for 35 years . In: PV-Magazine , May 9, 2017. Retrieved May 9, 2017.
- ↑ Photovoltaic on-roof exhibition Heiden (Münsterland): the experience you can touch ( memento from December 23, 2014 in the Internet Archive ). B&W Energy website. Retrieved December 23, 2014.
- ↑ Lieberose solar park - model project for the ecological use of former military areas.
- ↑ LG NeON ™ 2nd LG, accessed on July 6, 2018 .
- ↑ Viktor Wesselak , Thomas Schabbach , Thomas Link, Joachim Fischer, Regenerative Energietechnik , Berlin / Heidelberg 2013, p. 130
- ↑ Konrad Mertens, photovoltaics. Textbook on basics, technology and practice , Munich 2015, p. 59.
- ↑ Shading with a photovoltaic system
- ↑ Energy Charts. Fraunhofer ISE , accessed on November 15, 2016 .
- ↑ EEX Transparency (German). (No longer available online.) European Energy Exchange , archived from the original on November 15, 2016 ; Retrieved on November 15, 2016 (up-to-the-minute information on the feed-in of electricity in Germany (share of PV and wind power and from other "conventional" sources)). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.
- ↑ Häberlin, H. and Renken, Ch. (1999): Gradual reduction in the energy yield of grid-connected photovoltaic systems as a result of permanent pollution. ( Memento from February 1, 2012 in the Internet Archive ). (PDF, 551 kB) Publication for the 14th Photovoltaic Solar Energy Symposium March 1999, accessed on May 23, 2010.
- ↑ Boie, Johannes (2009): A beam man for the sun . In: Süddeutsche Zeitung, Munich, Economy (from October 1, 2009)
- ↑ suncleX.com: Soiling of PV systems and solar systems ( Memento from February 22, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) , accessed on May 22, 2010.
- ↑ Good to know ... The photovoltaic system ( Memento from May 20, 2014 in the Internet Archive ), accessed on March 5, 2011
- ↑ Information portal photovoltaic systems ( Memento from November 28, 2010 in the Internet Archive ), German Fire Brigade Association
- ↑ "Fire brigade calls for shutdown mechanism for PV systems" ( Memento from October 28, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 24 kB), DFV - position paper, November 8, 2010
- ↑ Fire fighting in the area of electrical systems (VDE 0132), Walter Kathrein, from May 14, 2009, accessed on March 5, 2011
- ↑ Photovoltaic fire protection - facts instead of phantoms - results from expert workshop. Fraunhofer ISE, February 7, 2013, accessed on February 7, 2014 .
- ↑ VDE regulation sets the course for the improved integration of decentralized generation systems into the power grid , VDE website
- ↑ Tomke Lisa Menger: Article: Old substance meets new energy - Do solar systems affect monuments? In: www.energieagentur.nrw. EnergieAgentur.NRW, October 1, 2018, accessed on July 4, 2020 .
- ↑ Ulrike Roggenbuck, Ruth Klawun, Roswitha Kaiser: Worksheet 37: Solar systems and monument protection. Information from the Association of State Monument Preservators, prepared in spring 2010 by the construction technology working group. In: www.dnk.de. Association of State Monument Preservators in the Federal Republic of Germany, 2010, accessed on July 4, 2020 .
- ↑ Annette Stoppelkamp: Monument protection can be in harmony with renewable energies. Don't let that stop you from using the roof or the facade with solar energy! In: www.sfv.de. Solarenergie-Förderverein Deutschland eV (SFV) , June 24, 2020, accessed on July 4, 2020 .
- ^ Stefan Pützenbacher: Renewable energies vs. Monument protection. Does monument protection law conflict with environmental protection? In: publicus.boorberg.de. Publics (Richard Boorberg Verlag), February 15, 2012, accessed on July 4, 2020 (German).
- ↑ Austria's largest photovoltaic project on the roof of the Hofer branch in Carinthia goes online ots.at, November 16, 2015, accessed July 8, 2019.
- ↑ Austria's largest solar system in Flachau orf.at, April 15, 2016, accessed July 8, 2019.
- ^ Franz Brinek: Austria's largest photovoltaic system is being built in Flachau sn.at, August 11, 2015, accessed July 8, 2019.
- ↑ Weinviertel: Austria’s largest solar system planned orf.at, July 8, 2019, accessed July 8, 2019.
- ↑ https://www.ee-news.ch/de/solar/article/37481/aventron-erwerb-der-grossten-photovoltaikanlage-der-schweiz
- ↑ https://www.baublatt.ch/bauprojekte/neue-solaranlage-in-perlen-produziert-strom-fuer-ueber-2000-haushalte
