Traditional African Medicine

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A fortune teller in Rhumsiki in the northernmost province of Cameroon says true by interpreting the different locations of things such as freshwater crabs
Sub-Saharan Africa (UN Deinition)

Traditional African Medicine (TAM) comprises the indigenous medicine of the cultures of Africa , in the narrower sense of Sub-Saharan Africa . (The northern part of Africa, but also parts in the east and south-east of the continent must be considered separately. Since the borders of today's African states can be traced back to colonial affiliations, the border also runs across states ( Mali , Nigeria , Sudan ) in the east Ethiopia can also be seen mostly separately, where Cushitic , Amharic and Arab-Muslim traditional medicine overlap .)

TAM combines indigenous, traditional herbal knowledge with African spirituality. It is used by obstetricians, fortune tellers, spiritual healers and herbalists. According to the WHO , up to 80% of the population in some Asian and African countries use such forms of medicine. The WHO has been promoting traditional medicine in developing countries since 1977 in order to improve primary health care for the rural population. TM is culturally and socially integrated, available everywhere and cheap.

In contrast to theoretically complex medical traditions like those of China or India, the TAM has no written, formulated basis and is only based on regional traditions. Traditional African medicine users believe that they can treat conditions such as asthma , rheumatism , cancer , high blood pressure , malaria , cholera , fever , eczema and other skin diseases, healing of wounds and burns , urinary tract infections , benign prostate growths , epilepsy , depression , anxiety disorders and other psychiatric disorders disease, gout , infertility and most STDs can be treated and cured. They are of particularly great social importance in the case of an unfulfilled desire to have children and pregnancy-related problems. Traditional midwives are often preferred to trained midwives due to their wide and inexpensive availability and profound knowledge .

TAM's problems are the lack of regulation, control and quality systems. Most healers, who are mostly ignorant of reading, do not keep patient records. Their knowledge is often secret and based on undefined or mystical principles; the methods do not develop scientifically. Cooperation with doctors is rejected on both sides. The holistic approach that traditional African medicine takes overlaps with non-medical ideas. This creates dangers such as the persecution of albinos , female genital mutilation or the abandonment of effective medicine, e.g. B. in the treatment of the HI virus .

history

Colonial era

In the past, science considered the methods of TAM to be primitive and backward-looking. In the time of the modern colonization of Africa, the healers of the TAM were persecuted because they were viewed as magicians by many colonizing states and their authorities. Sorcery and magic were fought, the practice of TAM prohibited. During this time, has also been attempted to trade with herbal medicine to control. The colonial administration in Tanzania passed the Witchcraft Ordinance in 1929 , which banned the activity of healers and was not repealed until 1968. Even after Mozambique's independence (1975), TAM rulers who were brought up under the influence of the former colonial rulers were imprisoned in re-education camps . In the course of the colonization of Africa and Christian proselytizing , general medical hospitals were built by the colonial rulers and missionaries . This was hoped to fight widespread diseases. Little has been done, however, to investigate the reasons for TAM's practices in this regard , as most foreigners believed these were pagan superstitions and could only be eliminated through the use of Western methods . In times of crisis, the resistance to the suppression of the TAM was stronger because people then tend to flee into the supernatural . Although traditional healers made a great contribution to maintaining basic health needs, they were severely avoided by doctors and health workers.

Postcolonial time

A nurse at the hospital in Koidu Sierra Leone speaks to patients.

Many Africans use traditional medicine to this day. Often this is done in secret, because open loyalty equates to a rejection of Western biomedicine, Christianity, capitalism, and the full range of Western imports. Traditional providers are not protected by the law; if they make mistakes, they risk prosecution as criminals or witches. Chronic, non-infectious diseases in particular are a domain of TAM. In a state-funded traditional herbal medicine clinic in Kenya that keeps medical records, 20% of the patients complained of nervous diseases, 14% of respiratory diseases, 13% of abdominal complaints, 11% of bone and joint problems and 11% of cardiovascular symptoms.

In the last few years (since around 2000), the treatment methods and remedies applied in TAM have been valued more in research and science. The developing countries were also increasingly aware of the high costs of modern health systems and the technologies required for them, as well as the resulting dependencies. These findings have recently led to a desire to incorporate TAM into national health systems. As part of these efforts, a healer practicing TAM has opened a first 48-bed hospital in Kwa-Mhlanga South Africa , which combines the methods of TAM with those of homeopathy , iris diagnosis and even traditional Chinese medicine . However, there is a risk that the sophisticated technologies used in 'modern' medicine will destroy the deeply rooted cultural values ​​of Africa. In fact, many healers now incorporate medical paraphernalia into their practices in a more or less unregulated manner.

diagnosis

Africans traditionally distinguish between "natural diseases" caused by parasites, weather changes, poison, miasms , or accidents from those caused by magical people, gods or spirits. It is common knowledge that malaria epidemics are related to the weather, that venereal diseases are more common in polygamous partners, that worm infections occur through parasites, etc., although it remains unclear how many of these disease theories have changed through contact with whites. Such diseases (malaria, diarrhea, worm infections, injuries, etc.) can optionally be treated by doctors or TAM healers. Diagnoses and treatment methods of the second group are essentially based on spiritual viewpoints that are alien to Western doctors, such as angry ancestors, taboos that have been broken , and evil magic by enemies. Female infertility is also part of it, as well as high child mortality or high loss of pets in a family. The traditional healers are more responsible for such cases, whereby the patients are very flexible and often switch between the offers. With the Luo in Kenya, it is customary to first go to a government health facility for initial measures and thus gain time to ask the medicine man about the cause of the disease. Certain diseases (mental illnesses, epilepsy, abdominal pain, pregnancy problems, infertility) are not at all accessible to modern medicine.

TAM assumes that "no one gets sick without a sufficient reason". The healer's search for the causative "who", before the search for the "what", and the answers to it, come from the cosmological belief of the people.

When a person becomes ill, the healer uses incantations to diagnose . Incantations are viewed as a route to mystical and cosmic sources. Clairvoyance is used when the cause cannot be easily identified. If clairvoyance is required, the healer sometimes instructs the sick person to see a clairvoyant. Contact with the spirit world often requires not only medication but also sacrifice.

treatment

The traditional healer uses a large number of different forms of treatment, from magic to biomedical methods such as fasting , diet , herbal cures , baths , massages , but also surgical interventions. Migraines , coughs , abscesses , pleurisy , are often treated with cupping , followed by herbal compresses and subsequent administration of herbal drugs. Occasionally, animals are used to relocate the disease. Some cultures apply hot herbal gruel around the sick person's eyes to cure headaches. Malaria is cured by drinking a decoction as well as steaming a herbal mixture. A steam bath is often used to cure fever . Some diseases are cured by inducing vomiting or using emetics . For example, raw beef is dipped in the drink of an alcoholic to cure vomiting and nausea . From the Bay of Benin is known that the natives the fat of Abgottschlange used to gout and rheumatism to heal and also for the relief of chest pain by rubbing into the skin it was used. Small surgical interventions can be used to extract milk teeth that appear too early (allegedly the cause of diarrhea and vomiting), to remove a chronically inflamed uvula , or to suck the evil eye out of the patient's body. Also Craniotomies headaches, with remarkable skills of surgeons in suture technique and antisepsis are known. Ritual circumcisions and genital mutilation are also the tasks of specialized TAM providers.

Even without knowing the infectious causes, the Abaluyia have identified some diseases such as smallpox , chickenpox , plague , and scabies , but also (incorrectly) epilepsy as contagious and responded by isolating the sick, as well as the Kikuyu . From a scientific point of view is incomprehensible other hand, their customs , witches and malicious magicians to lynch .

Medicinal plants

African stink wood ( Prunus africana ) with torn bark

Medicinal plants are the backbone of traditional medicine in Africa. These medicinal plants are also traded, but mostly come from the immediate living environment of the respective healer. Many of the plant species are threatened by overexploitation. Of the approximately 6,400 plants found in tropical Africa, more than 4,000 are used for medicinal purposes. The plants often have symbolic and spiritual meaning as well. For example, leaves, seeds and twigs that are white, black or red have a special symbolic or magical meaning and have special properties.

Examples:

  • Pygeum ( Prunus africana , also African plum ): The African plum is not only used in TAM. It is used worldwide as a remedy for mild to moderate benign prostate enlargement . It makes it easier to empty your bladder and soothes urinary tract inflammation and reduces cholesterol build-up. The TAM uses the bark for tea, while it is otherwise administered in powder , tincture or pill form. Pygeum has been marketed in Europe since 1970. Pygeum is grown in large quantities in Madagascar and Cameroon.
  • The wild violet tree , Securidaca longepedunculata can be found in almost all areas of Africa, the uses are different. In Tanzania , the dried bark and roots are administered daily for two weeks as a laxative for nervous disorders. In East Africa , the dried leaves of the plant are used to treat wounds and ulcers, coughs, venereal diseases and snakebites. In Malawi , the fresh leaves are also used for wounds and ulcers, coughs, venereal diseases and snakebites, as well as for schistosomiasis , and the dried leaves for headaches . In other regions parts of the plant are used as a remedy for skin diseases , malaria, impotence , epilepsy and also as an aphrodisiac .

In the study ACE Inhibitor Activity of Nutritive Plants in Kwa-Zulu Natal (ACE suppressive effect of crops in Kwa-Zulu Natal) by Irene Mackraj and S. Ramesar, Department of Biological and Conservation Sciences; University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Durban, South Africa they examined the effectiveness of 16 plants in the region. As a result, they found that eight of these plants may be of value in treating high blood pressure. These plants, known locally as muti , are also used by TAM healers.

plant description
Adansonia digitata African baobab tree
Amaranthus dubius Vegetable plant Amaranthoideae
Amaranthus hybridus Green-eared amaranth
Amaranthus spinosus Thorny foxtail
Asystasia gangetica Asystasia gangetica . Also used in Nigerian folk medicine for asthma
Centella asiatica Indian pennywort
Ceratotheca triloba African wild foxglove
Chenopodium album also white goosefoot , an annual herbaceous plant
Emex australis Southern Emex
Galinsoga parviflora Small-flowered button herb
Justicia flava also called yellow justicia , is used for fever and cough.
Moringa ovalifolia Moringa is one of the most nutritious plants and is used for over 300 diseases.
Momordica balsamina as balsam pear and Jerusalem apple known
Oxygonum sinuatum rampant herb, also called dammer
Physalis viscosa Cape gooseberry
Senna occidentalis Coffee cassia , Cassia occidentalis , fruit used for coffee , also called poison herb
Solanum nodiflorum also known as Glossy Nightshade
Tulbaghia violacea a bulbous plant with hairless leaves, garlic caplily , often referred to as wild garlic.
  1. ↑ a b c d see also List of Vascular Plants in Burkina Faso

Of these 16 plant species, positive effects were found in Amaranthus dubius, Amaranthus hybridus, Asystasia gangetica, Galinsoga parviflora, Justicia flava, Oxygonum sinuatum, Physalis viscosa, and Tulbaghia violacea , the latter being the most promising plants in terms of lowering blood pressure.

spirituality

A famous Bendik clairvoyant, near Iwol, in southeast Senegal (West Africa): He predicts the future by checking the color of the innards of a sacrificed chicken

"The person who is ill is taken to a witchdoctor. The witchdoctor starts talking about somebody bewitching the sick man. He states that the person responsible for his illness is the neighbor. The witchdoctor plucks out what seems to be snake ribs from the ill man's head. Under instructions, the family of the ill man unesrths several bones, some teeth and hair from their doorstep. The witchdoctor says all these are works of the neighbor ... One white bull, a white sheep and two white cocks are offered as a fee to the witchdoctor. Instructions are given that food should be offered to their ancestors two days on full moons. Some herbs are part of the medication. "

- Young Kenyan, quoted in Swiderski

Some healers use magic formulas and incantations or magic words in their treatments. The aim is to soften the gods or the spirits of the ancestors, or to ward off an evil human spell. The dualistic nature of body and soul, matter and spirit, and their mutual influence are also seen as a form of magic. Richard Onwuanibe calls the following magic "extrasensory trojection" (for example: supernatural influence): The Igbo in Nigeria. believe that the healer can bring something into the body of distant people that will cause disease in them. The Igbos refer to this as egba ogwu . In order to remove what is causing the disease, the intervention of another healer is usually necessary, who effects this through an incision in the sick person. The magic analogy , in which a model of the victim is made, is better known. Actions directed against the model are transferred to the victim, as in Haitian voodoo . In cases where the dead harass the living and cause disease, healers often prescribe a ransom or indemnity sacrifice to calm the deceased so that they do not further disturb the living, especially children.

The Kalahari Desert (shown in red) and the surrounding Kalahari Basin (in orange)

Healing is viewed as a religious act in African cultures. The healing process is therefore often viewed as an invocation to God, because ultimately only God can not only impose a disease but also heal it.

The ! Kung in the Kalahari believe that the Great God Hishe created all things and therefore rules over all sickness and death. Hishe grants some the mystical powers to heal illness. Hishe shows himself to these healers in dreams and hallucinations, giving them the power to heal. Because this God is kind enough to give these individuals the power to heal, they are expected to heal for free. The! Kung healers practice their art through a tribal dance .

Loma Marshall, who went on several expeditions to South West Africa with her family to study the! Kung and wrote two books about it, describes the ceremonial healing dance as follows:

Not only can the sick be healed with the dance, it can also avert impending misfortune and evil. The! Kung believe that the Great God can send gauwa or gauwas with illness for someone at any time , and that these beings are lurking to take their chance. The healers fight them in their trance, chase them away and protect people. It is common for several healers to dance at the same time. For the healing they go into a trance, the depth of which changes during the course of the ceremony ... When a healer begins, he leaves the line of dancers and bends over the person he wants to heal, continuing to sing. Sometimes the healer also goes to the other people present, including the children. He puts one hand on the person's chest and the other on his back and starts moving his hands. The! Kung believe that he is thereby pulling the existing or possible illness out of the person and pulling it into himself via his arms. Finally, he throws his arms away to hurl the disease back into the darkness to the gauwa 'or gauwasi' away, uttering a shrill, sharp "Kai Kai Kai" scream.

healer

A healer in South Africa

The training and activities of the TAM are not regulated. Most traditional healers have no school education at all. Therefore, they do not keep medical records in the usual sense. With a few exceptions, they work at home and offer no hospital-like structures. With the exception of the obstetricians, they are almost always male, older, followers of traditional religions, and treat the sick on a part-time basis. Among the Maasai there is one healer for every 40-56 inhabitants, and an ordinary healer sees an average of only two patients a week. However, there is a hierarchy of higher-ranking healers up to the top medicine man of the tribe. They received their knowledge of medicinal plants and their effects on people from their ancestors. They protect therapeutic knowledge by keeping it secret. They have a moral obligation to keep their patients' secrets.

Caesarean section successfully performed by local healers in Kahura, Uganda. Report by the British doctor RW Felkin from 1879.

The TAM healers specialize in individual areas of their profession. In Kenya there are herbalists, fortune tellers, guardians and counter-wizards, traditional surgeons and obstetricians, bone setters, dentists , circumcisers , manufacturers of love potions , and others. Referrals to other TAM healers or doctors are therefore not uncommon. The Inyangas in Swaziland are herbalists. Are widely used healing through meditative spirit possession , which is about the Sangoma in southern Africa and the Pepo practice -Heiler on the East African coast. There are now also healers who practice methods from the West such as osteopathy , chiropractic or obstetrics .

Herbalists are becoming increasingly popular in Africa, with a growing medicinal herb trading marketplace in Durban attracting between 700,000 and 900,000 traders a year from Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa. Smaller trading markets are in practically every location. Obstetricians also make extensive use of native plants to support childbirth. Practically every healer produces his medicine individually; in important countries like Nigeria there are no formalized teaching facilities and no quality control of their work.

In the urban areas of Ghana, the healers sometimes also adopt alternative medical methods from the West such as homeopathy , chiropractic , acupuncture , reflexology, etc. However, two thirds are pure herbalists, 17% obstetricians, and 13% also offer traditional spiritual and psychological services .

education

Most healers acquire the profession from their ancestors or do informal teaching with a local healer. Some healers have been patients themselves and after recovery choose to become healers. Isolated healers report having experienced a spiritual calling from God or an ancestor. In some cultures we know agwu nshi , the spirit of clairvoyance, through which the healer receives his enlightenment. Training by an experienced healer, who is paid for it, is also possible. Before starting one's own work, there is an extensive ritual initiation lasting several days. In some regions, such as Cameroon, clan and tribal leaders are at the same time healers by virtue of their position. If a healer is recognized, he is considered half human and half spirit. He then has the power to mediate between humans and the supernatural, in order to include its spiritual power in the healing processes.

pay

Payment can be in cash or in kind, such as a chicken or a goat. Payment is mostly made after the therapy. Some (about one in five among the Maasai) do not ask for payment until the treatment is successful. The form of remuneration has changed over time. Today, many healers, especially in urban areas, demand payment in the form of money, whereas in the past they received goods for it. The prices are set individually by the healer. In the country he is often community supported and works for free. On the other hand, there are also fraudulent offers to treat AIDS or incurable cancer for "colossal amounts of money". Many healers trade in the plants that they have taken from nature in the local markets.

meaning

Sub-Saharan Africa has around 700 million inhabitants, with an average life expectancy of 49 years. The ten most common illnesses and also major causes of death are AIDS, malaria, respiratory infections, communicable childhood diseases, diarrhea, birth-related problems in mother and child, neuropsychiatric illnesses, accidents, and acts of violence. Health expenditure per capita per year will be 109 $ (2002). The cost of the TAM is less than 5% of this.

The TAM healers and their remedies, which are made from indigenous plants, are vital to health care. The World Health Organization ( WHO ) states that in some African and Asian countries the basic medical care of up to 80% of the population depends on traditional medicine. Depending on the region, there are 25-100 times more healers than doctors. For example, in Swaziland one healer works for every 110 people, but only one doctor for every 10,000 people. In Ghana there is one doctor per 20,000 and one traditional healer per 200 people. The continent has only about 800,000 scientifically trained doctors, pharmacists and midwives. According to Francois Gasengayire , an expert in biodiversity and traditional medicine who works for the IDRC in Nairobi, there is one healer for every 200 inhabitants in southern Africa.

The information in the following table shows values ​​that only have historical significance, since since then both the population and the number of people working in the health professions, as well as the social structures (rural exodus), wars, civil wars, famines, etc. have changed significantly.

country Doctors / patient TMP healer / patient source Comments from WHO reports around 2010
Botswana k. A. 2,000, 1990 Moitsidi, 1993 2.031 million inhabitants,

68% city. Areas

Eritrea 120 (estimated), 1995 k. A. Government of Eritrea, 1995 4.401 million inhabitants,

21% urb. Areas

Ethiopia 1: 33,000 k. A. World Bank, 1993 77,431 million inhabitants,

16% in urban areas (2005)

Kenya 1: 7.142 (total) 1: 987 (Mathare urban regions) World Bank, 1993 34.256 million pop.,

42% urb. Areas

1: 833 (urban regions mathare) 1: 378 (rural regions-Kilungu) Good. 1987 k. A.
Lesotho k. A. Licensed (estimate) 8,579, 1991 Scott et al. 1996 2.194 million inhabitants,

28% in urban areas

Madagascar 1: 8333 k. A. World Bank, 1993 18.808 million inhabitants,

27% in urban areas

Malawi 1: 50,000 1: 138 Msonthi and Seyani, 1986 k. A.
Mozambique 1: 50,000 1: 200 Green et al. 1994 k. A.
Namibia k. A. 1: 1,000 (Katutura)

1: 500 (Cuvelai) 1: 300 (Caprivi)

Lumpkin, 1994
Zambia 1: 11,000 k. A. World Bank, 1993 k. A.
Zimbabwe 1: 6.250 1: 234 (urban regions)

1: 956 (rural regions)

World Bank, 1993; Gelfand et al. 1985 k. A.
Somalia 1: 14,285 (total)

1: 2.149 (Mogadishu) 1: 54.213 (Central Region) 1: 216.539 (Sanag)

k. A. World Bank, 1993; Elmi et al. 1983 9.331 million inhabitants,

City Regions 41%

South Africa 1: 1,639 (total)

1: 17,400 (tribal areas)

1: 700-1.200 (Venda) World Bank, 1993 (Venda and Overall), Savage, 1985 * Arnold and Gulumian, 1987 * (Homeland areas) k. A.
Sudan before the split 1: 11,000 k. A. World Bank, 1993 .43.552 million pop.
Swaziland 1: 10,000 !: 100 Green, 1985; Hoff and Maseko, 1986 1.118 million pop.

21% in urban areas

Tanzania 1: 33,000 1: 350-450 in Dar es Salaem World Bank, 1993; Swantz, 1984 44.841 million inhabitants,

27% in urb. Areas

Uganda 1: 25,000 1: 708 World Bank, 1993; Amai, 1997 33.425 million inhabitants,

33% in urban areas

Medicines and treatments with medical devices are far too expensive for most Africans and also not available. Many African communities can not afford the high cost of pharmaceuticals and, even if they are affordable, cannot get them quickly enough. Hence, TAM healers are their only medical help even with serious illnesses like AIDS . Sekagya Yahaya Hills, who works as a dentist and TMA healer in Uganda , summed up the role of the healer as follows: "As traditional healers, we are the most trusted and accessible health care providers in our communities. We have varied and valuable experience in treating AIDS-related illness and accept the great responsibility of continuing to do so ". ("As traditional healers, we are the most accessible and most trusted health care providers in our communities. We have diverse and valuable experiences in treating AIDS-related diseases and we take a great responsibility to continue to do so to do".)

In addition, 'Western' medicine removes Africans from their culture and tradition and forces them into a scheme with which they are not familiar. However, family and traditions are of paramount importance to Africans. They do not receive the spiritual healing required by their culture and traditional worldview. The African Union has declared 2001-2010 the Decade of Traditional African Medicine, with the aim of producing "safe, efficacious, quality, and affordable traditional medicines available to the vast majority of the people" (safe, effective, affordable and high-quality traditional medicines Forms of medicine available to the vast majority of the population).

21 of the African countries (i.e. approx. Every second) regulate the TAM and other complementary medical fields by law: Equatorial Guinea , Ethiopia , Burundi , Ivory Coast , Gambia , Ghana , Guinea , DR Congo , Lesotho , Liberia , Madagascar , Malawi , Mali , Mauritius , Namibia , Nigeria , Senegal , Sierra Leone , Zimbabwe , Swaziland , and Togo . These include state control bodies, expert commissions and national professional organizations for healers. However, TAM services are practically nowhere included in free health care; government spending in this sector is minimal. Other states have regulations on individual therapy directions.

In recent times the medicinal plants of Africa have received more attention. The pharmaceutical industry studies their active ingredients in order to use these active ingredients in the manufacture of medical preparations.

Dangers and opportunities

The holistic view of the human being, on which the TAM is based, offers expanded approaches to healing. This approach can also be found in holistic medicine .

literature

  • G. Bodeker, CK Ong, C. Grundy, G. Burford, K. Shein: WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine / Text Volume: WHO African Region. WHO Center for Health Development, Kobe 2005, ISBN 92-4-156286-2 .
  • Isaac Sindiga, Chacha Nyaigotti-Chacha, Mary Peter Kanunah (eds.): Traditional medicine in Africa. East African Educational Publishers / English Press, Nairobi 1995, ISBN 9966-46-548-0 .
  • Walter Bruchhausen: Salvation and misery out of the body. Body interventions in East African medicine. Würzburg medical history reports 24, 2005, pp. 82–98.

swell

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Ewald Wagner: Harar: Annotated bibliography on the literature on the city and Islam in Southeast Ethiopia. Verlag O. Harrassowitz, 2003, ISBN 3-447-04742-9 .
  2. ↑ a b Fact sheet No. 134: Traditional medicine. ( Memento of March 2, 2004 in the Internet Archive ) WHO, December 2008.
  3. ^ WHO 1979, after Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, p. 5.
  4. ^ A b J. Githae: Ethnomedical practice in Kenya: The case of the Karati Rural Service Center. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, pp. 55-63.
  5. ^ A. Versi: Cancer Cure from African Traditional Medicine Found. African Business, June 2001.
  6. ^ D. Krupa: 8 Plants From South Africa May Hold Potential For Treating High BP. ( Memento of the original from June 5, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. American Physiological Society press release, 2007. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.the-aps.org
  7. ↑ a b c d Chike Onyekaba: Conference of Healers: Traditional African Medicine. (PDF; 85 kB) ( Memento of the original from October 22, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Lecture at Crown Medical Center, Minneapolis, Nov. 13, 2008. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.health.state.mn.us
  8. ↑ O. Osowole et al. a .: A survey of treatment practices for febrile illnesses among traditional healers in the Nigerian middle belt zone. (PDF; 90 kB) Afr. J. Trad. CAM (2005) 2 (3), ISSN  0189-6016 , pp. 337-344.
  9. ↑ ND Shimelis, p Asticcioli u. a .: Researching accessible and affordable treatment for common dermatological problems in developing countries. An Ethiopian experience. In: International Journal of Dermatology . Volume 51, Number 7, July 2012, ISSN  1365-4632 , pp. 790-795. doi: 10.1111 / j.1365-4632.2011.05235.x . PMID 22715822 .
  10. ↑ J. Stromberg, S. Zielinski: Ten Threatened and Endangered Species Used in Traditional Medicine. Smithsonian.com, October 19, 2011.
  11. ^ GI Russo, S. Cimino et al. a .: Potential Efficacy of Some African Plants in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostate Cancer. In: Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry . [electronic publication before printing] May 2013, ISSN  1875-5607 . PMID 23713889 .
  12. ↑ Femi Oyebode: Thomas Adeoye Lambo OBE In: The Psychiatrist. (2004) 28, p. 469. doi: 10.1192 / pb.28.12.469
  13. ↑ a b N. Mngqundaniso, K. Peltzer: Traditional healers and nurses: a qualitative study on their role on sexually transmitted infections including HIV and AIDS in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. In: African journal of traditional, complementary, and alternative medicines: AJTCAM / African Networks on Ethnomedicines. Volume 5, Number 4, 2008, ISSN  0189-6016 , pp. 380-386. PMID 20161960 . PMC 2816575 (free full text).
  14. ↑ a b c d e f g h i D. Helwig: Traditional African medicine. 2010.
  15. ^ NE Joel-Lewis, KRG Lewis: Pan-african indigenous herbal medicine technology transfer. (PDF; 179 kB) ( Memento of the original from October 19, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Blackherbals.com 23 August 2010, p. 1. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.blackherbals.com
  16. ^ A b E. A. Kawango: Ethnomedical remedies and therapies in maternal and child health among the rural Luo. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, pp. 80-93.
  17. ↑ Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, p. 25.
  18. ↑ S. Bartel: Persecuted Albinos in Africa. ( Memento of the original from December 20, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Society for Threatened Peoples , December 2010. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gfbv.de
  19. ↑ Genital mutilation is a violation of human rights. Terre des femmes , 2000.
  20. ^ HIV / AIDS in South Africa. faces-afrikas.de, undated
  21. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Conserve Africa, 2002.
  22. ↑ a b c d e f g Bodeker et al., WHO Global Atlas 2005.
  23. ↑ a b Onwuanibe, p. 27.
  24. ↑ a b R. M. Swiderski: Confidence in traditional healers. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, pp. 40-54.
  25. ↑ a b c d I. Sindiga, MP Kanunah u. a .: Kikuyu traditional medicine. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, pp. 129-39.
  26. ↑ a b c d e Isaac Sindiga: Maasai traditional medicine. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. , 1995, pp. 94-107.
  27. ↑ Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, p. 20.
  28. ↑ Isaac Sindiga: Managing illness among the Luo. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, pp. 64-79.
  29. ↑ a b c d e Onwuanibe, p. 25.
  30. ↑ a b c Onwuanibe, p. 26.
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  32. ↑ S. Wandibba: Traditional medicine among the Abaluyia. In: Isaac Sindiga et al. a. (Ed.): Traditional medicine in Africa. 1995, pp. 117-128.
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