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{{Original research|date=September 2007}}
{{Messianic Judaism|sortby=Theology}}


The '''1930s''' were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the [[Great Depression]]. In [[East Asia]], the rise of [[militarism]] occurred.
Messianic Jewish theology is the study of [[God]] and [[Scripture]] from a [[Messianic Judaism]] ([[Christian]]) perspective.


In [[Western Europe]], [[Australia]] and the [[United States]], more progressive reforms occurred as opposed to the extreme measures sought elsewhere. [[Roosevelt's New Deal]] attempted to use government spending to combat large-scale unemployment and severely negative growth. In Europe, multiple countries turn to authoritarian, nationalist, and [[fascist]] governments such as in [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Portugal]], and [[Spain]]. Multiple countries in Europe reject the borders established after the [[Treaty of Versailles]] such as Germany, [[Hungary]], Italy, and the [[Soviet Union]] which sought expanding their territories in the decade. In Africa, the last non-colonized country, Ethiopia is occupied by Italian military forces. Entities in the [[British Empire]] experience an increase in power being decentralized by the [[United Kingdom]] to them in 1931 with the [[Statute of Westminster]], while [[Mohandas Gandhi]] continues his peaceful protests to demand independence for [[India]] from British colonial rule. East Asia has a number of major conflicts, including civil war in [[China]] between communists and nationalists, the invasion and occupation of [[Manchuria]] by [[Japan]], and war between China and Japan.
==Core Doctrines==
==Technology==
Many technological advances occurred in the 1930s, including:
[[Image:Manhattan at Dusk by slonecker.jpg|thumb|110px|right| 1931: [[Empire State Building]] is opened.]]
* The world's tallest building (for the next 43 years) was constructed, opening as the ''[[Empire State Building]]'' on [[May 3]], [[1931]] in [[New York City]];
* On [[March 8]], [[1930]], the first [[frozen food]]s of [[Clarence Birdseye]] were sold in [[Ringfield, Massachusetts]], [[USA]].
* [[Ub Iwerks]] produced the first Color Sound Cartoon in 1930, a [[Flip the Frog]] cartoon entitled: "Fiddlesticks";
* In 1930, [[Warner Brothers]] released the first All-Talking All-Color wide-screen movie, [[Song of the Flame]]; in 1930 alone, Warner Brothers released ten All-Color All-Talking feature movies in [[Technicolor]] and scores of shorts and features with color sequences;
* [[Air mail]] service across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] began;
* [[Radar]] was invented, known as RDF (Radio Direction Finding), such as in British Patent GB593017 by Robert Watt in 1938;
* In 1933, the [[3M]] company marketed [[Scotch Tape]]; and
* In 1931, [[RCA Victor]] introduced the first long-playing phonograph record.
* In 1935, the British [[London and North Eastern Railway]] introduced the [[A4 Pacific]], designed by [[Sir Nigel Gresley]]. Just three years later, one of these, [[LNER Class A4 4468 Mallard|No. 4468 Mallard]], would become the fastest steam locomotive in the world.
*[[Nuclear fission]] discovered by [[Otto Hahn]], [[Lise Meitner]] and [[Fritz Strassman]] in 1939.
* The [[Volkswagen Beetle]], one of the best selling [[automobile]]s ever produced, had its roots in [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] in the late 1930s. The car would prove to be successful, and would be produced relatively unchanged until 2003.


==International issues==
* God - Messianics believe in the [[God of the Bible]], and that he is all-powerful, omni-present, eternal, exists outside of creation, and infinitely significant and benevolent. Some Messianics are open to [[Trinitarianism|trinitarian]] views of God<ref>{{cite web
*Rise of authoritarian, nationalist, and fascist regimes.
|url=http://www.umjc.net/content/view/19/58/
*The [[Great Depression]] seriously affects the economic, political, and social aspects of society across the world.
|title=Pro-trinitarian Messianic statement of faith
*Major conflict occurs across the world such as the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]], the [[Spanish Civil War]], the [[Chinese Civil War]], the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], and the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939.
}} </ref> while others demand strict monotheism.<ref>{{cite web
===Africa===
|url=http://www.mikvehyisrael.com/trinityone.html
*[[Ethiopia]] is invaded by [[Italy]] during the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] from 1935 to 1936 which results in the Italian occupation of Ethiopia with Ethiopia being forced to become a colony of Italy.
|title=Article denouncing trinitarian views
}} </ref>
* Yeshua the Messiah - [[Yeshua (name)|Yeshua]] (Jesus) is believed to be the promised [[Jewish messianism|Jewish messiah]]. The mainstream movement accepts Yeshua as [[God]] in the flesh, and as the Torah made flesh. This view is Messianic ''[[halakah]]'', although some small offshoots exist which deny Yeshua's divinity. These groups are rejected by mainstream Messianic Jews.
* Written Torah - Messianics, with few exceptions, consider the written Torah (Pentateuch), the five books of [[Moses]], to remain fully in force and a holy covenant, to be observed both morally and ritually, by those who profess faith in God. They believe that Yeshua taught and re-affirmed the Torah, rather than doing away with it.
* Israel - It is believed that the [[Children of Israel]] were, remain, and will continue to be the [[Jews as a chosen people|chosen people]] of the God of Jacob and are central to his plans. Virtually all Messianics (whether Jewish nor non-Jewish) oppose [[Replacement theology]].
* The Bible - The Tanakh and New Testament (sometimes called the ''B’rit Chadasha'') are usually considered the established and divinely inspired Biblical scripture by Messianic Judaism. Messianics are much more open to criticism of the established canon of the New Testament, since there was not considered to be a standard canon until the Gentile Church established one in the 4th century, when many Jewish sects devoted to the teachings and messiahship of Jesus were on the decline.
* Eschatology - Most Messianics hold all of the following [[Eschatology|eschatological]] beliefs: the [[End of Days]], the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus as the conquering Messiah, the re-gathering of Israel, a rebuilt [[Third Temple]], a Resurrection of the Dead (and that Jesus was resurrected after his death), and the [[Millennial Sabbath]].
* Oral Law - Messianic Jewish opinions concerning the "Oral Torah" (the [[Talmud]]) are varied and sometimes conflicting between individual congregations. Some congregations are very selective in their applications of Talmudic law, or do so for the sake of continuity with tradition, while others encourage a serious observance of the Jewish ''[[halakha]]''. Virtually all Messianic congregations and synagogues believe that the oral traditions are subservient to the written Torah.


===Additional doctrines===
===Americas===
[[Image:NewDealNRA.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Emblem of the [[National Recovery Administration]] (NRA) of the [[United States]], an organization created as part the "[[New Deal]]".]]
*[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] is elected [[President of the United States]] in [[November]] [[1932]]. Roosevelt intiates a widespread social welfare strategy called the "[[New Deal]]" to combat the economic and social devastation of the [[Great Depression]]. The economic agenda of the "New Deal" was a radical departure from previous [[laissez-faire]] economics.
*[[Canada]] and other countries under the [[British Empire]] sign the [[Statute of Westminster]] in [[1931]] establishing effective parliamentary independence of Canada from the parliament of the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[United States Marine Corps]] general [[Smedley Butler]] confesses to the U.S. Congress in 1934 that a group of industrialists contacted him, requesting his aide to overthrow the U.S. government of Roosevelt and establish what he claimed would be a fascist regime in the United States.
*[[Newfoundland]] voluntarily returns to British colonial rule in [[1934]] amid its economic crisis during the Great Depression with the creation of the [[Commission of Government]], a non-elected body.
*[[Prime Minister of Canada|Canadian Prime Minister]] [[William Lyon Mackenzie King|W. L. Mackenzie King]] meets with [[Germany|German]] [[Führer]] [[Adolf Hitler]] in 1937 in [[Berlin]]. King is the first and only [[North America]]n head of government to meet with Hitler.
*Multiple countries in the Americas including [[Canada]], [[Cuba]], and the [[United States]] controversially deny asylum to hundreds of Jewish German refugees on the ''[[SS St. Louis]]'' who are fleeing Germany in [[1939]] which under the Nazi regime was pursuing a racist agenda of [[anti-Semitic]] persecution. In the end, no country accepted the refugees and the ship returns to Germany with most of its passengers onboard, while some commit suicide based on the prospect of returning to Nazi-run Germany.


===Asia===
* Sin and atonement - Messianics define [[sin]] as transgression of the Torah (Law/Instruction) of God. Some adherents atone for their sins through prayer and [[repentance]]&mdash;that is, acknowledgment of the wrongdoing and seeking forgiveness for their sins (especially on [[Yom Kippur]], the Day of Atonement). Other Messianics disagree with these practices, believing that all sin (whether committed yet or not) is already atoned for through Jesus's death and resurrection.{{fact}}
[[Image:Marche sel.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Mohandas Gandhi]] on the [[Salt Satyagraha|Salt March]] in 1930.]]
* Faith and works - Few Messianics believe that faith and works are mutually exclusive or polarized, and most believe that faith in God and righteous works are entirely complimentary of one another, and that one naturally leads to the other.{{fact}}
[[Image:Wuhan 1938 IJA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Japanese marines at Guangdong in the [[Battle of Wuhan]] in 1938 during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]].]]
* [[Mohandas Gandhi]] leads the non-violent [[Satyagraha]] movement in the [[Declaration of the Independence of India]] and the [[Salt Satyagraha|Salt March]] in [[March]] [[1930]].
*[[Japan]] captures [[Manchuria]] in 1931, creating the puppet state of [[Manchukuo]].
*[[Chinese Communist Party]] leader [[Mao Zedong]] forms the small enclave state called the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]] in 1931.
*The [[Gandhi–Irwin Pact]] is signed by Mohandas Gandhi and [[Viceroy of India]], [[Lord Irwin]] on [[March 5]], [[1931]]. Gandhi agrees to end the campaign of [[civil disobedience]] being carried out by the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC) in exchange for Irwin accepting the INC to participate in roundtable talks on British colonial policy in [[India]].
*The [[Government of India Act 1935|Government of India Act of 1935]] is passed in British colonial India, separating [[Burma]] into a separate British colony and increasing political autonomy of the princely states in India.
*Mao Zedong's Chinese communists begin a large retreat from advancing nationalist forces, called the [[Long March]] beginning in [[October]] [[1934]] and ending in [[October]] [[1936]] resulting in the collapse of the Chinese Soviet Republic.
*[[Japan]] invades [[China]] in 1937, starting the [[Sino-Japanese War]].
*Colonial India's [[Muslim League]] leader [[Muhammed Ali Jinnah]] delivers his "[[Day of Deliverance (India)|Day of Deliverance]]" speech on [[December 2]], [[1939]], calling upon [[Muslims]] to begin to engage in civil disobedience against the British colonial government starting on [[December 12]]. Jinnah demands redress and resolution to tensions and violence occurring between Muslims and [[Hindus]] in India. Jinnah's actions are not supported by the largely Hindu-dominated Indian National Congress whom he had previously closely allied with. The decision is seen as part of an agenda by Jinnah to support the eventual creation of an independent Muslim state called [[Pakistan]] from colonial India.


==Canon==
===Europe===
[[Image:Hitlermusso2 edit.jpg|thumb|200px|right|German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] (right) and Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] (left) pursue agendas of territorial expansion for their countries in the 1930s, eventually leading to the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939.]]
Messianic believers commonly hold the [[Tanakh]], or [[Hebrew Bible]], to be divinely inspired. The [[New Testament]] scriptures (''Brit Chadasha'' or "New Covenant") are commonly considered to also be [[Biblical inspiration|divinely inspired]].
* The Spanish monarchy abdicates and [[Spain]] becomes a [[republic]] in [[1931]].
* [[Adolf Hitler]] and the [[Nazi party|National Socialist German Worker's Party]] (Nazi Party) rise to power in [[Germany]] [[1933]], forming a [[Fascism|fascist]] regime committed to repudiating the [[Treaty of Versailles]], persecuting and removing [[Jews]] and other minorities from German society, expanding Germany's territory, and opposing the spread of [[communism]]. The Nazis dismantle parliamentary democracy and replace it with a totalitarian dictatorship under Hitler. Germany rebounds in the international sphere culturally, economically, and militarily. Germany in this period hosted the Summer Olympic games of 1936 in Berlin, Germany experienced economic recovery, and there were vast investments in developing the German military, such as restoring the German air force (''[[Luftwaffe]]'') which was forbidden in the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. Political violence against those deemed opponents of the regime occur, including violence against Jews such as in [[Kristallnacht]] and even left-wing Nazi dissidents are violently purged from the Nazi Party during the [[Night of the Long Knives]] in 1934.
* In the [[Soviet Union]], agricultural collectivization and rapid industrialization take place.<ref>{{cite journal|author = A. L. Unger|title = Stalin's Renewal of the Leading Stratum: A Note on the Great Purge|journal = [[Soviet Studies]]|date = January 1969|volume = 20|number = 3|pages = 321–330|url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0038-5859%28196901%2920%3A3%3C321%3ASROTLS%3E2.0.CO%3B2-S|accessdate = 2007-05-29|month = Jan|year = 1969|issue = 3}}</ref>
* Austrian chancellor [[Engelbert Dolfuss]] is assassinated in 1934 by Austrian Nazis. Germany and Italy nearly clash over the issue of Austrian independence despite close ideological similarities of the [[Italian Fascist]] and Nazi regimes.
* King Alexander of [[Yugoslavia]] is assassinated in 1934 by a radical Macedonian nationalist.
* [[Anglo-German naval agreement]] is signed in 1935, removing the Treaty Versailles' level of limitation on the size of the German navy, allowing Germany to build a larger navy
* [[Spanish Civil War]] occurs from 1936 to 1939. Germany and Italy back anti-communist nationalist forces of [[Francisco Franco]]. The [[Soviet Union]] backs the left-wing republican faction in the war. The war ends in [[April]] [[1939]] with Franco's nationalist forces defeating the republican forces. Franco becomes dictator of [[Spain]].
* [[Éamon de Valera]] introduces a new [[constitution]] for the [[Irish Free State]] in 1937, effectively ending its status as a [[Dominion|British Dominion]].
* The "[[Great Purge]]" of "[[Old Bolsheviks]]" from the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] takes place from 1937 to 1938, as ordered by [[Soviet Union]] leader [[Josef Stalin]], resulting in hundreds of thousands of people being killed.
* Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas in Europe and imperialism in Africa. Germany demands the annexation of Austria and German-populated territories in Europe. From 1935 to 1936, Germany receives the [[Saar]], remilitarizes the [[Rhineland]]. Italy initially opposes Germany's aims on Austria but the two countries resolve their differences in 1936 in the aftermath of Italy's diplomatic isolation after its invasion of Ethiopia which only Germany supported. Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]]. Germany annexes Austria and then the [[Sudetenland]] after negotiations which resulted in the [[Munich Agreement]] in 1938. Italy annexes Albania in 1939 and Germany receives the [[Meuse]] territory from [[Latvia]], occupies [[Czecholslovakia]], and finally invades Poland which results in the outbreak of [[World War II]].


===Oceania===
* [[Torah]] [תורה] meaning "The Law", "Teaching" or "Instruction". Also called the [[Chumash (Judaism)|''Chumash'']] [חומש] ("The five"), "The Five Books of Moses" or the "[[Pentateuch]]".
*[[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] sign the [[Statute of Westminster]] in [[1931]], establishing effective parliamentary independence from the parliament of the [[United Kingdom]].
* [[Nevi'im]] [נביאים] meaning "Prophets".
* [[Ketuvim]] [כתובים] meaning "Writings" or "Hagiographa".
* [[Gospels]] of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.
* [[Acts of the Apostles]]
* [[General epistles]] of James, Peter, Paul and the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]].
* [[Book of Revelation]]
<!-- Nothing by Paul?-->
[[David H. Stern]] has produced a Messianic Jewish version of the Bible called the [[Complete Jewish Bible]].


===Torah===
==Economics==
* The [[Great Depression]] occurred during the 1930s.
[[Image:Melech Ark.jpg|thumbnail|right|The ark in Messianic congregation Melech Yisrael, where the [[Sefer Torah|Torah scrolls]] are kept.]]
* Economic interventionist policies increase in popularity as a result of the Great Depression in both authoritarian and democratic countries. In the western world, [[Keynesianism]] replaces classical economic theory.
* Rapid industrialization takes place in the [[Soviet Union]].


==Literature and Art==
"Torah" refers to the first five books of the Bible. The Torah contains the [[613 laws]] of the [[Covenant]] between God and Israel. For Jews, whether they are Messianic or not, observance is covenantally obigatory, for [[gentiles]] it is not, but the Torah is to be read for instruction in doctrine and righteousness.
* Notable poetry include [[W. H. Auden]]'s ''Poems''.
* Notable literature includes [[Aldous Huxley]]'s ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932), [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[Grapes of Wrath]]'' (1939) and ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'' (1937), [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' (1937), [[John Dos Passos]]'s [[U.S.A trilogy]], [[William Faulkner]]'s ''[[As I Lay Dying (novel)|As I Lay Dying]]'' (1930) and ''[[Absalom, Absalom!]]'' (1936), [[John O'Hara]]'s ''[[Appointment in Samarra]]'' (1934) and ''[[Butterfield 8]]'' (1935).
* Notable "[[hardboiled]]" crime fiction includes [[Raymond Chandler]]'s ''[[The Big Sleep]]'', [[James M. Cain]]'s ''[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]'' (1934).
* Notable plays include [[Thorton Wilder]]'s ''[[Our Town]]'' (1938).
* In the art of film making, the [[Golden Age of Hollywood]] entered a whole decade, after the advent of talking pictures ("[[talkies]]") in 1927 and full-color films in 1930: more than 50 classic films were made in the 1930s:
** most notable were ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone With The Wind]]'' and ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]''
** the soundtrack and photographic technology prompted many films to be made or re-made, such as the 1934 version of ''[[Cleopatra (1934 film)|Cleopatra]]'', using lush [[art deco]] sets which won an [[Academy Award]] (see films 1930-1939 in: [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]]);
** the [[horror film]]s (or [[monster movie]]s) included many cult classics, such as ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'', ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'', ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'', [[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931 film)|Jekyll/Hyde]], ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'', ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1939 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'', and other films about [[wax museum]]s, [[vampire]]s and [[zombie]]s, leading to the 1941 film ''[[The Wolf Man (1941 film)|The Wolf Man]]'' (wolfman);
** recurring themes included: [[Laurel and Hardy]], the [[Marx Brothers]], [[Tarzan]], [[Charlie Chan]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]] films, [[Our Gang]], and the filming of "[[superhero]]es" such as ''[[The Phantom]]'' and ''[[Superman]]'';
** two notable films were made in the 1930s (see: ''"[[1934 in film]]"'' or ''"[[1939 in film]]"'').


==Popular culture==
===Scriptural commentary===
[[Image:AE and Vega.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Amelia Earhart]] in 1935.]]
[[Image:PicassoGuernica.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Pablo Picasso]]'s famous painting ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' (1937).]]
* [[Radio]] becomes dominant mass media in industrial nations.
* First intercontinental commercial airline flights.
* [[Amelia Earhart]] receives major attention in the 1930s as the first woman pilot to conduct major air flights. Her dissappearance for unknown reasons in 1937 while on flight prompted search efforts which failed.
* Height of the [[Art Deco]] movement in North America and western Europe.
* Major international media attention follows [[Mohandas Gandhi]]'s peaceful resistance movement against British colonial rule in [[India]].
* The U.S. film ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 movie)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' is the first colour film and is enormously popular.
* "[[Swing (genre)|Swing]]" music starts becoming popular (from 1935 onward). It gradually replaces the sweet form of [[Jazz]] that had been popular for the first half of the decade.
* ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' - [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s ground-breaking [[Nazism|Nazi]] [[propaganda]] film.
* The [[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 World's Fair]] in [[Paris]], [[France]] displays the growing political tensions in Europe. The pavilions of the rival countries of [[Nazi Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] face each other. Germany at the time was internationally condemned for its air forces bombing of the [[Basque]] town of [[Guernica]] in [[Spain]] during the [[Spanish Civil War]], which Spanish artist [[Pablo Picasso]] depicted in his masterpiece painting ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' at the World Fair, which was a surrealist depiction of the horror of the bombing.


==Disasters==
Messianic believers also look to Jewish texts, such as the [[Babylonian Talmud]] and other rabbinic commentary, for historical insight into an understanding of biblical texts and [[halakha]]. Much like [[Karaite Judaism]], some Messianics do not accept rabbinic commentary as authoritative where it seems to contradict the Scriptures of the Messianic canon.<!-- Karaites reject all rabbinic commentary as authoritative--> This, however, is debated and varies from congregation to congregation, or ministry to ministry, and perhaps even issue-to-issue.
[[Image:Hindenburg burning.jpg|thumb|right|The German [[dirigible]] [[airship]] [[LZ 129 Hindenburg|''Hindenburg'']] exploding in 1937.]]
*The German [[dirigible]] [[airship]] [[LZ 129 Hindenburg|''Hindenburg'']] explodes in the sky above [[Lakehurst]], [[New Jersey]], [[United States]] on [[May 6]], [[1937]]. 36 people are killed. The event leads to an investigation of the explosion and the disaster causes major public distrust of the use of [[hydrogen]]-inflated airships and seriously damages the reputation of the [[Luftschiffbau Zeppelin|Zeppelin company]].
*The [[New London School explosion|New London School]] in [[New London, Texas]] is destroyed by an explosion, killing in excess of 300 students and teachers (1937).


==Others==
Although there is much debate with regard to acceptance of the Babylonian Talmud, there does exist a small minority who adhere to the teachings of the Sages and oral teachings held in the Talmud and consider them authoritative. The main difference between them and mainstream Judaism remains the belief that Yeshua is the Messiah. These groups consider Yeshua's command, "The Scribes and the Pharisees sit in the seat of Moses, all of which they command you to do, do, but do not do as they do." (Matt 23:2-3) to be a proclamation of Torah authority to the Pharisaic Jewish community. One of the great differences between them and most Messianics is their belief of non-separation from the Jewish community and the authority of the Rabbis. Although they hold the [[New Testament]] teachings as authoritative, there remain many details in Jewish Law which violate oral tradition, as well as the written Torah. Because of this, there remains for them another line of division between them and mainstream Judaism.
[[Image:Enigma-plugboard.jpg|right|thumb|Military [[Enigma machine]]]]
* In 1932 the [[Cipher Bureau]] broke the German Enigma cipher and overcame the ever-growing structural and operating complexities of the evolving [[Enigma machine]] with [[plugboard]], the main German cipher device during [[World War II]].
* U.S. presidential candidate [[Huey Long]] assassinated (1935).
* [[Board of Temperance Strategy]] established in U.S. to fight [[repeal of prohibition]]
* Southern [[Great Plains]] devastated by decades-long [[Dust Bowl]]
*[[Amelia Earhart]] becomes the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean (1932)


==People==
Many Messianic congregations use traditional Jewish rabbinic commentaries such as the [[Mishnah]] and [[Gemara]] to gain historical insight into biblical teachings and passages and to better comprehend the environment that the first-century New Testament writers would have been familiar with.
===World leaders===
[[Image:Adolf Hitler cph 3a48970.jpg|right|thumb|[[Adolf Hitler]] forms a totalitarian regime and dictatorship in Germany whose expansionist ambitions lead to the outbreak of [[World War II]] in [[Europe]].]]
[[Image:Gandhi studio 1931.jpg|right|thumb|[[Gandhi| Mahatma Gandhi]] Spearheaded Non Violent Movement against foreign oppression]]
[[Image:FDR in 1933.jpg|right|thumb|[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], as [[President of the United States]] initiates major economic reform in the [[United States]].]]
[[Image:Mittelholzer-haileselassie.jpg|right|thumb|[[Hailie Selassie]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] faces his country being invaded and occupied by [[Italy]] and is forced into exile.]]
* Mahatma [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi]] ([[India]])
* President [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] ([[Turkey]])
* [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel]] ([[India]])
* [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] ([[India]])
* Governor-General [[E. F. L. Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|Lord Edward Irwin]] ([[British India]])
* Governor-General [[The Marquess of Linlithgow]] ([[British India]])
* King [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal I]] ([[Iraq]])
* King [[Ghazi of Iraq|Ghazi]] ([[Iraq]])
* King [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faisal II]] ([[Iraq]])
* President of the Executive Council [[W. T. Cosgrave]] ([[Irish Free State]])
* President of the Executive Council [[Eamon de Valera]] ([[Irish Free State]])
* Taoiseach [[Eamon de Valera]] ([[Éire]])
* King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] ([[Italy]])
* Prime Minister [[Benito Mussolini]] ([[Italy]])
* Emperor [[Hirohito]] ([[Japan]])
* Emir [[Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah]] ([[Kuwait]])
* Prime Minister [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] ([[Portugal]])
* President [[Lázaro Cárdenas]] ([[Mexico]])
* Sultan [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Mohammed V]] ([[Morocco]])
* Prime Minister [[Michael Joseph Savage]] ([[New Zealand]])
* President [[Paul von Hindenburg]] ([[Germany]])
* Chancellor [[Adolf Hitler]] ([[Germany]])
* Prime Minister [[James Barry Munnik Hertzog]] ([[South Africa]])
* General Secretary [[Joseph Stalin]] ([[Soviet Union]])
* President [[Alcalá Zamora]] ([[Spain]])
* Prime Minister [[Manuel Azaña]] ([[Spain]])
* Prime Minister [[Alejandro Lerroux]] ([[Spain]])
* President ([[Syria]])
* President [[Bahij al-Khatib]] ([[Syria]])
* Bey (Crown Prince) [[Ahmad II of Tunis|Ahmad II]] ([[Tunisia]])
* King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* King [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* Prime Minister [[Ramsay MacDonald]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* President [[Herbert Hoover]] ([[United States]])
* President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] ([[United States]])
* Holy Father [[Pope Pius XI]] ([[Holy See|Vatican]])
* Minister of foreign [[Józef Beck]] ([[Poland]])


===Sports figures===
Messianic commentaries on various books of the [[Bible]], with the exception of a handful of commentaries written on the [[Torah]] and New Testament texts, such as [[Matthew]], [[Acts of the Apostles]], [[Epistle to the Romans]], [[Epistle to the Galatians]] and [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], can be few and far between.
====British Commonwealth====
* [[Cliff Bastin]] (English [[football (soccer)|football]]er)
* [[Donald Bradman]] (Australian [[cricket]]er)
* [[Haydn Bunton, Sr]] (Australian Rules Footballer)
* [[Jack Crawford (tennis)|Jack Crawford]] ([[tennis]])
* [[Jack Dyer]] ([[Australian rules football]] player)
* [[Walter Hammond]] (English cricketer)
* [[Eddie Hapgood]] (English footballer)
* [[George Headley]] (West Indies cricketer)
* [[Alex James (footballer)|Alex James]] (Scottish footballer)
* [[Douglas Jardine]] (English cricketer)
* [[Harold Larwood]] (English cricketer)
* [[Jack Lovelock]] (New Zealand runner)
* [[Fred Perry]] (English [[tennis]] player)
* [[Leonard Hutton]], English cricketer.
* [[Percy Williams]] (sprinter)
* [[Dhyan Chand]], Indian hockey player
* [[Lala Amarnath]], Indian cricketer
* [[Josh Crociani]], Italian soccer player


====United States====
David H. Stern has released a one-volume ''Jewish New Testament Commentary'', but it overlooks many of the issues of composition, history, date and setting, and only provides select explanatory notes from a Messianic Jewish point of view.
* [[Joe Louis]] ([[boxing]])

* [[Lou Ambers]] ([[boxing]])
Other noted New Testament commentary authors include Joseph Shulam, who has written commentaries on Acts, Romans, and Galatians, [[Tim Hegg]] of [http://www.torahresource.org TorahResource], who has written commentary on Romans, Galatians, Hebrews, and is presently examining Matthew, Daniel Thomas Lancaster, who has written extensively for the [http://www.ffoz.org First Fruits of Zion] Torah Club series, Stuart Sacks, author of ''Hebrews Through a Hebrews' Eyes'' and J.K. McKee of [http://www.tnnonline.net TNN Online] who has written several volumes under the byline "for the Practical Messianic" (James, Hebrews, Philippians, Galatians, and both a Tanach and Apostolic Scriptures Survey).
* [[Henry Armstrong]] ([[boxing]])

* [[Max Baer (boxer)|Max Baer]] ([[boxing]])
===Further scriptural commentary===
* [[Cliff Battles]] (halfback)

* [[Jay Berwanger]] (halfback)
"Many Messianic Jewish believers consider rabbinic commentaries such as the Mishnah and the Talmud dangerous," says [[Joshua Isaac Walters]] "When we begin to study and observe Torah to become like Messiah, there are pitfalls we must avoid. One such pitfall is the study of Mishnah and Talmud - Rabbinic traditional Law. There are many people and congregations that place a great emphasis on rabbinic legal works, such as the Mishnah and the Talmud in search of their Hebrew roots. People are looking to the rabbis for answers on how to keep God’s commands, but if one looks into the Mishnah and does what it says, he or she is not a follower of the Messiah. Or, if one looks into the Talmud and does what it says, he or she is not a follower of the Messiah – he or she is a follower of the rabbis because Rabbi Yeshua, the Messiah, is not quoted there. Rabbinic Judaism is not Messianic Judaism. Rabbinic Judaism is not founded in Messiah. Rabbinic Judaism, for the most part, is founded in the yeast – the teachings of the Pharisees. Yeshua’s teachings and the discipleship that He brought His students through was not Rabbinic Judaism. There is a real danger in Rabbinics. There is a real danger in Mishnah and Talmud. No one involved in Rabbinics has ever come out on the other side more righteous than when he or she entered. He or she may look “holier than thou” – but they do not have the life changing experience clearly represented in the lives of the believers of the Messianic communities of the first century."
* [[James J. Braddock]] ([[boxing]])

* [[Ellison Brown|Ellison M. ("Tarzan") Brown]] ([[marathon]])
===Halakhic commentary===
* [[Don Budge]] ([[tennis]])
{{originalresearch}}
* [[Tony Canzoneri]] ([[boxing]])
While some in the Messianic movement, especially those who have come out of Protestant churches, have a ''[[sola scriptura]]'' approach to Torah, Tanakh and the ''B'rit Chadashah'', it is incorrect to assume that all Messianics share this rejection of oral Torah. There are those who look to the Talmud and rabbinical interpretations of Israel for guidance in a fuller expression of obedience to Torah. If Messianic Judaism is indeed a Judaism, it stands to reason that it shares community with all Jews in its acceptance of standards and interpretations. Messianics who honor halakhah point out that Deuteronomy 17 instructs not only obedience to Torah, but also to the Judges we go to for Torah interpretation, to "do everything they direct you to do. Act according to the law they teach you and the decisions they give you. Do not turn aside from what they tell you, to the right or to the left." Yeshua backs up the Torah teachers among the Pharisees in this authority in Matthew 23, "The teachers of the law and the Pharisees sit in Moses' seat. So you must obey them and do everything they tell you." <ref name = "JC1">{{cite web
* [[Mickey Cochrane]] ([[baseball]])
| url = http://www.jerusalemcouncil.org/midrash/viewtopic.php?f=7&t=61
* [[Glenn Cunningham]] ([[running]])
| title = Mission, Vision, & Purpose of the Jerusalem Council
* [[Dizzy Dean]] (baseball)
| accessdate = 2007-08-23
* [[Joe DiMaggio]] (baseball)
| year = 2007
* [[Babe Didrikson]] (track)
| work = JerusalemCouncil.org
* [[Leo Durocher]] (baseball)
| publisher = JerusalemCouncil.org
* [[Turk Edwards]] (tackle)
| quote = Our vision also includes the hope of re-appointing a beit din for Messianic believers worldwide, to be called the Jerusalem Council, or Beit HaDin HaYerushalmi, modeled after the original, and submitted to the new Jewish Sanhedrin in issues that do not contradict obedient faith to Messiah Yeshua or his teachings; to provide guidance in issues that may conflict with the Sanhedrin, or in issues that contradict the primacy of the written Word of God, or in issues which may divide the Body of Messiah; to promote the unity of the Body of Messiah worldwide by Spirit-led direction through means of accountability, open dialogue, reasoned doctrine, and sound leadership; and to provide corporate and individual edification by providing apologetic, midrashic, and halakhic guidance for the Body of Messiah.
* [[Dixie Howell]] (halfback)
}}
* [[Don Hutson]] (end)
</ref>
* [[Cecil Isbell]] (quarterback)

* [[John A. Kelley]] ([[marathon]])
In light of this, both the Jerusalem Council ([[High Council of B'nei Noah]]), and the Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council have begun publishing halakha.<ref name = "JC2">{{cite web
* [[Nile Kinnick]] (halfback)
| url = http://jerusalemcouncil.org/faq/31-about-us/52-who-are-we.html
* [[Tommy Loughran]] ([[boxing]])
| title = The Jerusalem Council - Who Are We?
* [[Alice Marble]] ([[tennis]])
| accessdate = 2008-04-02
* [[Ralph Metcalfe]] (sprinter)
| year = 2008
* [[Bronko Nagurski]] (fullback)
| work = JerusalemCouncil.org
* [[Mel Ott]] (baseball)
| publisher = The Jerusalem Council
* [[Jesse Owens]] (sprinter)
| quote = We are rabbis, pastors, teachers, students, lay people, and believers in Messiah Yeshua who desire to see the development of a central location with which to discuss Messianic halakha, and take on the challenges that divide our various communities.}}
* [[Bobby Riggs]] ([[tennis]])
</ref><ref name = "MJRC">{{cite web
* [[Helen Stephens]] (track)
| url = http://www.ourrabbis.org/main/content/view/13/27/
* [[Eddie Tolan]] (sprinter)
| title = Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council Standards of Observance
* [[Ellsworth Vines]] ([[tennis]])
| accessdate = 2007-08-23
* [[Stella Walsh]] (sprinter)
| year = 2007
* [[Frank Wykoff]] (sprinter)
| work = ourrabbis.og
| publisher = Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council
| quote = At that time a set of Messianic Jewish leaders from New England invited some of their colleagues from outside the region to join them in working on a common set of halakhic standards for themselves and their congregations. While other areas of Messianic Jewish life are of profound importance, such as worship, ethics, education, and social concern, we believed that halakhic standards had received far less attention than their place in Messianic Jewish life warranted.}}
</ref>

==The People of God==

Messianic Judaism has as a core teaching that Israel remains Israel and the Nations remain the Nations, Jews remain Jews and gentiles remain gentiles. Jews are those who are born of a Jewish mother or have undergone halakhic conversion to Judaism. An exception is also made for those born of Jewish fathers if and only if the individual claims Jewish identity, similar to the Reform position.<ref>The statement of the Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council on Jewish identity may be found HERE: [http://www.ourrabbis.org/main/content/view/15/29/]</ref>

The Jerusalem Council, a Messianic halakhic body, maintains that Israel is defined as a people group of members of the covenant God made with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob; chosen by God from the nations, and includes their descendants."<ref name = "JC3">{{cite web
| url = http://jerusalemcouncil.org/component/content/article/36-20-conversion/58-21-identity.html
| title = Halakha Shel HaDerech - Messianic Halakha 2.0 Conversion - 2.1 Identity - 2.1.1 Am Israel
| accessdate = 2008-4-2
| year = 2008
| work = JerusalemCouncil.org
| publisher = JerusalemCouncil.org
| quote = <small>The people of Israel are members of the covenant HaShem made with Avraham, Yitzhak, and Ya'akov. Covenant membership is extended to converts to Judaism from the nations, as well as to the descendants of covenant members. Israel is a nation of nations and their descendants, or more specifically a people group called out from other people groups to be a people separated unto HaShem for his purposes. HaShem's promise of covenantal blessings and curses as described in the Torah are unique to Am Yisrael (People of Israel), and to no other nation or people group. The bible describes an Israelite as one descended from Ya'akov ben Yitzhak ben Avraham, or one who has been converted or adopted into that group by either human or spiritual means (Ex 1:1-7, Ex 12:38, Ex 12:48).</small>
}}</ref>

The "People of God" is a larger set which includes Israel, but also includes gentiles in the Christian Churches as well as Messianic gentiles. Thus, a rabbinical Jew is part of "Israel", a Baptist is part of ''[[Ekklesia]]'' and a Messianic Jew is both "Israel" and ''Ekklesia''. Further, rabbinical Jew, Baptist, and Messianic Jew, both Israel and Ekklesia, are "People of God." Messianic Judaism sees itself as the "link," the point of the graft between Israel and ''Ekklesia''.

The issue of the relationship of Israel to ''Ekklesia'', especially in terms of Covenant, is highly important to Messianics. While Jews are considered within an irrevocable Covenant given at Mt. Sinai, gentiles are not. A Messianic Jew must keep Covenant, but a Methodist need not. Those gentiles who have joined Messianic congregations take up Torah observance, some more than others, but do so voluntarily, either out of love for God or simply as part of being in the community. Jews and gentiles are seen as completely equal before God, as "one new man" in their belief in Yeshua, but this union is not a homogenization but more analogous to the union of husband and wife in marriage, where differentiation is preserved even within unity.

Thus, Messianic Judaism does not require gentile conversion to Judaism, and in fact discourages it. However, the UMJC makes exceptions for those rare individuals who identify in a stronger way than simply to be "grafted on." The reasoning for this variance is as follows: While Titus may have been the norm in the epistles, a gentile not converted to Judaism, Paul nevertheless made an exception for Timothy, whom he circumcised and brought under the Covenant. (The statement of the Messianic Jewish Rabbinical Council regarding Conversion [http://www.ourrabbis.org/main/content/view/18/32/]) These converts to Judaism do not in any way have a higher status within Messianic Judaism than the gentiles attached to the communities.

A statement on circumcision is provided by the Jerusalem Council: "...although circumcision is not a requirement for positional right standing with HaShem, it is a requirement for those who are Abraham's seed, and who desire to "walk blameless."<ref name = "JC4">{{cite web
| url = http://jerusalemcouncil.org/component/content/article/36-20-conversion/63-22-milah-circumcision.html
| title = Halakha Shel HaDerech - Messianic Halakha 2.0 Conversion - 2.2 Milah - 2.2.2 Definition of Necessity for Behavioral Righteousness
| accessdate = 2008-4-2
| year = 2008
| work = JerusalemCouncil.org
| publisher = JerusalemCouncil.org
| quote =Not addressed by the first Jerusalem Council, is the necessity of believers from the nations to fulfill the scriptural commandment of circumcision from a behavioral righteousness standpoint. The commandment is clear: "This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised." (Gen 17:10). Believers are reckoned as Abraham's seed: "If you belong to Christ, then you are Abraham's seed, and heirs according to the promise." (Gal 3:29). So then, although circumcision is not a requirement for positional right standing with HaShem, it is a requirement for those who are Abraham's seed, and who desire to "walk blameless." (Gen 17:1).
}}</ref>

===By Jewish law===

The more mainstream Messianic congregations adhere to a strongly halakhic definition for God's people. In these groups, Gentiles are colleagues and are strongly encouraged, but not required, to keep the Torah.

===Competing similar theologies===

Within the Messianic world, new theologies have arisen, and old theologies have come to claim the title of "Messianic," theologies which are not always compatible with the main beliefs held by the original and larger groups. Leadership from MJAA and UMJC have joined together to fight against the claims of these competing theologies.

====One Law Theology====
One Law theology acknowledges the distinction between Ekklesia and Israel in principle, but in practicality the lines are blurred because gentile believers are considered to come under the Mosaic covenant, making observance obligatory. This theology actually has a long line of various sects that have popped in and out of history. One Law groups have many things in common with Messianic Judaism because of their belief in the ongoing validity of the Mosaic Covenant. Leaders of the Messianic community such as Dan Juster of MJAA and Rus Resnick of UMJC have joined together to argue against One Law theology's insistence on gentile observance. <ref>(One Law Movements; a Challenge to the Messianic Jewish Community[http://www.umjc.net/umjc/dmdocuments/onelaw_movements_abridged.pdf] January 28, 2005)</ref> Tim Hegg responded to their article defending what he believes to be the biblical teaching on the subject.<ref>[http://www.torahresource.com/EnglishArticles/OLMResponse.pdf One Law Movements A Response to Russ Resnik & Daniel Juster]</ref>

====Two House Theology====

[[Two House Theology]] comes from the idea that the "[[House of Judah]]" in scripture refers to Jews, and the "[[House of Israel]]" refers to the [[Ten Lost Tribes]] of Israel, or [[Ephraim]]. Where scripture says the House of Israel and Judah will again be "one branch", they believe it is referring to the idea that in the End Times, right before Yeshua returns, all those descended from Israel will come back to Israel. This theology postulates that the reason why so many so-called gentiles are coming into Messianic Judaism is that the vast majority of them are really Israelites and just don't know it yet. They believe that the vast majority of people who considered themselves as gentiles coming into Messianic Judaism are those of the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel. Like One Law groups, Two House appears at first glance to have much in common with Messianic Judaism because of their belief in the ongoing validity of the Mosaic Covenant. However, the idea of gentiles who are not Jewish claiming to be Israel is deeply offensive to many Messianic Jews. Organizations such as the [[Messianic Jewish Alliance of America]] and [[Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations]] have forbidden Two House teaching.<ref>(MJAA position paper: The Ephraimite Error[http://www.mjaa.org/files/EphraimiteError.pdf])</ref>

==Eschatology==

Issues of creation and [[eschatology]] are not central to Messianic Judaism with the following exception: the idea that one age is ending, as the fullness of the gentiles has been reached, and the next age beginning, where we shall see the fullness of Israel. The wording is a reference to Romans 11,
<blockquote>
"Again I ask: Did [the Jews] stumble so as to fall beyond recovery? Not at all! Rather, because of their transgression, salvation has come to the Gentiles to make Israel envious. But if their transgression means riches for the world, and their loss means riches for the Gentiles, how much greater riches will their fullness bring! ... For if their rejection is the reconciliation of the world, what will their acceptance be but life from the dead? ... I do not want you to be ignorant of this mystery, brothers, so that you may not be conceited: Israel has experienced a hardening in part until the full number of the Gentiles has come in. And so all Israel will be saved."</blockquote>

The "fullness of the gentiles" might be said to refer to the [[Great Commission]], which is complete. The rebirth of the nation of Israel, the re-establishment of Jerusalem as its capital, the return of Jews from Russia, "the nation to the north," and the return of Jews worldwide to greater observance are all seen as signs of the beginning of the age of Israel. Messianics believe that when the fullness of Israel is reached, the Messiah will return and the world will see the resurrection of the dead.<ref>(Rabbenu -- A New Paradigm For Messianic Jewish Outreach: Catching Up With the Future [http://rabbenu.blogspot.com/2006_05_01_archive.html] May 28, 2006)</ref>

The majority of Messianics believe in a literal 7,000 year period for the human history of the world, from Adam to the Judgment, and believe that we are the final generation that will experience the Biblical apocalypse.{{Fact|date=August 2007}} A small, yet steadily growing, sector of Messianics have adopted forms of [[Old Earth Creationism]] which, while denying the theory of [[evolution]], does discount a 6,000-7,000 year old earth, or [[Theistic Evolution]], the belief that God created using evolution or that evolution occurred but that natural selection is an insufficient explanation.

Most Messianics{{Fact|date=February 2007}} believe that the Messianic Kingdom, or ''Millennial Sabbath'', will literally be for a period of a thousand years, after the collective resurrection of the dead, with Jesus the Messiah ruling from Jerusalem. Many believe that we are living in the final days, or [[End Times]], before the physical return of Jesus to Jerusalem.

Messianics also contend that no serious study of the End Times should ever leave out the significance of God's appointed times, the major [[Jewish Festivals]] in the Torah, and their fulfillment as prophetic events as it relates to the person of Jesus and to [[Israel]].{{clarifyme}} Many Messianics believe that just as the Spring Festivals ([[Passover]], [[First Fruits]], [[Shavuot]]) were literally fulfilled to the day at Jesus's first coming, the Fall Festivals ([[Rosh Hashanah|Yom Teruah]], [[Yom Kippur]], [[Sukkot]]) will be literally fulfilled to the day at Jesus's second coming, and that all of the [[Jewish holidays|moedim]], indeed the entire Torah, intrinsically hint at the Messiah.{{fact}}

==Overview of the Issues==

Traditional Christianity affirms that the Torah is the word of God, though some Christians deny that all of the laws of the [[Pentateuch]] apply directly to themselves as Christians. The New Testament suggests that Yeshua established a [[New Covenant (theology)|new covenant]] relationship between God and his people (Heb 8; Jer 31:31–34) and this new covenant speaks of the Torah being written upon the heart. Various passages such as Matthew 5:17-19, Matthew 28:19-20, 1 John 3:4 and Romans 3:3, as well as various examples of Torah observance in the New Testament, are cited by Messianics in suggesting that the Torah was not and could not have been abolished.

Many Messianics believe that it is absurd to assume that any of the [[613 Mitzvot]] would be abolished simply because certain commandments are or are not repeated or reaffirmed individually in the New Testament, proclaiming the belief that such was never the job of the Apostles in the first place, and that the Torah has always been immutable. Messianics sometimes challenge Christians by arguing that if they believe Jesus is the Messiah, then according to the Torah itself Yeshua could not have changed the Torah.

As with [[Orthodox Judaism]], capital punishment and animal sacrifice are not practiced because there are strict Biblical conditions on how these are to be practiced, requiring a functioning Temple in [[Jerusalem]] with its [[Levite]] priesthood. When the power of capital punishment is available, often its exercise is only after exhausting loopholes in Torah which are used to set a suspect free. According to the Talmud, capital punishment in Jewish law always had to lean on merciful alternatives to execution and make every effort not to give the strictest punishment within the confines of the Torah: "A Sanhedrin which kills once in seven years is considered murderous. Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah said: once in seventy years. Rabbi Akiva and Rabbi Tarfon said: if we had been in the Sanhedrin, no one would have ever been killed." (Mishnah Makot 1:10).

Most Messianics believe that observance of the [[Torah]] brings about sanctification, not salvation, which was to be produced only by the Messiah.<ref>Lancaster and Berkowitz (see below)</ref>

Like so many other elements of Messianic Judaism, the issue of Torah observance varies widely across the movement. The following subsections attempt to explain the differing opinions about Torah observance within Messianic Judaism as a whole.

A number of subjects have become off-limits within the complicated world of Messianic Judaism and some find this intellectually dishonest and damaging to the movement.<ref>[http://messianicjudaismquest.com Messianic Judaism Quest]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Messianic religious practice]]


==References==
==References==
{{reflist}}
{{reflist}}
<!--<nowiki>
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref> and </ref> tags.
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==External links==
* Ariel, Yaakov, Evangelizing the Chosen People: Mission to the Jews in America, 1880-2000. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2000.
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/GE_P4_1_EN.html The Dirty Thirties] &mdash; Images of the Great Depression in Canada
* Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (ed.), Voices of Messianic Judaism: Confronting Critical Issues Facing a Maturing Movement, Baltimore, MO: Lederer Books, 2001.
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s2/Time/timefr.html The 1930s Timeline] &mdash; from American Studies Programs at The University of Virginia
* Cohn-Sherbok, Dan. Messianic Judaism. London: Cassell, 2000.

* Harvey, Richard, Mapping Messianic Jewish Theology. Lulu.com.
[[Category:1930s| ]]
* Juster, Dan, Jewish Roots: A Foundation of Biblical Theology for Messianic Judaism, Rockville, MD: Davar Publishing, 1986, 1992.
* Kinzer, Mark, Postmissionary Messianic Judaism: Redefining Christian Engagement with the Jewish People (Grand Rapids: Brazos, 2005)
Publications, 1991.
* Robinson, Richard, The Messianic Movement: A Fieldguide for Evangelical Christians, San Francisco, Purple Pomegranate Productions: 2006.
* Stern, David H. Messianic Jewish Manifesto. Clarksville Maryland: Jewish New Testament


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Revision as of 04:07, 13 October 2008

Millennium
2nd millennium
Centuries
Decades
Years
Categories

The 1930s were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression. In East Asia, the rise of militarism occurred.

In Western Europe, Australia and the United States, more progressive reforms occurred as opposed to the extreme measures sought elsewhere. Roosevelt's New Deal attempted to use government spending to combat large-scale unemployment and severely negative growth. In Europe, multiple countries turn to authoritarian, nationalist, and fascist governments such as in Austria, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Portugal, and Spain. Multiple countries in Europe reject the borders established after the Treaty of Versailles such as Germany, Hungary, Italy, and the Soviet Union which sought expanding their territories in the decade. In Africa, the last non-colonized country, Ethiopia is occupied by Italian military forces. Entities in the British Empire experience an increase in power being decentralized by the United Kingdom to them in 1931 with the Statute of Westminster, while Mohandas Gandhi continues his peaceful protests to demand independence for India from British colonial rule. East Asia has a number of major conflicts, including civil war in China between communists and nationalists, the invasion and occupation of Manchuria by Japan, and war between China and Japan.

Technology

Many technological advances occurred in the 1930s, including:

1931: Empire State Building is opened.

International issues

Africa

Americas

Emblem of the National Recovery Administration (NRA) of the United States, an organization created as part the "New Deal".

Asia

Mohandas Gandhi on the Salt March in 1930.
Japanese marines at Guangdong in the Battle of Wuhan in 1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War.

Europe

File:Hitlermusso2 edit.jpg
German dictator Adolf Hitler (right) and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (left) pursue agendas of territorial expansion for their countries in the 1930s, eventually leading to the outbreak of World War II in 1939.
  • The Spanish monarchy abdicates and Spain becomes a republic in 1931.
  • Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Worker's Party (Nazi Party) rise to power in Germany 1933, forming a fascist regime committed to repudiating the Treaty of Versailles, persecuting and removing Jews and other minorities from German society, expanding Germany's territory, and opposing the spread of communism. The Nazis dismantle parliamentary democracy and replace it with a totalitarian dictatorship under Hitler. Germany rebounds in the international sphere culturally, economically, and militarily. Germany in this period hosted the Summer Olympic games of 1936 in Berlin, Germany experienced economic recovery, and there were vast investments in developing the German military, such as restoring the German air force (Luftwaffe) which was forbidden in the Treaty of Versailles. Political violence against those deemed opponents of the regime occur, including violence against Jews such as in Kristallnacht and even left-wing Nazi dissidents are violently purged from the Nazi Party during the Night of the Long Knives in 1934.
  • In the Soviet Union, agricultural collectivization and rapid industrialization take place.[1]
  • Austrian chancellor Engelbert Dolfuss is assassinated in 1934 by Austrian Nazis. Germany and Italy nearly clash over the issue of Austrian independence despite close ideological similarities of the Italian Fascist and Nazi regimes.
  • King Alexander of Yugoslavia is assassinated in 1934 by a radical Macedonian nationalist.
  • Anglo-German naval agreement is signed in 1935, removing the Treaty Versailles' level of limitation on the size of the German navy, allowing Germany to build a larger navy
  • Spanish Civil War occurs from 1936 to 1939. Germany and Italy back anti-communist nationalist forces of Francisco Franco. The Soviet Union backs the left-wing republican faction in the war. The war ends in April 1939 with Franco's nationalist forces defeating the republican forces. Franco becomes dictator of Spain.
  • Éamon de Valera introduces a new constitution for the Irish Free State in 1937, effectively ending its status as a British Dominion.
  • The "Great Purge" of "Old Bolsheviks" from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union takes place from 1937 to 1938, as ordered by Soviet Union leader Josef Stalin, resulting in hundreds of thousands of people being killed.
  • Germany and Italy pursue territorial expansionist agendas in Europe and imperialism in Africa. Germany demands the annexation of Austria and German-populated territories in Europe. From 1935 to 1936, Germany receives the Saar, remilitarizes the Rhineland. Italy initially opposes Germany's aims on Austria but the two countries resolve their differences in 1936 in the aftermath of Italy's diplomatic isolation after its invasion of Ethiopia which only Germany supported. Germany and Italy improve relations by forming an alliance against communism in 1936 with the signing of the Anti-Comintern Pact. Germany annexes Austria and then the Sudetenland after negotiations which resulted in the Munich Agreement in 1938. Italy annexes Albania in 1939 and Germany receives the Meuse territory from Latvia, occupies Czecholslovakia, and finally invades Poland which results in the outbreak of World War II.

Oceania

Economics

  • The Great Depression occurred during the 1930s.
  • Economic interventionist policies increase in popularity as a result of the Great Depression in both authoritarian and democratic countries. In the western world, Keynesianism replaces classical economic theory.
  • Rapid industrialization takes place in the Soviet Union.

Literature and Art

Popular culture

File:AE and Vega.jpg
Amelia Earhart in 1935.
Pablo Picasso's famous painting Guernica (1937).
  • Radio becomes dominant mass media in industrial nations.
  • First intercontinental commercial airline flights.
  • Amelia Earhart receives major attention in the 1930s as the first woman pilot to conduct major air flights. Her dissappearance for unknown reasons in 1937 while on flight prompted search efforts which failed.
  • Height of the Art Deco movement in North America and western Europe.
  • Major international media attention follows Mohandas Gandhi's peaceful resistance movement against British colonial rule in India.
  • The U.S. film The Wizard of Oz is the first colour film and is enormously popular.
  • "Swing" music starts becoming popular (from 1935 onward). It gradually replaces the sweet form of Jazz that had been popular for the first half of the decade.
  • Triumph of the Will - Leni Riefenstahl's ground-breaking Nazi propaganda film.
  • The 1937 World's Fair in Paris, France displays the growing political tensions in Europe. The pavilions of the rival countries of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union face each other. Germany at the time was internationally condemned for its air forces bombing of the Basque town of Guernica in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, which Spanish artist Pablo Picasso depicted in his masterpiece painting Guernica at the World Fair, which was a surrealist depiction of the horror of the bombing.

Disasters

The German dirigible airship Hindenburg exploding in 1937.

Others

Military Enigma machine

People

World leaders

Adolf Hitler forms a totalitarian regime and dictatorship in Germany whose expansionist ambitions lead to the outbreak of World War II in Europe.
File:Gandhi studio 1931.jpg
Mahatma Gandhi Spearheaded Non Violent Movement against foreign oppression
Franklin D. Roosevelt, as President of the United States initiates major economic reform in the United States.
Hailie Selassie, Emperor of Ethiopia faces his country being invaded and occupied by Italy and is forced into exile.

Sports figures

British Commonwealth

United States

References

  1. ^ A. L. Unger (January 1969). "Stalin's Renewal of the Leading Stratum: A Note on the Great Purge". Soviet Studies. 20 (3): 321–330. Retrieved 2007-05-29. {{cite journal}}: More than one of |number= and |issue= specified (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)

External links

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