Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Muhammad Ali Jinnah ( Urdu محمد علی جناح; Gujarati : મહંમદ અલી ઝીણા) (* December 25, 1876 in Karachi ; † September 11, 1948 ibid) was a politician and resistance fighter in British India and is considered the founder of the state of Pakistan . He is known in Pakistan as Qaid-e Azam (قائد اعظم"Greatest Leader") and Baba-e-Qaum (بابائے قوم"Father of the Nation") honored. His birthdays and deaths are national holidays in Pakistan.

Jinnah came to prominence in the Indian National Congress when he promoted the political unity of Hindus and Muslims . In 1916 he helped forge the Lucknow Pact between the Congress Party and the All-India Muslim League and became one of the most important figures in the All India Home Rule League . Differences with Mahatma Gandhiled to Jinnah leaving the Congress party in 1920. In the same year he took over the presidency of the Muslim League and later proposed his fourteen-point plan to secure the political rights of Muslims in a self-governed India. Disaffected by the failures of his efforts and the league disagreement, Jinnah went to London for many years . Various politicians urged him to return to India in 1934 and reorganize the league. Disappointed with the Congress Party, the Muslim League proposed the partition of India and the establishment of an independent, separate Muslim state in the Lahore resolution . In the 1946 elections, the league won most of the Muslim seats in Punjab , Bengal and Sind . This led to the colonial power consenting to the partition of India . As Pakistan's first governor general , Jinnah made efforts to reintegrate the many millions of refugees and to outline national foreign, security and economic policies. He died just a few months after the state was founded.

life and work

Childhood and youth

Jinnah was born as Mahomedali Jinnahbhai, the eldest child of a wealthy merchant in Wazir Mansion in Karachi (now Pakistan). The earliest evidence in his school register suggests that Jinnahs was born on October 20, 1875, but his first biographer, Sarojini Naidu, gave December 25, 1876 in 1917. Since then, this date of birth has been recorded in all official documents, including Jinnah's passport. His father Jinnahbhai Poonja (1857–1901) had emigrated to Kathiawar from Sindh Province . Before converting to Islam, his grandfather belonged to the same caste as Gandhi. Muhammad had six younger siblings: first followed by his three brothers Ahmad Ali, Bunde Ali and Rahmat Ali, then the three sisters Maryam, Fatima and Shireen. His family belonged to the Ismailis of the Muslim Shia . The family language at home was Gujarati .

Jinnah was first homeschooled. From 1887 he went to school in Sind Madrasat al-Islam in Karachi, from which today's Sindh Madressatul Islam University emerged . He later attended the Christian Mission Society high school in Karachi. There he passed the matriculation examination for admission to the University of Bombay at the age of 16 . An English friend of his father's offered Jinnah an apprenticeship at his Grahams Shipping and Trading Company in London. Jinnah's father agreed to the plan. Before leaving for London, Jinnah was married to his cousin Emibai, who was two years his junior, in an arranged marriage; the spouses were 16 and 14 years old at the time of the marriage. When Jinnah was in London, his young wife, who had stayed in India, died, as did his mother. Jinnah soon quit his apprenticeship to study law at Lincoln's Inn . In 1895 he finished his studies with an exam as a barrister . From this point on, Jinnah began to become politically active as an admirer of the Indian politicians Dadabhai Naoroji and Sir Pherozeshah Mahta .

Together with other Indian students, Jinnah took part in Naoroji's election campaign for a seat in the British House of Commons . He developed the views of a staunch parliamentarian and constitutional politician who stood up for Indian self-government and at the same time scorned the arrogance of British officials and the discrimination against Indians.

Jinnah, who was flawless in personal matters and absolute integrity in matters of money, came under considerable pressure when his father's business went bankrupt . He moved to Bombay and became a brilliant and successful lawyer , particularly famous for handling the caucus case, which he represented before the Supreme Court of Bombay in 1905 at the behest of Pherozeshah Mahta. Jinnah built a house on Malabar Hill that later became known as Jinnah House . He was not a strictly practicing Muslim, liked to drink champagne , Bordeaux wine , Chablis , cognac , ate oysters and caviar , shaved carefully every day, dressed in impeccable European clothing for life, preferred tailored, white linen suits and two-tone shoes, and avoided the mosque on Fridays and spoke better English than his native Gujarati. In Urdu , the language familiar to most Indian Muslims , Jinnah could only speak a few sentences. His reputation as a skilled lawyer prompted the Indian politician Bal Gangadhar Tilak him in 1905 as his lawyer during his trial for sedition to commission. Jinnah adroitly argued that it was not incitement to seduce an Indian to demand freedom and self-government for his own country, but Tilak received a rigorous prison sentence.

Early political career

In 1896 Jinnah joined the Indian National Congress, which was India's largest political organization at the time. Like the majority of Congress at the time, Jinnah was not in favor of complete independence, given what he saw as the British influence on education , law , culture and industry that was beneficial to India . He met Gopal Krishna Gokhale , who exerted a strong influence on him; At the beginning of his political career, Jinnah pursued the goal of becoming a "Muslim Gokhale". On January 25, 1910, Jinnah became a member of the sixty-member Imperial Legislative Council . This council had no real power or authority. It included a large number of unelected British Indian loyalists and Europeans. Nonetheless, Jinnah was instrumental in the passing of the "Law to Curb Child Marriage ", the legitimation of the Muslim Waqf - religious foundations - and was appointed to the Sandhurst Committee , which established the Indian Military Academy in Dehra Dun . During World War II , Jinnah was among those moderate Indians who supported the British war effort in the hope that Indians would be rewarded with political freedoms.

Jinnah initially avoided joining the All India Muslim League , which was founded in 1906 , because he only gave it local significance. In 1913, however, he joined it without leaving the Congress Party and became its president in 1916 on the occasion of the annual meeting of the Muslim League in Lucknow . Under his leadership, it increasingly developed into a political party that distinguished itself from the competing Congress party. He became the architect of the Lucknow Pact concluded in the same year between the Congress Party and the Muslim League, where he succeeded in presenting most questions of self-government to the British as a unified political front. Jinnah also played a significant role in the establishment of an All India Home Rule League in 1916 . Together with the other leading politicians Annie Besant and Tilak, he called for Home Rule for India, the status of a self-governing Dominion in the British Empire similar to the status of Canada , New Zealand and Australia . During the capital of the League's Bombay presidency, he presided over it.

Jinnah's second wife Maryam, called "Ruttie"

During a vacation stay at the Mount Everest Hotel in Darjeeling , the 41-year-old apparently inveterate bachelor got to know Jinnah Rattanbai Petit ("Ruttie"), the 17-year-old daughter of his close friend Sir Dinshaw Petit , with whom he fell madly in love applicable in India at that time social conventions , as the native of Bombay Ruttie the Parsee elite belonged to the country. Petit was so angry about the looming love that the friendship broke up and he obtained a court order prohibiting Jinnah from seeing Ruttie again. But Ruttie apparently reciprocated Jinnah's feelings and, at her eighteenth birthday, ran off to marry Jinnah, 24 years her senior, in 1918, against the will of Parish and Orthodox Muslim society. However, she defied her family, nominally converted to Islam, and took the name Maryam (she never used it), which resulted in alienation from her family and the Parish community. The couple lived in Bombay and traveled extensively across India and Europe. In 1919, Jinnah gave birth to their only child, daughter Dina Wadia .

Fourteen Points and "Exile"

Jinnah's problems with the Congress Party began with the rise of Mohandas Gandhi in 1918, who recommended nonviolent civil disobedience as the best method for all Indians to attain Swaraj (independence or self-government). In contrast, Jinnah only viewed constitutional struggle as a means of independence. Civil disobedience is something for the ignorant and illiterate, he taught Gandhi. Unlike most of the leading figures in Congress, Gandhi did not wear Western-style clothing, tried to use one of the Indian languages ​​instead of English, and was deeply religious. Gandhi's “Indianized” leadership style was very popular with the Indian population. Jinnah criticized Gandhi's support for the caliphate campaign from 1919/1920, which Jinnah saw as support for religious zealotism . In 1920 Jinnah withdrew from the Congress party, warning that Gandhi's methods of mass struggle would lead to a division between Hindus and Muslims and others within the two religious groups.

At the beginning of his presidency of the Muslim League, Jinnah was drawn into a conflict between the pro-Congress Party faction and the pro-British faction. In 1927, Jinnah entered into negotiations with Muslim and Hindu politicians over the question of a future constitution while fighting the wholly British Simon Commission . The league called for separate elections, while the Nehru report favored joint elections. Jinnah himself did not believe in separate elections, but made compromise proposals and made further demands that he believed would benefit both sides. His program came to be known as Mr. Jinnah's 14 Points . Both the Congress Party and the other political parties rejected his 14 points.

Jinnah's personal life, and especially his marriage, suffered from his political work during this period. The sensationally beautiful, fun-loving Ruttie loved to dress in transparent, figure-hugging saris and to shock Bombay's upright company. Although they were working to save their marriage by traveling to Europe together when he was appointed to the Sandhurst Committee, the eloquent Indian nationalist left the respectable, dearly loving Jinnah in 1928 and died a year later of an overdose of morphine that she took for chronic colitis . Jinnah was deeply affected by her death. He wept in public for the first time at her open grave in the Islamic cemetery in Bombay. The otherwise stiff and unapproachable, almost numb-looking man showed feelings publicly for the first time.

At the round table conferences in London, Jinnah criticized Gandhi, but was disillusioned when the talks broke off. Frustrated by the disagreement in the Muslim League, he decided to leave politics and work as a lawyer in England. His sister, Fatima Jinnah , a previously practicing dentist , has since looked after him, lived and traveled with him, and became his closest adviser. She helped raise his daughter, who was educated in England and India. After his daughter later decided to marry the Parsi- born Christian businessman Neville Wadia , he became estranged from his daughter, although struggling with the same problems himself, in 1918 when he married Rattanbai. Jinnah continued his cordial correspondence with his daughter, but their personal relationship remained tense. Dina has lived in India with her family ever since.

Leader of the Muslim League

Prominent Muslims such as the Aga Khan , Choudhary Rahmat Ali , AR Dard and Sir Muhammad Iqbal made efforts to persuade Jinnah to return to India. In the spring of 1933, Rahmat Ali invited Jinnah to a banquet with oysters and chablis at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in London to persuade him to take over the now reunited Muslim League. Eventually, Jinnah returned to India in 1934, was elected permanent president and began reorganizing the party, assisted by Liaquat Ali Khan , who acted as his right-hand man. In the elections to the provincial governments in 1937, which were carried out as part of a proposed constitutional reform, the league proved to be a competent party that won a significant number of seats from the Muslim electorate, but in the important Muslim-majority provinces Punjab , Sindh and Northwest Frontier Province lost. The Congress Party won a majority in nine of the eleven provinces.

Jinnah, who identified the Congress Party with the Hindu majority, offered it an alliance - both factions would confront the British together, but the Congress Party would have split their power, accept the restoration of a separate electorate from the 1909 Constitution (suffrage) and the League as a representation of Muslims in India. The latter two points were unacceptable to the Congress Party, which had its own national Islamic representatives and adhered to secularism . It refused to allow the Muslim League to participate in offices and benefices even in the provinces where there were significant Muslim minorities. Even as Jinnah entered into talks with Congress Party President Rajendra Prasad , members of Congress suspected Jinnah of using his position to make excessive demands and prevent the formation of a government, and urged the League to merge with Congress. Negotiations failed, and although Jinnah declared the withdrawal of all members of Congress from provincial and central offices on the day of confinement from Hindu domination in 1938, some historians claim that he continued to hope for an agreement.

In a speech to the League in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal put an independent Muslim state in northwestern India up for debate. Rahmat Ali published a pamphlet in 1933 with the provocative title Now or never. Are we to live or perish forever? ("Now or never. Will we live or disappear forever?"), In which he propagated a state that he called "Pakistan". Jinnah had initially given Rahmat Ali a sobering refusal. This is "an impossible dream". After the failure of cooperation with the Congress Party, the unsuccessful demand for the restoration of separate suffrage and the demand of the Muslim League to exclusively represent the Muslim electorate, Jinnah switched to the idea of ​​a separate state for Muslims in order to protect their rights. Jinnah came to believe that Muslims and Hindus were two separate nations with irreconcilable opposites - a view later known as the " two nation theory ". He stated that a united India would lead to the marginalization of Muslims and, later, civil war between Hindus and Muslims. This change in belief may have been caused by his correspondence with Iqbal, who was very close to Jinnah. During the party congress in Lahore in 1940, the so-called Pakistan resolution was adopted as the main objective of the party. The resolution was rejected with an outcry from the Congress Party and many representatives of Muslims such as Maulana Abul Kalam Azad , Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan , Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi and the Jamaat-e-Islami . Jinnah was stabbed on July 26, 1943 and wounded in an attempted attack by a member of the extremist Khaksars .

Jinnah founded Dawn in 1941 - an important newspaper that helped promote the League's viewpoints. During the mission of British Minister Stafford Cripps , Jinnah demanded parity with regard to the Ministers of the Congress Party and the Muslim League as well as the exclusive right of representation of Muslims by the League and the right of the provinces with Muslim majority to secession , which led to the breakdown of the negotiations. Jinnah supported the British war effort during World War II and opposed the "Quit India" movement . During this period the league formed provincial governments and entered the central government. After the death in 1942 of the head of the Union Muslim League, Sikander Hyat Khan , a Muslim party that campaigned for the unity of India and against the secession of Pakistan, the influence of the Muslim League in Punjab grew. In 1944 Gandhi negotiated 14 negotiations with Jinnah in Bombay about a united front; when the negotiations failed, Gandhi Jinnah offered his assistance to the Muslims.

Establishment of Pakistan

In the 1946 elections to the Constituent Assembly of India, the Congress Party won the majority of the seats, especially the Hindu seats, while the Muslim League won the majority of the Muslim seats. The British Cabinet Mission, 1946, published a plan on May 16, calling for a unified India of sizable, autonomous provinces and "groups" of provinces to be formed on the basis of religions. A second plan, published on June 16, provided for the partition of India along religious lines with the princely states , which could choose between joining the Dominion or independence. Concerned about the fragmentation of India, the Congress Party criticized the proposal on May 16 and rejected it on June 16. Jinnah gave the Muslim League's approval to both plans, knowing that power would only be transferred to the party that supported the plan. After a debate and contrary to Gandhi's advice, who viewed both plans as causing conflict, the Congress Party accepted the May 16 plan, while at the same time rejecting the group principle. Jinnah condemned the approval as "dishonesty", accused the British negotiators of "treason" and withdrew the league's approval of both plans. The league boycotted the assembly and left the Congress, which was charged with forming a government, but denied its legitimacy in the eyes of many Muslims.

Jinnah issued a call to all Muslims for Direct Action on August 16 to "reach Pakistan". Strikes and protests were planned, as a result of which violence broke out across India, particularly in Calcutta and the Noakhali district in Bengal, and more than 7,000 people were murdered in Bihar . Although Viceroy Archibald Wavell confirmed that there was "no convincing evidence to support this link", League politicians were accused by the Congress Party and the media of orchestrating the violence. After a conference in London in December 1946, the Muslim League entered the transitional government, but Jinnah refused to accept office. It was credited as a major victory for Jinnah that the League entered government despite rejecting both plans and allowing it to appoint the same number of ministers despite being a minority party. The coalition was unable to work out of a growing feeling within the Congress party that partition was the only way to avoid political chaos and possible civil war. The Congress Party approved the partition of Punjab and the partition of Bengal along religious lines in late 1946. The new viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten and the Indian official VP Menon developed a proposal to create an Islamic domination in West Punjab, East Bengal, Balochistan and Sindh. After a heated and emotional debate, the Congress Party confirmed this plan. In a referendum in July 1947, the North-West Frontier Province voted to join Pakistan. In a speech in Lahore on October 30, 1947, Jinnah asserted that the league had accepted the division because "the consequences of any other alternative would be too disastrous to imagine".

Governor General

Together with Liaquat Ali Khan and Abdur Rab Nishtar , Jinnah represented the Muslim League in the Partition Council, which had to appropriately divide the public wealth between India and Pakistan. The assembly members from the provinces that would form Pakistan formed the new constituent assembly and the British Indian military had to be divided between Muslim and non-Muslim units and officers. Indian politicians were upset when Jinnah wooed the princely states of Jodhpur , Bhopal and Indore to join Pakistan, even though these princely states were not geographically connected to Pakistan and had a Hindu majority of the population.

Jinnah became Pakistan's first governor general and president of its constituent assembly. At the opening of the meeting on August 11, 1947, he put the vision of a secular state first:

“They may belong to any religious caste or belief - this has nothing to do with the role of the state. In the course of time, Hindus will cease to be Hindus and Muslims to cease to be Muslim, not in the religious sense because this is the personal confession of every individual, but in the political sense as citizens of the state. "

The office of governor-general was ceremonial, but Jinnah also claimed leadership of the government. The first months of Pakistan's existence have been taken up by the intense violence that has arisen. As a result of the hostilities between Hindus and Muslims, Jinnah agreed with the Indian authorities to organize a quick and safe population exchange in Punjab and Bengal. He visited the border regions together with Indian politicians to calm the people down and restore peace, and organized huge refugee camps . Despite these efforts, estimates of the death toll ranged from approximately 200,000 to 1 million people. The estimated number of refugees in both countries reached 15 million. The population of the capital Karachi exploded because of the large number of refugee camps. Jinnah was personally saddened and depressed by the intense violence of this period. Jinnah ordered violence to annex the princely state of Kalat and to suppress the uprising in Balochistan. He accepted the controversial annexation of Junagadh , a state with a Hindu majority and a Muslim regent on the Saurashtra peninsula about 400 kilometers southeast of Pakistan, which was then reversed by an Indian intervention.

It is unclear whether Jinnah planned or had knowledge of Pakistan's tribal invasion of the Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir in October 1947, but he sent his private secretary, Khurshid Ahmed, to monitor developments in Kashmir . When informed of Kashmir's annexation to India, Jinnah condemned the annexation as illegitimate and ordered the Pakistani army to march into Kashmir. Thereupon the commander-in-chief of all British officers in the former colony of British India, Sir Claude Auchinleck , informed Jinnah that while India had the right to send troops to Kashmir that had already reached it, Pakistan did not have that right. If Jinnah continued to insist, Auchinleck would withdraw all British officers from both sides. Since Pakistan had a large number of British in high command positions, Jinnah revoked his order, but protested to the United Nations and asked for mediation.

Because of his role in founding the state, Jinnah was the most popular and influential politician. He played a crucial role in the protection of minority rights , laid the foundations of the Pakistani state, founded colleges, military institutions and Pakistan's financial policy . During his first visit to East Pakistan, Jinnah emphasized that Urdu should be the only national language, which the Bengalis in East Pakistan, today's Bangladesh, violently contradicted because they traditionally speak Bengali . He was working on a deal with India to end the dispute over property-sharing.

death

The Mazar-e-Quaid Jinnahs tomb complex in Karachi

During his lifetime, Jinnah's lungs had been his weak point. Jinnah had been treated in Berlin long before the Second World War for complications from pleurisy . Since then, frequent bronchitis attacks had permanently limited his operational capability and sapped his strength. Since June 1946, Jinnah knew the diagnosis of his doctor Dr. LA Patel : tuberculosis . Only his sister and a small number of close confidants shared this secret. In 1948, Jinnah's health began to fluctuate due to the severe stresses that followed the establishment of Pakistan. He spent many months in his official retreat in Ziarat trying to recover and regain his health, but died on September 11, 1948 of a combination of tuberculosis and lung cancer . After his burial, a massive mausoleum was built - Mazar-e-Quaid - in Karachi to honor him; Official and military ceremonies are held there on special occasions.

Jinnah's daughter Dina Wadia stayed in India after the partition before finally relocating to New York City . Jinnah's grandson Nusli Wadia is a prominent industrialist who lives in Mumbai. In the 1963–1964 elections, Jinnah's sister Fatima Jinnah, known as Madar-e-Millat ("Mother of the Nation"), became a presidential candidate for a coalition of political parties opposed to President Muhammed Ayub Khan , but she lost the election .

Criticism and inheritance

rating

Rajmohan Gandhi sees Jinnah as a supporter of the two-nation theory , according to which Hindus and Muslims cannot live together in the same state. In connection with the Junagadh tug of war , he claims that Jinnah wanted to provoke India to demand a plebiscite in Junagadh in order to then demand a plebiscite in Kashmir . Jinnah had hoped that the Muslim majority in Kashmir would have voted in a plebiscite to join Pakistan. Some historians such as HM Seervai and Ayesha Jalal assert that Jinnah never wanted the partition of India - it was the result of the unwillingness of the Congress Party's leadership to share power with the Muslim League . It is alleged that Jinnah merely used the Pakistan issue as a mobilization method to achieve significant political rights for Muslims.

Jinnah has gained the admiration of great nationalist Indian politicians like Atal Bihari Vajpayee . In June 2005, Lal Krishna Advani , party leader of the Indian Bharatiya Janata Party , paid a notable visit to Jinnah's mausoleum in Karachi. He praised Jinnah's “secular” vision for the new state of Pakistan and praised Jinnah as “an ambassador of unity between Hindus and Muslims”. These words, unusual for a representative of Hindu nationalism , sparked violent protests in Advani's party, which forced him to resign from the party leadership.

In Bangladesh , up to the East Pakistani Liberation War of 1971 , Jinnah is viewed negatively by some because, in their opinion, he concentrated power with the West Pakistani (= non-Bengali) Punjab industrialists and military officers. The Muslim population in Bengal disagreed with the fact that Bengali politicians were underrepresented in the leadership of the Muslim League. This imbalance contributed to the fact that East Pakistan later seceded from Pakistan and became independent as Bangladesh.

Honors

10 rupee banknote with the portrait of Ali Jinnah

Jinnah is honored in Pakistan with the official title of Quaid-e-Azam ("Great Leader"). He is on all notes of the Pakistani rupee displayed with the value of ten or more. On the occasion of his 100th birthday, the government issued a postage stamp. Jinnah's mausoleum , the " Mazar-e-Quaid ", is one of the most imposing buildings in Karachi.

Jinnah acts as the namesake for many public institutions in Pakistan. The following are named after him:

• the Jinnah International Airport in Karachi (formerly Quaid-e-Azam International Airport ), the largest airport in Pakistan
• one of the largest streets in the Turkish capital Ankara , the Cinnah Caddesi
• one of the most important expressways in the Iranian capital Tehran

Movies

In Richard Attenborough's film Gandhi (1982) Jinnah was played by the stage actor Alyque Padamsee . In the television miniseries Lord Mountbatten: the Last Viceroy (1986), Jinnah was played by Polish actor Vladek Sheybal . In the 1998 film Jinnah he is portrayed as a young man by British actor Richard Lintern , while the older Jinnah is played by British actor Christopher Lee .

Jinnah House

Jinnah had a stately residence built in Bombay in 1936, the Jinnah House, on a one-acre site, officially known as the South Court . The building is a historic Jinnah legacy. It was here that Jinnah and Gandhi had crucial talks about the partition of India in September 1944. Further talks between Jinnah and Jawaharlal Nehru took place on August 15, 1946 - exactly one year to the day before India's independence. Jinnah also felt a strong bond to his home himself. When he became Governor General of Pakistan, he reportedly asked Indian Prime Minister Nehru to make the property available to any country's consulate. Nehru offered Jinnah a lease, but it could not be concluded because of Jinnah's death. With that, Jinnah's wish to be able to spend his old age in this place no longer came true.

From 1948 to 1983 the building served the British High Commission as the residence of the Deputy High Commissioner. In 1983 the Indian government asserted its claims on the property. Since then, the Pakistani government has repeatedly asked India to sell or rent the house to it so that it could be used as the residence of the Pakistani embassy. India has not yet responded to this. Jinnah's only daughter Dina Wadia also claims the property. In 2007, she filed a lawsuit in the Mumbai High Court. The value of the property is estimated at around 400 million US dollars (as of 2017).

literature

• Ahmed, Akbar S. Jinnah, Pakistan, and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin (1997)
• Ajeet, Javed Secular and Nationalist Jinnah JNU Press Delhi
• Asiananda, Jinnah: A Corrective Reading of Indian History
• Collins, Larry / Lapierre, Dominique: “Freedom at midnight”, 1983, ISBN 3-499-17179-1
• Gandhi, Rajmohan, Patel: A Life (1990), Ahmedabad , Navajivan
• Philip Valiaparampil: Jinnah, Mohammed Ali . In: Hans Herzfeld (Hrsg.): "Geschichte in Gestalten", Volume 2. Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag 1963, pp. 256-257 (The Fischer Lexikon special volume 38)
• French, Patrick (1997). Liberty or Death: India's Journey to Independence and Division . HarperCollins, 1997
• Hardiman, David Peasant Nationalists of Gujarat , ISBN 0-19-561255-8
• Jalal, Ayesha (1994). The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan . Cambridge: CUP. ISBN 0-521-45850-1
• Jinnah, Fatima (1987). My brother . Quaid-i-Azam Academy, ISBN 969-413-036-0 ( online at scribd.com)
• Mansergh. Transfer of Power Papers (Volume IX)
• Wolpert, Stanley (2002). Jinnah of Pakistan . Oxford: OUP.

Web links

Commons : Muhammad Ali Jinnah  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

• Biography German-Pakistani Society Karlsruhe
• Photographs of Jinnah and his family members pakistanhotline.com (English)

English biographies

• Encyclopædia Britannica
• biography.com
• Story of Pakistan

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c} Muhammad Ali Jinnah biography.com (English)
2. ↑ The Chronicle of Pakistan: 1947: December (archived website), see Pakistan celebrates founder's birthday
3. ↑ See Muhammad Ali Jinnah biography.com (English)
4. ↑ Fact file: Jinnah's family website of the Pakistani daily newspaper Dawn
5. ^ ^{A b c} Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Lawyer: Bombay (1896-1910)" . Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
6. ↑ Larry Collins / Dominique Lapierre: "Freedom at midnight", ISBN 3-499-17179-1 , p. 116f.
7. ^ Hardiman, Peasant Nationalists of Gujarat , 89.
8. ↑ Larry Collins / Dominique Lapierre: "Freedom at midnight", ISBN 3-499-17179-1 , p. 117.
9. ^ Mohammed Ali Jinnah Encyclopædia Britannica
10. ^ ^{A b} Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Statesman: Jinnah's differences with the Congress" . Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
11. ↑ Larry Collins / Dominique Lapierre: "Freedom at midnight", ISBN 3-499-17179-1 , p. 241.
12. ↑ Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman , p. 8.
13. ^ Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Statesman: Quaid-i-Azam's Fourteen Points" . Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
14. ↑ Larry Collins / Dominique Lapierre: "Freedom at midnight", ISBN 3-499-17179-1 , p. 242.
15. ^ Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Statesman: London 1931" . Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
16. ↑ Hans Herzfeld (Ed.): "Geschichte in Gestalten", 1963, p. 256 f.
17. ↑ Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman , p. 27.
18. ↑ Dietermar Rothermund: Jewel of the Crown - India under British colonial rule , in: Die Zeit-Lexikon Welt- und Kulturgeschichte, Volume 12, Age of Nationalism, ISBN 3-411-17602-4 , pp. 347f.
19. ↑ ^{a b} Ayesha Jalal, The Sole Spokesman , p. 14.
20. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi , Patel: A Life , p. 262.
21. ^ R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life , p. 289.
22. ↑ Larry Collins / Dominique Lapierre: "Freedom at midnight", ISBN 3-499-17179-1 , p. 116.
23. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life , p. 292.
24. ^ Government of Pakistan Official website: The Statesman: Allama Iqbal's Presidential Address at Allahabad 1930 . Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
25. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life , p. 331.
26. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life , p. 369.
27. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi: Patel: A Life. P. 372 f.
28. ^ Mansergh, "Transfer of Power Papers Volume IX", p. 879.
29. ^ R. Gandhi: Patel: A Life. P. 376 ff.
30. ^ Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Leader: The Plan of June 3, 1947: page 2" . Archived from the original on November 5, 2005. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
31. ↑ Tripod.com "Pakistanspace": "1947: October - Jinnah visits Lahore" . Archived from the original on May 7, 2004. Retrieved April 20, 2006.
32. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi, Patel: A Life , p. 416.
33. ^ R. Gandhi, Patel: A Life , pp. 407f.
34. ^ Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Governor General" . Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
35. ↑ Users.Erols.com "Matthew White": "Secondary Wars and Atrocities of the Twentieth Century" . Retrieved April 20, 2006.
36. ^ Department of English, Emory University "Postcolonial Studies" project: "The Partition of India" . Retrieved April 20, 2006.
37. ↑ Tripod.com "Pakistanspace": "1947: September - Formidable Jinnah is very dignified and very sad" . Archived from the original on May 7, 2004. Retrieved April 20, 2006.
38. ^ ^{A b} Rajmohan Gandhi , Patel: A Life , p. 444.
39. ↑ Tripod.com "Pakistanspace": "1947: October - Jinnah wants the minorities to stay in Pakistan" . Archived from the original on May 7, 2004. Retrieved April 20, 2006.
40. ^ Government of Pakistan Official website: "The Governor General: The Last Year: page 2" . Archived from the original on August 24, 2006. Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. Retrieved April 20, 2006. 
41. ↑ Tripod.com "Pakistanspace": "1947: December - Money matters" . Archived from the original on May 7, 2004. Retrieved April 20, 2006.
42. ^ Rajmohan Gandhi: Patel: A Life , p. 435 f.
43. ↑ Advani salutes 'secular' Jinnah telegraphindia.com, June 5, 2005
44. ^ BJP's Advani offers resignation BBC News, June 7, 2005
45. ↑ Amazon.com Internet Movie Database: "Gandhi (1982)" . Retrieved April 20, 2006.
46. ↑ BBC website "Wiltshire - Films & TV": "Interview with Christopher Lee" . Retrieved April 20, 2006.
47. ↑ ^{a b} Should The Jinnah House Be Demolished, Handed Over To Pakistan, Or Given To Jinnah's Daughter? HuffPost India, April 5, 2017

predecessor	Office	successor
––	Governor General of Pakistan 1947–1948	Khawaja Nazimuddin