Chronology of the life of Jesus

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The life of Jesus in a medieval Russian icon

A chronology of the life of Jesus aims to establish the timescale for the historical events in the life of Jesus . To this end, various researchers have correlated Jewish and Greco-Roman documents and astronomical calendars with the New Testament accounts in order to date the most important events in Jesus' life.

Two main methods are used to estimate the year Jesus was born: one is based on the gospel accounts of his birth during the reign of King Herod , and the other method counts backwards from his stated age of "about 30" when he was preaching started. Most researchers suspect on this basis a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC. Chr.

Three details are used to determine the year Jesus began preaching: the mention of his age of "about 30 years" during the "fifteenth year" of the reign of Emperor Tiberius , another passage referring to the date of Temple building in Jerusalem relates and yet another about the death of John the Baptist. Accordingly, Jesus began preaching and gathering followers around AD 28-29. According to the Synoptic Gospels , Jesus preached for at least a year, and according to John, three years.

Five approaches are used to determine the date of Jesus' crucifixion . One approach uses non-Christian sources such as Josephus and Tacitus . Another counts backwards from the historically dated trial of the Apostle Paul before the Roman proconsul Gallio in 51/52 AD in Corinth to estimate the date of Paul's conversion. Both approaches lead to 36 AD as the upper limit for crucifixion. Hence, researchers generally agree that Jesus was crucified between AD 30 and 36. Isaac Newton's astronomical method calculates those ancient Passover dates (always defined by a full moon) immediately preceded by a Friday according to all four Gospels; This leaves two possible crucifixion dates: Friday, April 7, 30 or Friday, April 3, 33 AD. In the lunar eclipse method, the apostle Peter's statement that the moon turned to blood at the crucifixion ( Acts 2 , 14–22  EU ), based on the lunar eclipse of April 3, 33 AD; however, astronomers disagree as to whether the lunar eclipse was visible as far west as Jerusalem. More recent astronomical research uses the contrast between the synoptic date of Jesus 'last Passover on the one hand and the date of John's later "Jewish Passover" on the other to calculate that Jesus' last supper on Wednesday April 1, 33 and his crucifixion on Friday , April 3, 33 took place.

Context and overview

Jewish Antiquities by Josephus , a source for the chronology of the life of Jesus.

The Christian gospels do not purport to be an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus. They were not written primarily as historical chronicles, but rather as theological documents in the context of early Christianity, and their authors showed little interest in an absolute chronicle of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with contemporary secular history. An indication that the Gospels are theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about a third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of Jesus' life in Jerusalem, also known as the Passion .

But since the Gospels provide at least some details about events that can be clearly dated, one can make some estimates of the time of the most important events in one's life by comparison with other sources. A number of historical non-Christian documents, such as Jewish and Greco-Roman sources, are used in historical analyzes of the chronology of Jesus. Virtually all modern historians agree that Jesus existed, view his baptism and crucifixion as historical events, and assume that an approximate time frame for each of these events can be established.

Using these methods, most researchers take a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC. And a beginning of Jesus' public appearance around AD 28-29, which lasted for one to three years. They calculate that Jesus' death must have occurred between AD 30 and 36.

Historic year of birth of Jesus

The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not given in the Gospels or in a secular text, but most researchers assume a date of birth between 6 BC. BC and 4 BC Chr. Two main methods are used to estimate the year Jesus was born : one is based on the gospel accounts of his birth during King Herod 's reign, another method on counting down from his stated age of “about 30 years” ( Lk 3.23  EU ) when he began to preach in the "fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar" ( Lk 3 : 1–2  EU ): These methods point to a date of birth before Herod's death in 4 BC. Chr., Or a date of birth around 2 BC. Chr.

Dating through biblical references to King Herod

The two Christmas stories in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and Luke are very different. Therefore, they are considered to be texts that were created independently of one another. However, some consistent information can be traced back to a common oral tradition:

Accordingly, both Luke and Matthew independently associate Jesus' birth with the time of Herod the Great . In Mt 2,1  EU it says: "Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea in the time of King Herod". It also implies that Jesus may have been up to two years old at the time he described the visit of the Wise Men of the East , since Herod ordered the murder of all boys up to the age of two, “according to the time he was given by the Wise men had learned “ Mt 2.16  EU Most researchers agree that Herod 4 BC. BC, although it has also been argued that Herod did not die until 1 BC. BC died. As a result, most researchers accept a date of birth between 6 and 4 BC. Chr.

Lk 1,5  EU mentions the reign of Herod shortly before the birth of Jesus, but places the birth during the Quirinius census , which did not take place until ten years later in 6 AD according to the historian Flavius ​​Josephus . The Jewish historian Josephus implies in his work Jewish Antiquities (c. 93 AD) that the governorship of Cyrenius / Quirinius in Syria began 6 AD, and Josephus mentions a census sometime between 6 and 7 AD. Most researchers believe that Luke made a mistake referring to the census. Tertullian believed, about two centuries later, that a series of censuses throughout the Roman world under Saturninus were being conducted simultaneously. Also, some Christian Bible scholars and commentators believe that the two accounts can be harmonized by arguing that the text in Luke can be read as "registration before Quirinius was governor of Syria," i.e. That is, Luke is referring to a completely different census. Geza Vermes dismissed such approaches as “exegetical acrobatics”.

Subtract Jesus' age from "about thirty" as a preacher

“The Pharisees Question Jesus,” by James Tissot , circa 1890

Another approach to estimating the year of birth calculates back from the time when Jesus began to preach, based on the statement in Lk 3.23  EU that he was "about thirty years old" at that time. Jesus began preaching after he was baptized by John the Baptist , and according to the Gospel of Luke, John did not begin to baptize until “the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar” ( Lk 3 : 1–2  EU ), which researchers estimate was circa 28–29 AD. If you count back accordingly, Jesus was probably no later than 1 BC. Born in BC. However, if the term "about thirty" is interpreted to mean that he was 32 years old, this could mean a date of birth just within the reign of Herod, the 4th BC. Died, correspond.

This date is independently confirmed by John's reference in John 2.20  EU that the temple was in its 46th year of construction during the Passover when Jesus began his public ministry, which according to scientific estimates was around AD 27-29. corresponds.

Further approaches

The Gospel of John incidentally mentions an upper limit of fifty years for the age of Jesus as a preacher: "Then the Jews said to him: You are not even fifty years old, and you want to have seen Abraham?" ( Jn 8:57  EU ). Fifty years is a round number and emphasizes the obvious discrepancy with Jesus' claim that he existed before Abraham, well over a thousand years ago.

Some commentators have tried to determine the date of birth by equating the star of Bethlehem with a known astronomical or astrological phenomenon. For example, the astronomer Michael Molnar struck April 17, 6 BC. BC as the probable date of the birth of Christ, since on this date the heliacal rising of Jupiter took place simultaneously, Jupiter was occulted by the moon, and Jupiter was stationary in the course of its retrograde movement; Moreover, all of this took place in the constellation Aries. According to Molnar, this highly unusual combination of events would have shown veteran astrologers of the time that a royal figure was (or was) born in Judea. Other research points to a 1991 report by the Royal Astronomical Society that mentions that Chinese astronomers died in March 5 BC. Were able to observe a "comet" in the Capricorn region for seventy days. Authors Dugard and O'Reilly consider this event to be the likely star of Bethlehem. There are many possible phenomena, however, and none seem exactly to accord with the gospel.

As for the month of Jesus' birth, it has been suggested that it was summer or autumn. This is based on considerations of when the shepherds were likely to be in the pastures, and when Zacharias' priestly ministry took place in relation to the birth of Jesus. This would give a probable date between mid-September and early October.

Years as a preacher

Tenure of Emperor Tiberius and the Gospel of Luke

Bethabara (Βέθαβαρά) on the mosaic map of Madaba , where the village is marked as the place of activity of John the Baptist

One method for determining the beginning of Jesus' ministry is based on verses Lk 3 : 1–2  EU about John the Baptist , whose ministry preceded that of Jesus:

It was in the fifteenth year of the reign of Emperor Tiberius; Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, Herod the tetrarch of Galilee, his brother Philip the tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, Lysanias the tetrarch of Abilene; Annas and Caiaphas were high priests. Then the word of God came to John, son of Zacharias, in the wilderness.

The reign of Emperor Tiberius began with the death of his predecessor Emperor Augustus in September 14 AD, meaning that the ministry of John the Baptist began late in 28 or early in 29 AD. Riesner's alternative suggestion is that John the Baptist began his ministry in AD 26 or 27 because Tiberius ruled with Augustus for two years before he became sole ruler. In this view, the 15th year of the reign of Tiberius would be counted from the year 12 AD. Riesner's proposal is considered less likely, however, since all of the relevant Roman historians, namely Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who calculate the years of Tiberius 'reign, count from year 14 - the year of Augustus' death. Coins also show that Tiberius' official reign began in AD 14.

The New Testament depicts John the Baptist as the forerunner of Jesus and the baptism of Jesus as the beginning of Jesus' public ministry. For in his sermon in Acts 10: 37-38 EU , which was recited  in the house of the centurion Cornelius , the apostle Peter refers to what "happened all over Judea, beginning in Galilee after the baptism that John preached" and that Jesus then went about "doing good." Jesus' baptismal report is immediately followed by his 40-day fast and temptations .

The Temple in Jerusalem and the Gospel of John

Herodian Temple in the Holyland model of the city of Jerusalem .

Another method, which is independent of the Synoptic Gospels , determines the beginning of Jesus 'public ministry on the basis of the account in John's Gospel about Jesus' visit to the Herodian Temple in Jerusalem, the history of which is known.

Jn 2,13  EU reports that Jesus entered the temple in Jerusalem at the beginning of his ministry as a preacher, and in Jn 2,20  EU Jesus is replied: “This temple has been under construction for forty-six years and you will be back in three days erect? ".

The Herodian Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive and long-term project on the Temple Mount and was not completed even at the time of its destruction by the Romans in AD 70. After Herod had entire cities such as Caesarea Maritima built, he regarded the building of the temple as an important, colossal monument. The dedication of the original temple (sometimes referred to as the Inner Temple) followed a 17- or 18-month construction phase, shortly after Augustus' visit to Syria. Josephus (ant. Iud. 15.11.1) writes that the reconstruction of the temple was started by Herod in his 18th year of reign. But it is not entirely clear how Josephus calculated calendar dates and what his reference points were, what event marked the beginning of Herod's reign, and whether the date of the start of construction should refer to the Inner Temple or to subsequent construction. Therefore, different researchers come at slightly different times for the beginning of the temple construction, which means that they differ in their estimates of the time of Jesus' temple visit by a few years. With regard to the quoted 46-year construction period, the best scientific estimate for the beginning of Jesus' ministry is around the year 29 AD.

Josephus' account of John the Baptist

The Baptist admonishes Herod . Fresco by Masolino , 1435

Both the Gospels and the work Jewish Antiquities by the first century historian Flavius ​​Josephus mention Herod Antipas , who had John the Baptist executed, and the marriage between Herod and Herodias . This creates two important connections between Josephus and the biblical episodes. Josephus mentions the imprisonment and execution of John the Baptist by Herod Antipas and that Herodias left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in violation of Jewish law.

However, Josephus and the Gospels differ in the details and motifs, e.g. B. whether the execution was a result of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias (as stated in Mt 14.4  EU , Mk 6.18  EU ), or a preventive measure by Herod, which may have taken place before the wedding, to prevent a possible uprising, motivated by the utterances of John to prevent, as Josephus (ant. Iud. 18.5.2) suggests.

The exact year of the marriage of Herod Antipas and Herodias is the subject of debate among researchers. While some researchers place the year of marriage in AD 27–31, others consider a date through AD 35, although such a late date has much less support. In his analysis of the life of Herod, Harold Hoehner estimates that the capture of John the Baptist probably took place around the year 30–31. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia estimates that the Baptist's death occurred between about AD 31 and AD 32.

Josephus writes (Ant. 18.5.2) that the defeat of Herod Antipas in the year 36 AD in the conflict with King Aretas IV of Nabataea was regarded by the Jews of that time as a misfortune caused by the unjust execution of John the Baptist. Due to the fact that John the Baptist was executed before the defeat of Herod by Aretas, and based on the scientific estimates for the approximate date of the wedding of Herod Antipas and Herodias, the last phase of the ministry of John the Baptist falls, and with it a section of the ministry of Jesus in the historical period AD 28–35, with the later year 35 having the least support among researchers.

Date of the crucifixion

Prefecture of Pontius Pilate

All four Gospels state that Jesus was crucified during the prefecture by Pontius Pilate , the Roman governor of the province of Judea .

Also in Jewish antiquity (around 93 AD) Josephus (ant. Iud. 18.3) writes that Jesus was crucified at the command of Pilate. Most scholars agree that this passage received some later Christian interpolation, but that it nonetheless also originally mentioned the execution of Jesus under Pilate.

In addition, the Roman historian Tacitus described in his work Annals (c. 116 AD) the persecution of Christians by Nero and mentioned (Annals 15.44) that Jesus had been executed on the orders of Pilate during the reign of Tiberius (Emperor from September 18, 14 to March 16, 37 AD).

According to Flavius ​​Josephus, Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from AD 26 until he was replaced by Marcellus, either AD 36 or AD 37, which means that Jesus' death must have been between AD 26 and 37 .

Reign of Herod Antipas

During the trial of Jesus before Pilate, according to the Gospel of Luke , Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean and is therefore under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas . Since Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decided to send Jesus to Herod to be tried there.

This episode is only described in the Gospel of Luke ( Lk 23.7–15  EU ). While some researchers have questioned the authenticity of this episode as it is specific to the Gospel of Luke, the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits neatly into the gospel narrative.

Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great , was born before 20 BC. Born in the summer of 39 AD, after a long intrigue with Caligula and Herod Agrippa I , his father's grandson, he was exiled to Gaul. This episode proves that Jesus' death occurred before AD 39.

Conversion of Paul

The Temple of Apollo in Delphi , Greece, where the Delphi inscription was discovered in the early 20th century.

Another approach to determining an upper limit for the year of Jesus 'death is to date the conversion of the Apostle Paul , which according to the New Testament took place some time after Jesus' death. The conversion of Paul is discussed in both the letters of Paul and in the Acts of the Apostles of Luke : In the first letter of Paul to the Corinthians ( 1 Cor 15 : 3-8  EU ) Paul mentions his conversion and the Acts of the Apostles contains three different passages of text about his Conversion in chapter 9, chapter 22 and chapter 26 of Acts.

The dating of the conversion of Paul is done by back calculation from the time of his trial in Corinth before the Roman proconsul Junius Gallio of the province of Achaea in Greece ( Acts 18,12–17  EU ) around 51–52 AD. This precise date comes from the Discovery and publication, in 1905, of an inscription in Delphi on the Gulf of Corinth . The inscription preserves the text of a letter from Emperor Claudius about Gallio, and bears the date of “26. Acclamation of Claudius ”, the period between January 51 and August 52 AD.

On this basis, most historians estimate that Gallio (brother of Seneca the Younger ) became proconsul between the spring of AD 51 and the summer of AD 52 , and that his term of office ended at the latest in AD 53. The trial against Paul is mostly located at the beginning of Gallio's term of office, due to a casual reference in the Acts of the Apostles ( Acts 18.2  EU ) that Paul met the couple Priscilla and Aquila in Corinth , which was "recently" due to an anti-Semitic decree of Emperor Claudius had been expelled from Rome; this decree is dated to around AD 49–50.

According to the New Testament, Paul spent eighteen months in Corinth, roughly seventeen years after his conversion. In the letter to the Galatians ( Gal. 2 : 1–10  EU ) it is stated that Paul returned to Jerusalem 14 years after his conversion, and in the Acts of the Apostles various mission trips (at times with Barnabas) such as those in Acts 11, 25–26  EU and 2 Cor 11: 23-33  EU . The generally accepted scientific estimate for the date of Paul's conversion is therefore a point in time in the range 33–36 AD, which represents the upper limit for the death of Jesus.

Astronomical Analysis

Newton's method

Isaac Newton

All four Gospels agree, to an accuracy of about a day, that the crucifixion took place at Passover time, and all four Gospels agree that Jesus died a few hours before the beginning of the Jewish Sabbath; H. He died before sunset on a Friday ( Mt 27.62  EU , Mt 28.1  EU , Mk 15.42  EU , Lk 23.54  EU , Joh 19.31.42  EU ). The official festival calendar of Judea, as used by the priests of the temple , precisely specified the Passover time. The slaughter of the lambs for Passover took place on the 14th day of the Jewish month of Nisan (March / April in our calendar) between three and five in the afternoon. The Passover meal began with the moon rising (necessarily a full moon) that evening; H. at the beginning of the 15th Nisan (the Jewish day runs from evening to evening) ( Lev 23.5  EU ; Num 28.16  EU ). There is an obvious one day discrepancy in the gospel accounts of the crucifixion that has been widely discussed. In the Gospel of John it is said that the day of the trial and the execution of Jesus was the day before the Passover ( John 18:28  EU and John 19:14  EU ). Hence John places the crucifixion on the 14th Nisan. The apostle Paul also implies in his first letter to the Corinthians that Jesus died on a 14th Nisan ("sacrificed as a Passover lamb", 1 Cor 5,7  EU ), and as a "firstfruit", i.e. on the Jewish festival of the firstfruit , on the 16th Nisan, resurrected ( 1 Cor 15.20  EU ). The correct interpretation of the three synoptics is less clear. Some researchers believe that all four Gospels place the crucifixion on Friday, Nisan 14, others believe that according to the Synoptics, the crucifixion took place on Friday, Nisan 15. The astronomical problem then to be solved is to determine in which of the reign of Pontius Pilate (AD 26–36) the 14th and 15th Nisan fell on a Friday.

In his study published in 1733 (posthumously), Isaac Newton only looked at the period AD 31-36 and calculated that the Friday condition would only apply on Friday April 3, 33 and on Friday, April 23, 34 AD. , is satisfied. The latter date can only fall on a Friday if an extraordinary leap month had been introduced in the year 34; nonetheless, Newton advocated the latter date (April 23rd is the feast day of St. George, the patron saint of England). In the 20th century, the standard view became that of JK Fotheringham, who in 1910 suggested April 3, 33 AD due to a simultaneous lunar eclipse. In the 1990s, Bradley E. Schaefer and JP Pratt obtained the same date using a similar method. Also, according to Humphreys and Waddington, the Jewish lunar calendar only allows for two plausible dates during the term of Pontius Pilate for Jesus' death, and both were a 14th Nisan, as stated in the Gospel of John: Friday April 7, 30 and Friday April 3. April 33.

The difficulty here is that the Jewish calendar was not based on astronomical calculation but on observation. It is possible to calculate the phase of the moon on a given day two thousand years ago, but not whether the moon was overlaid by clouds or fog. Including the possibility of a cloudy sky that would have obscured the moon, and assuming that the Jewish authorities would have known that lunar months could only be 29 or 30 days long (the time from one new moon to the next is 29.53 days ), then the Friday condition during the term of office of Pontius Pilate could also be fulfilled on April 11, 27. Another possible date would arise if the Jewish authorities had accidentally added an irregular lunar leap month to compensate for a meteorologically delayed harvest season: this scenario gives rise to another possibility during Pilate's tenure, and that is Newton's preferred date of 23 April 34. Colin Humphreys calculates these two additional options, but rejects them both because the year 27 is far too early to be compatible with Luke 3 : 1–2  EU , and since the spring of 34 is probably too late to be compatible with Paul's chronology. The only plausible crucifixion dates here are Friday, April 7, 30 and Friday, April 3, 33.

Lunar eclipse method

Lunar eclipse , May 4, 2004. Red coloration due to the scattering of sunlight when it passes through the earth's atmosphere.

A lunar eclipse may be hinted at in Acts 2: 14-21  EU (“The sun will be turned into darkness and the moon into blood before the day of the Lord comes”), according to physicist Colin Humphreys and astronomer Graeme Waddington. In fact, there was a lunar eclipse on April 3, 33, on a date that coincides with one of Newton's astronomically possible crucifixion dates (see above). Humphreys and Waddington have calculated that in ancient Jerusalem this lunar eclipse was visible when the moon rose at 6:20 p.m. as a 20 percent partial lunar eclipse (a full moon with a possibly red "bite" missing from the top left of the lunar disk). They suggest that a large part of the Jewish population would have seen this lunar eclipse, as practicing Jews first waited west for sunset and immediately afterwards looked east to observe the expected full moon as the prescribed signal for the beginning of their domestic Passover meal. Humphreys and Waddington therefore propose a scenario in which Jesus was crucified and died on April 3, 33 at 3:00 p.m., followed by a red partial lunar eclipse at the moonrise at 6:20 p.m., observed by the Jewish population, and that Peter saw this event when he preached the resurrection to his Jewish audience ( Acts 2: 14-21  EU ). Astronomer Bradley Schaefer agrees on the date of the eclipse, but denies that the eclipsed moon would have been visible at the time the moon rose in Jerusalem.

A potentially related matter is the reference in the Synoptic Gospels to three hours of darkness over the whole land on the day of the crucifixion ( Lk 23.45  EU : τοῦ ἡλίοἐ ἐκλιπόντος - the sun went dark). While some researchers see this as a literary means, as is the practice with ancient writers, rather than a description of an actual event, other authors have attempted to identify a meteorological event or a datable astronomical phenomenon. What is certain is that Luke does not describe a solar eclipse , since such a solar eclipse could not have occurred during the full moon on Passover, and furthermore solar eclipses last minutes and not hours. In 1983, astronomers Humphreys and Waddington found that the reference to a solar eclipse was missing in some versions of Luke, arguing that the solar eclipse was a later erroneous spelling correction of the lunar eclipse of April 3, 33. This is a claim that historian David Henige calls "unjustified" and "unjustifiable". Alternatively, Humphreys and a number of researchers have argued that the eclipse of the sun was caused by a chamsin , i.e. H. a sandstorm that can occur in the Middle East between mid-March and May and that typically lasts for several hours.

Method of the Double Passover

Samaritans celebrate Passover 1 to 4 days before the Jewish Passover, as they use an Egyptian-style lunar calendar. They also kept lambs as Passover offerings. In Judaism, however, this tradition was abolished with the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD.

All the Gospels agree that Jesus had one last supper with his disciples before he died on a Friday immediately around Passover time (Passover was held annually on Nisan 15  , with the festival beginning at sunset), and that his Body remained in the grave the whole of the following day, i.e. on the Sabbath ( Mk 15.42  EU , Mk 16.1–2  EU ). However, while the three synoptic Gospels depict the Last Supper as a Passover meal ( Mt 26.17  EU , Mk 14.1–2  EU , Lk 22.1–15  EU ), the Gospel of John does not explicitly designate the Last Supper as the Passover meal and also places the Passover begins a few hours after Jesus' death. John therefore implies that Good Friday (until sunset) was the preparation day for the Passover (i.e. the 14th Nisan), not the Passover itself (15th Nisan). Another peculiarity is that John calls Passover the “Jewish” Passover several times. Astronomical calculations of the ancient Passover dates, beginning with Isaac Newton's method from 1733, confirm the chronological sequence of John. Historically, there have been several attempts to reconcile the three synoptic descriptions with John, some of which Francis Mershman compiled in 1912. The church tradition of Maundy Thursday assumes that the last supper took place on the evening before the crucifixion.

A new approach to resolve the (apparent) contradiction was put forward by Annie Jaubert during the Qumran excavations in the 1950s . She argued that there were two Passover feasts: on the one hand, according to the official Jewish lunar calendar , according to which in the year of Jesus' crucifixion the Passover fell on a Friday; On the other hand, there was also a solar calendar in Palestine, which was used, for example, by the Essenesect of the Qumran community, according to which the Passover always took place on a Tuesday. According to Jaubert, Jesus would have celebrated Passover on Tuesday and the Jewish authorities three days later, on Friday evening. However, in 2011 Humphreys stated that Jaubert's thesis could not be correct, because the Qumran Passover (according to the solar calendar) was generally celebrated after the official Jewish Passover. Nonetheless, he advocated Jaubert's approach of considering the possibility of celebrating the Passover on separate days. Humphreys discovered another calendar, namely a lunar calendar based on the Egyptian calculation method , which was then used by at least some Essenes in Qumran and the Zealots among the Jews and is still used today by the Samaritans . From this, Humphreys calculates that the Last Supper took place on Wednesday evening April 1, 33. Humphreys implies that Jesus and the other churches mentioned followed the Jewish-Egyptian lunar calendar as opposed to the official Jewish-Babylonian lunar calendar .

The Jewish-Egyptian calendar is presumably the original lunar calendar from Egypt, which according to the Exodus was probably introduced in the 13th century BC in the time of Moses , the then in the religious liturgy of Egypt and at least until the 2nd century AD in Egypt was common. During the 6th century BC, in exile in Babylon , Jews in exile adopted the Babylonian method of calculation and introduced it when they returned to Palestine.

The different Passover dates come about because the Jewish-Egyptian calendar calculates the date of the invisible new moon and sets it as the beginning of the month, while the Jewish-Babylonian calendar only observes the waxing crescent moon around 30 hours later and notes it as the beginning of the month. In addition, the Egyptian day begins at sunrise and the Babylonian day at sunset. These two differences mean that the Samaritan Passover date usually falls a day earlier than the Jewish Passover; in some years several days earlier. The old calendar used by the Samaritans and the new calendar used by the Jews are both still used in Israel today. According to Humphreys, a last supper on a Wednesday would make all four gospels appear at the correct time, it placed Jesus in the original tradition of Moses and also solved other problems: there would be more time than in the traditional reading - last supper on Thursday - for the various interrogations Jesus and for the negotiation with Pilate before the crucifixion on Friday. In addition, the calculated timing - a Last Supper on a Wednesday, followed by a daylight trial before the Supreme Council of Jews on Thursday, followed by a brief confirmatory trial on Friday, and finally the crucifixion - would be in line with Jewish judicial rules on death penalty charges . According to the oldest surviving court regulations from the 2nd century, a night-time trial of capital crimes would be illegal, as would a trial on the day before the Passover or even on the Passover itself.

Matching the ancient calendar

At the time of Jesus there were three calendars in Palestine: the Jewish-Babylonian (the day begins at sunset), the Samaritan-Egyptian (the day begins at sunrise), and the Roman-Julian (the day begins at midnight, like today). The beginning of the month of both Jewish calendars is usually shifted by one to two days, depending on the position of the moon. According to all four Gospels, the crucifixion took place on the Friday before sunset, whereby the corresponding month's date (14/15/16 Nisan ) varies depending on the ancient definition, here using the example of the year 33: 

JUD--------12 NISAN---------|m--------13 NISAN---------|---------14 NISAN-----+---|M--------15 NISAN---------|
TAG--------MI---------------|m--------DO---------------|---------FR-----------+---|M--------SA---------------|
SAM------------|---------14 NISAN---------|---------15 NISAN---------|--------+16 NISAN---------|---------17 NISAN-
TAG------------|---------MI--m------------|---------DO---------------|--------+FR--M------------|---------SA-------

ROM-----|---------01 APRIL---m-----|---------02 APRIL---------|---------03 APRIL---M-----|
TAG-----|---------MI---------m-----|---------DO---------------|---------FR----+----M-----|
        24h    6h    12h    18h    24h    6h    12h    18h    24h    6h    12h    18h    24h

According to Ex 12.6  EU , the slaughter of the Passover lamb is set for the evening of Nisan 14, and the beginning of the following Passover meal at the time immediately after sunset. Depending on which calendar the respective congregation followed, the Passover meal took place in Palestine on April 1st and April 3rd in the year 33. The calculated crucifixion time for the year 33 is entered here as “+” (at 3 p.m.), the official Jewish Passover meal as “M” and the Samaritan (and also Essenian and Zealot) Passover meal as “m”. The date of the Galilean Passover meal is not recorded.

Even today the Passover meal is celebrated in Israel on two different dates each year, depending on the congregation. H. Jewish or Samaritan; The Samaritan religious community today (as of 2017) has 796 members. This religious community was much larger in antiquity and experienced a heyday in the 4th century AD. The Samaritans' own literature is, however, "without exception late and historically only to be used with extreme caution." Calendar issues were viewed by the Samaritans as secret knowledge; some experts believe that the Samaritan system developed under Byzantine rule and was revised in the 9th century AD through cultural contact with the Muslim world.

Ancient proposals

Various proposals for the chronology of Jesus' life have been made over the centuries, such as: B. Maximus the Confessor , Eusebius of Caesarea, and Cassiodorus claimed that Jesus' death occurred in AD 31. The 3rd / 4th Roman historian Lactantius , living in the 17th century , found that Jesus was crucified on March 23rd in 29 AD.

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e John P. Meier: A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus . tape 1 . New York 1992, ISBN 0-385-26425-9 , chap. 11 , p. 373-433 .
  2. ↑ James DG Dunn: Jesus Remembered . Ed .: Eerdmans Publishing. 2003, p. 324 .
  3. ^ DA Carson, Douglas J. Moo, Leon Morris: An Introduction to the New Testament . Ed .: Zondervan Publishing House. Grand Rapids, Michigan 1992, pp. 54, 56 .
  4. ↑ Michael Grant: Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels . Ed .: Scribner's. 1977, p. 71 .
  5. ↑ Ben Witherington III: Primary Sources . In: Christian History . tape 17 , no. 3 , 1998, p. 12-20 .
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g h i Eerdman Publishing. Amsterdam University Press (Ed.): Eerdman's Dictionary of the Bible . 2000, ISBN 90-5356-503-5 , pp. 249 .
  7. ↑ a b c Craig A. Evans: The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Matthew-Luke . tape 1 , 2003, ISBN 0-7814-3868-3 , pp. 67-69 .
  8. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j Paul L. Maier: The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus . In: Chronos, Kairos, Christos: Nativity and Chronological Studies (eds Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi) . 1989, ISBN 0-931464-50-1 , pp. 113-129 .
  9. ↑ a b c Craig Evans: Josephus on John the Baptist . In: Princeton University Press (ed.): The Historical Jesus in Context (eds Amy-Jill Levine et al.) . 2006, ISBN 978-0-691-00992-6 , pp. 55-58 . Google book
  10. ↑ a b c d e Florence Morgan Gillman: Herodias: at home in that fox's den . 2003, ISBN 0-8146-5108-9 , pp. 25-30 . Google book
  11. ^ A b c d Geoffrey W. Bromiley: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . EJ, 1982, ISBN 0-8028-3782-4 , pp. 694-695 . Google book
  12. ^ A b c Paul N. Anderson: The Riddles of the Fourth Gospel: An Introduction to John . 2011, ISBN 0-8006-0427-X , pp. 200 .
  13. ↑ a b c d e f Jerry Knoblet: Herod the Great . 2005, ISBN 0-7618-3087-1 , pp. 183-184 .
  14. ↑ a b J. Dwight Pentecost: The Words and Works of Jesus Christ: A Study of the Life of Christ . Ed .: Zondervan. 1981, p. 577-578 .
  15. ^ Robert W. Funk, Jesus Seminar : The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus . Ed .: Harper. San Francisco 1998.
  16. ^ Paul William Meyer, John T. Carroll: The Word in this world . 2004, ISBN 0-664-22701-5 , pp. 112 .
  17. ↑ a b c d e f g Paul Barnett: Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times . 2002, ISBN 0-8308-2699-8 , pp. 19-21 .
  18. ^ A b c d Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, Charles L. Quarles: The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament . Ed .: Broadman and Holman Publishers. 2009, ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 , pp. 77-79 .
  19. ↑ a b c d Rainer Riesner : Paul's early period: chronology, mission strategy, theology . 1997, ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7 , pp. 19-27 . Page 27 has a table with various estimates.
  20. ↑ a b c d e f Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, Charles L. Quarles: The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament . Ed .: Broadman and Holman Publishers. 2009, ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 , pp. 114 .
  21. ↑ a b Sanders: The Historical Figure of Jesus . 1993, p. 11, 249 .
  22. ^ A b Colin J. Humphreys & WG Waddington. (1985). The Date of the Crucifixion. Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation ,  37 . (March 1985). online ( Memento of the original of April 8, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.asa3.org
  23. ↑ a b James Leslie Houlden: Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia . tape 1 , 2003, ISBN 1-57607-856-6 , pp. 508-509 ( Google Book ).
  24. ^ Raymond E. Brown: The Death of the Messiah: from Gethsemane to the Grave: A Commentary on the Passion Narratives in the Four Gospels . Ed .: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York 1994, ISBN 978-0-385-19397-9 , pp. 964 .
  25. ↑ Gerald O'Collins: Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus . 2009, ISBN 0-19-955787-X , pp. 1-3 .
  26. ^ Mark Allan Powell: Jesus as a Figure in History: How Modern Historians View the Man from Galilee . 1998, ISBN 0-664-25703-8 , pp. 168-173 .
  27. ↑ a b c d e f Karl Rahner : Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi . 2004, ISBN 0-86012-006-6 , pp. 730-731 .
  28. ^ A b Timothy Wiarda: Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology . 2010, ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 , pp. 75-78 .
  29. ↑ Paula Fredriksen: Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews . Ed .: Alfred A. Knopf Publishers . 1999, p. 6-7, 105-10, 232-34, 266 .
  30. ^ David L. Turner: Matthew . 2008, ISBN 0-8010-2684-9 , pp. 613 .
  31. ↑ EP Sanders: The Historical Figure of Jesus . Ed .: Penguin Books. London 1995, p. 3 .
  32. ↑ Craig L. Blomberg: Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey . 2009, ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 , pp. 431-436 .
  33. ^ B. Ehrman: Forged: writing in the name of God . 2011, ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6 , pp. 285 .
  34. ^ Bernard L. Ramm: An Evangelical Christology: Ecumenic and Historic . Ed .: Regent College Publishing. 1993, p. 19 .
  35. ↑ Marcus Borg: The Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions (Ch. 16, A Vision of the Christian Life) . Ed .: HarperCollins. 1999, chap. 16 , p. 236 .
  36. ↑ Richard L. Niswonger: New Testament History . 1992, ISBN 0-310-31201-9 , pp. 121-124 .
  37. ↑ a b c Nikos Kokkinos (eds Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman): In: Chronos, Kairos, Christos . tape 2 , 1998, ISBN 0-86554-582-0 , pp. 121-126 .
  38. ↑ Alexander Murray: History Today . tape 36 , 1986, pp. 31-39 . "Medieval Christmas"
  39. ↑ a b Harold W. Hoehner: Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ . Ed .: Zondervan. 1978, ISBN 0-310-26211-9 , pp. 29-37 . Google Books
  40. ↑ a b Jack V. Scarola: A Chronology of the nativity Era . In: Zondervan (ed.): Chronos, Kairos, Christos (eds Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman) . tape 2 , 1998, ISBN 0-86554-582-0 , pp. 61-81 .
  41. ^ A b c Ralph Martin Novak: Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts . Ed .: Zondervan. 2001, ISBN 1-56338-347-0 , pp. 302-303 .
  42. ↑ a b Michael R. Molnar: The Star of Bethlehem - The Legacy of the Magi . Ed .: Rutgers Univ. Press. 1999.
  43. ↑ Ulrich Luz : The birth stories of Jesus and history . Göttingen 2013, p. 170 . P. 170
  44. ^ Edwin D. Freed: Stories of Jesus' Birth . Ed .: Continuum International. 2004, p. 119 .
  45. ↑ Timothy David Barne: The Date of Herod's Death . In: Journal of Theological Studies . tape 19 , 1968, p. 204-219 .
  46. ^ PM Bernegger: Affirmation of Herod's Death in 4 BC In: Journal of Theological Studies . tape 34 , 1983, pp. 526-531 , JSTOR : 23963471 .
  47. ^ Norman Gelb: Herod the Great: Statesman, Visionary, Tyrant . Ed .: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. February 21, 2013, p. 140 .
  48. ↑ Jerry Vardaman: Chronos, Kairos, Christos: Nativity and Chronological Studies Presented to Jack Finegan . Ed .: Eisenbrauns. 1989, ISBN 978-0-931464-50-8 , pp. 93-94 ( google.co.za ).
  49. ↑ Emil Schürer, Géza Vermes, Fergus Millar: History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ . Ed .: A&C Black. 1973, ISBN 978-0-567-02242-4 , pp. 328 ( google.co.za ).
  50. ↑ Andrew E. Steinmann: When Did Herod the Great Reign? In: Novum Testamentum . tape 51 (1) , 2009, pp. 1-29 , doi : 10.1163 / 156853608X245953 ( brillonline.com ).
  51. ^ A b c Richard L. Niswonger: New Testament History . 1992, ISBN 0-310-31201-9 , pp. 172 .
  52. ↑ Flavius ​​Josephus. The Antiquities of the Jews , Book 18, Chapters 1-2 . Josephus points out that the Cyrenius (i.e., Quirinius) census took place in the 37th year after Octavian's (i.e., Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus) victory over Mark Antony at Actium; Secular chronicles date this victory to September 2, 31 BC. BC, therefore 31 BC + 37 years = 6–7 AD
  53. ^ A b Gleason Leonard Archer: Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties . Ed .: Zondervan Pub. House. Grand Rapids, Michigan 1982, ISBN 0-310-43570-6 , pp. 366 .
  54. ^ A b C. F. Evans: Tertullian's reference to Sentius Saturninus and the Lukan Census . In: Journal of Theological Studies . XXIV (1), 1973, pp. 24-39 .
  55. ^ Rush Rhees: The Life of Jesus of Nazareth . 2007, ISBN 1-4068-3848-9 , chap. 54 .
  56. ↑ Frederick Fyvie Bruce: The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? Ed .: Eerdman, 1943, renewed edition 2003. 1943, p. 87-88 .
  57. ^ Geza Vermes: The Nativity: History and Legend . Ed .: Penguin Books Limited. 2006, ISBN 978-0-14-191261-5 , pp. 28-30 ( google.com ).
  58. ↑ Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 5 , p. 72 .
  59. ^ Bill O'Reilly, Martin Dugard: Killing Jesus: A History . Ed .: Henry Holt and Company. 2013, ISBN 0-8050-9854-2 , pp. 15 .
  60. ^ Raymond E. Brown: 101 Questions and Answers on the Bible . Ed .: Paulist Press. 2003, p. 79 .
  61. ↑ When was Jesus born? Bibleinfo.com. In: www.bibleinfo.com. 2012, accessed December 1, 2017 .
  62. ↑ David R. Reagan, James Yaakov Hugg: When Was Jesus Born? Bibleinfo.com. In: Lamb and Lion Ministries. Retrieved December 1, 2017 .
  63. ^ A b Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, Charles L. Quarles: The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament . Ed .: Broadman and Holman Publishers. 2009, ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 , pp. 139-140 .
  64. ^ John MacArthur: Luke 1–5: New Testament Commentary . 2009, ISBN 0-8024-0871-0 , pp. 201 .
  65. ↑ Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 5 , p. 64 .
  66. ↑ Craig L. Blomberg: Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey . 2009, ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 , pp. 224-229 .
  67. ^ Alister E. McGrath: Christianity: an introduction . 2006, ISBN 978-1-4051-0901-7 , pp. 16-22 .
  68. ↑ Thomas P. Rausch: Who is Jesus ?: an introduction to Christology . 2003, ISBN 978-0-8146-5078-3 .
  69. ^ A b Duane W. Roller: The building program of Herod the Great . Ed .: University of California Press. 1998, ISBN 0-520-20934-6 , pp. 67-71 . Google Books
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  71. ^ Max Schwartz: The biblical engineer: how the temple in Jerusalem was built . 2002, ISBN 0-88125-710-9 , pp. xixx-xx .
  72. ^ A b c d Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, Charles L. Quarles: The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament . Ed .: Broadman and Holman Publishers. 2009, ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 , pp. 140-141 .
  73. ↑ Craig A. Evans: Encyclopedia of the historical Jesus . 2008, ISBN 0-415-97569-7 , pp. 115 .
  74. ^ Andreas J. Köstenberger: John . Ed .: Baker Academic. Grand Rapids, Michigan 2004, ISBN 0-8010-2644-X , pp. 110 .
  75. ↑ Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom Thatcher: Jesus tradition in Johannine . 2001, ISBN 978-0-664-22219-2 , pp. 77 .
  76. ^ William Whiston, Paul L. Maier: The new complete works of Josephus by Flavius ​​Josephus . Ed .: Kregel Publications. Grand Rapids, Michigan 1999, ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 .
  77. ↑ Flavius ​​Josephus (translated by William Whiston) Ant 18.5.2-4
  78. ^ Carol Meyers, Toni Craven, Ross Shepard Kraemer: Women in scripture . 2001, ISBN 0-8028-4962-8 , pp. 92-93 . Google Books
  79. ^ Morten H. Jensen: Herod Antipas in Galilee: The Literary and Archaeological Sources . 2010, ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7 , pp. 42-43 . Google Books
  80. ↑ a b Cynthia White: The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective . 2010, ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 , pp. 48 .
  81. ↑ Harold W. Hoehner: Herod Antipas . Ed .: Zondervan. 1983, ISBN 0-310-42251-5 , pp. 131 .
  82. ^ Daniel S. Dapaah: The relationship between John the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth . 2005, ISBN 0-7618-3109-6 , pp. 48 ( Google Books ).
  83. ↑ a b Harold W. Hoehner: Herod Antipas . Ed .: Zondervan. 1983, ISBN 0-310-42251-5 , pp. 125 .
  84. ↑ Geoffrey W. Bromiley: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . Ed .: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. AD, 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 , pp. 686-687 .
  85. ↑ Geoffrey W. Bromiley: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . Ed .: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. K – P, 1995, ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 , pp. 929 .
  86. ↑ Matthew 27: 27–61, Mark 15: 1–47, Luke 23: 25–54, and John 19: 1–38
  87. ^ A b Gerd Theissen, Annette Merz: The Historical Jesus: a Comprehensive Guide . Ed .: Augsburg Fortress. 1998, ISBN 978-0-8006-3122-2 , pp. 81-83 .
  88. ^ Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum, Charles L. Quarles: The Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament . Ed .: Broadman and Holman Publishers. 2009, ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3 , pp. 104-108 .
  89. ^ Craig A. Evans, Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies . 2001, ISBN 0-391-04118-5 , pp. 316 .
  90. ^ Henry Wansbrough: Jesus and the oral Gospel tradition . 2004, ISBN 0-567-04090-9 , pp. 185 .
  91. ↑ James Dunn: Jesus remembered . 2003, ISBN 0-8028-3931-2 , pp. 141 . Theologian James DG Dunn writes that there is “broad approval” of the assumption that the “testimony” contains an authentic reference to the crucifixion of Jesus.
  92. ↑ The skeptic Wells writes that after Shlomo Pines ' discovery of new documents in the 1970s, a scientific consensus was reached regarding an authentic core in the testimony. See The Jesus Legend by GA Wells 1996, p. 48: “… that Josephus made some reference to Jesus, which has been retouched by a Christian hand. This is the view argued by Meier as by most scholars today particularly since S. Pines… ”The Josephus researcher Louis H. Feldman regards the mention of Jesus in the“ Testimonium ”as the first mention of Jesus, and he considers the other mention of Jesus ( in the context of the execution of Jacobus in Jewish Antiquities, Book 20, Chapter 9.1) as "the above-mentioned Christ", whereby the two passages of the text are related to each other. Feldman, Louis H .; Hata, Gōhei, eds. (1987). Josephus, Judaism and Christianity , 55
  93. ^ Robert E. van Voorst: Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence . Ed .: Eerdmans Publishing. 2000, ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 , pp. 39-42 .
  94. ^ Everett Ferguson: Backgrounds of early Christianity . 2003, ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 , pp. 116 .
  95. ^ Joel B. Green: The Gospel of Luke: new international commentary on the New Testament . Ed .: WB Eerdmans Publishing Co. Grand Rapids, Michigan 1997, ISBN 0-8028-2315-7 , pp. 168 ( google.com ).
  96. ↑ Flavius ​​Josephus, Jüdische Antiquities 18.89.
  97. ^ Warren Carter: Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor . 2003, ISBN 0-8146-5113-5 , pp. 44-45 .
  98. ^ Everett Ferguson: Backgrounds of early Christianity . 2003, ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 , pp. 416 .
  99. ^ Peter Schäfer: The history of the Jews in the Greco-Roman world . 2003, ISBN 0-415-30585-3 , pp. 108 .
  100. ^ Warren Carter: Pontius Pilate: portraits of a Roman governor . 2003, ISBN 978-0-8146-5113-1 , pp. 120-121 .
  101. ↑ Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa: The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark, Luke . 2005, ISBN 1-931018-31-6 , pp. 181 .
  102. ↑ Michael Patella: The Gospel according to Luke . 2005, ISBN 0-8146-2862-1 , pp. 16 .
  103. ↑ Michael Card: Luke: The Gospel of Amazement . 2011, ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6 , pp. 251 .
  104. ↑ Jesus Before Herod Antipas. (PDF) (No longer available online.) In: Bible Study Workshop - Lesson 228. Landmark Publications Inc., archived from the original on March 3, 2016 ; Retrieved July 18, 2012 (English). Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.biblestudyworkshop.com
  105. ↑ Harold W. Hoehner: Herod Antipas . Ed .: Zondervan. 1983, ISBN 0-310-42251-5 , pp. 262 .
  106. ^ Richard R. Losch: All the people in the Bible . Ed .: Zondervan. 2008, ISBN 0-8028-2454-4 , pp. 159 .
  107. ↑ Mark Harding, Alanna Nobbs: The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition . 2010, ISBN 0-8028-3318-7 , pp. 88-89 .
  108. ↑ Cynthia White: The Emergence of Christianity: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective . 2010, ISBN 0-8006-9747-2 , pp. 11 .
  109. ^ A b James DG Dunn: The Cambridge Companion to St Paul . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. 2003, ISBN 0-521-78694-0 , pp. 20 .
  110. ^ A b c d Stanley B. Marrow: Paul: his letters and his theology . 1986, ISBN 0-8091-2744-X , pp. 45-49 .
  111. ↑ Geoffrey W. Bromiley: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia . Ed .: Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. A – D, 1979, ISBN 0-8028-3781-6 , pp. 689 .
  112. ↑ John B. Polhill: Paul and His Letters . Ed .: B&H Publishing Group. 1999, ISBN 0-8054-1097-X , pp. 49-50 .
  113. ^ William Lane Craig, James Porter Moreland: The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology . 2009, ISBN 1-4051-7657-1 , pp. 616 .
  114. ^ A b c Ralph Martin Novak: Christianity and the Roman Empire: background texts . Ed .: Zondervan. 2001, ISBN 1-56338-347-0 , pp. 18-22 .
  115. ^ The Gallio Inscription. (No longer available online.) Archived from the original on October 12, 2008 ; accessed on August 19, 2012 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.wfu.edu
  116. ↑ John B. Polhill: Paul and His Letters . Ed .: B&H Publishing Group. 1999, ISBN 978-0-8054-1097-6 , pp. 78 .
  117. ↑ James S. Jeffers: The Greco-Roman world of the New Testament era . 1999, ISBN 0-8308-1589-9 , pp. 164-165 .
  118. ^ Craig A. Evans, The Bible Knowledge Background Commentary: Acts-Philemon . 2004, ISBN 0-7814-4006-8 , pp. 248 .
  119. ^ John F. Walvoord, Roy B. Zuck: The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament edition . 1983, ISBN 0-88207-812-7 , pp. 405 .
  120. ^ Eerdman Publishing. Amsterdam University Press (Ed.): Eerdman's Dictionary of the Bible . 2000, ISBN 90-5356-503-5 , pp. 1019 .
  121. ↑ Colin Humphreys : The Mystery of the Last Supper. Cambridge University Press, 2011 ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , pp. 68-69
  122. ↑ Jacob Thiessen: First gift and resurrection day of Jesus , theological supplement to the STH perspective November 2011 ( memento of the original from March 4, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sthbasel.ch
  123. ↑ a b c The Date of the Crucifixion ( Memento of the original from April 8, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Colin Humphreys and W. Graeme Waddington, March 1985. American Scientific Affiliation website. Retrieved January 17, 2014. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.asa3.org
  124. ^ Isaac Newton: Of the Times of the Birth and Passion of Christ. In: Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John / Part I Chap XI. The Newton Project, University of Oxford, 1733, accessed May 2018 (English, published posthumously in London in 1733).
  125. ^ A b J. P. Pratt: Newton's Date for the Crucifixion . In: Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society . tape 32 (3) , 1991, pp. 301-304 , bibcode : 1991QJRAS..32..301P . [1]
  126. ^ A b Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 4 , p. 45-48 .
  127. ↑ a b Fotheringham, JK, 1910. “On the smallest visible phase of the moon”, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 70, 527-531; “Astronomical Evidence for the Date of the Crucifixion”, Journal of Theological Studies (1910) 12, 120-127; The "Evidence of Astronomy and Technical Chronology for the Date of the Crucifixion", Journal of Theological Studies (1934) 35, 146-162.
  128. ↑ a b B. E. Schaefer: Lunar Visibility and the Crucifixion . In: Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society . tape 31 (1) , 1990, pp. 53-67 , bibcode : 1990QJRAS..31 ... 53S .
  129. ↑ C. Philipp E. Nothaft: Dating the Passion: The Life of Jesus and the Emergence of Scientific Chronology (200-1600) . Ed .: BRILL. 2011, ISBN 978-90-04-21707-2 , pp. 25 .
  130. ↑ Sanders: The Historical Figure of Jesus . Ed .: Penguin. 1993, p. 285-286 .
  131. ↑ Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 4 , p. 53-58 .
  132. ^ BE Schaefer: Glare and celestial visibility . In: Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific . tape 103 , July 1991, p. 645-660 .
  133. ↑ Duncan Steel: Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar . 1999, ISBN 0-471-29827-1 , pp. 341 .
  134. ^ David E. Garland: Reading Matthew: A Literary and Theological Commentary on the First Gospel . Ed .: Smyth & Helwys Publishing. 1999, p. 264 .
  135. ↑ Geza Vermes: The Passion . Ed .: Penguin Books Limited. 2005, p. 108-109 .
  136. ↑ David H. Kelley, Eugene F. Milone: Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy . 2011, ISBN 1-4419-7623-X , pp. 250-251 .
  137. ↑ Michael A. Seeds, Dana Backman: Astronomy: The Solar System and Beyond . 2009, ISBN 0-495-56203-3 , pp. 34 .
  138. ^ J. Meeus: The maximum possible duration of a total solar eclipse . In: Journal of the British Astronomical Association . tape 113 (6) , December 2003, pp. 343-348 .
  139. ↑ David P. Henige: Historical evidence and argument . Ed .: University of Wisconsin Press. 2005, ISBN 978-0-299-21410-4 , pp. 150 .
  140. ↑ Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 6 , p. 84-85 .
  141. ↑ Francis Mershman (1912): The Last Supper . In: The Catholic Encyclopedia . Robert Appleton Company, New York, retrieved on May 25, 2016 from New Advent.
  142. ^ Jacob Neusner: Judaism and Christianity in the first century . Volume 3, Part 1. Garland, New York, 1990, ISBN 0-8240-8174-9 , p. 333.
  143. ^ Pope Benedict XVI: Jesus of Nazareth: From the Entrance Into Jerusalem to the Resurrection . Catholic Truth Society and Ignatius Press, 2011, ISBN 978-1-58617-500-9 , pp. 106-115. Excerpt from the website of the Catholic Education Resource Center ( Memento of July 13, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  144. ↑ Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 11 , p. 164, 168 .
  145. ↑ Nagesh Narayana: Last Supper was on Wednesday, not Thursday, challenges Cambridge professor Colin Humphreys . International Business Times , April 18, 2011, accessed May 25, 2016.
  146. ↑ According to Humphreys 2011, chap. 11, p. 163.
  147. ↑ Colin Humphreys: The Mystery of the Last Supper . Ed .: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0 , chap. 10 , p. 143 .
  148. ↑ An Internet Newsletter & Archive Regarding the Samaritan-Israelites. Accessed March 31, 2018 .
  149. ^ Günter Stemberger: Jews and Christians in the Holy Land . Munich 1987, p. 175 .
  150. ↑ Sylvia Powels: The Samaritan Calendar and the Roots of Samaritan Chronology . In: Alan David Crown (ed.): The Samaritans . Mohr Siebeck, Tübingen 1989, p. 699 (The oldest Samaritan calendar script covers the period from 1180 to 1380 AD (ibid., P. 692)).
  151. ↑ Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum [From the ways of death of the persecutors] 2: "Extremis temporibus Tiberii Caesaris, ut scriptum legimus, dominus noster Iesus Christ a Iudaeis cruciatus est post diem decimum Kalendas Apriles duobus Geminis consulibus." [In the last period of the emperor Tiberius As we find it written, our Lord Jesus Christ was crucified by the Jews after the 10th day on the April calendar d. H. March 23] during consul office hours [d. H. 29 AD] of the two twin brothers [d. h.] Rubellius and Fufius Geminus .