Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary

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Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary

IUCN Category IV - Habitat / Species Management Area

Fishing in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary

Fishing in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary

location Chittagong Division , BangladeshBangladeshBangladesh 
surface 77 km²
WDPA ID 12196
Geographical location 21 ° 40 ′  N , 92 ° 7 ′  E Coordinates: 21 ° 40 ′ 0 ″  N , 92 ° 7 ′ 0 ″  E
Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary (Bangladesh)
Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary
Setup date March 18, 1986
administration Forest Department, Dhaka

The Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is a nature reserve in the Chittagong Hill Tracts , Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh . When it was established in 1986, it was one of the first nature reserves in Bangladesh. Regardless of the legal requirements, the trees were almost completely cut down after they were designated as a protected area, with local entrepreneurs and corrupt officials from the forestry working together. In addition, there was the settlement of the protected area by people due to the great poverty, the conversion of areas into arable and pasture land and the removal of resources such as construction timber and firewood.

Since 2004 the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary has been jointly managed by the Ministry of Agriculture and the local population. It was hoped that by involving the residents and residents of the protected area, the destructive illegal use would end and sustainable use would be promoted, taking into account the need for protection of natural resources. It cannot be decided whether the project was successful. While its bearers affirm this, there is massive criticism from the public, with which the extensive environmental destruction is also deplored in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. Because of the dramatic loss of biodiversity since 1990 and the planting of exotic trees and agricultural crops, flora and fauna are no longer considered worthy of protection among experts. The Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is an important corridor used by migratory groups of elephants to protect the Indian elephant , which is threatened with extinction in Bangladesh .

history

The area of ​​today's Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary was placed under conservation several generations ago by the colonial administration of British India as the Chunati and Jaldi Forest Range . Since then it has had the status of a reserve forest , which has allowed economic use. Forestry was carried out in such a way that the natural vegetation was cleared and burned in order to gain space for the planting of the teak tree . Its leaf litter prevents the emergence of undergrowth and fodder for herbivorous fauna, and its fruits are unsuitable as food for birds. Exotic tree species that are also planted, such as Acacia auriculiformis , Acacia mangium and red eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus camaldulensis ) are also unsuitable from the point of view of nature conservation. In addition, land was given to farmers for agricultural use, whose families are the legal owners of the assigned land to this day. On March 18, 1986, the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary was set up as a nature reserve by a decree of the Ministry of Agriculture and thus subject to the protection provisions of the Nature Conservation Act of 1974. Since then, all animals and plants in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary have been protected and forestry use is prohibited. By 2017, a total of 49 national parks had been designated in Bangladesh, 17 of which are jointly managed by the Ministry of Agriculture and the local population.

Regardless of the protection status, the area of ​​the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary continued to suffer massive damage. Shortly before it was placed under protection, the forest of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary was impenetrable with a closed canopy and dense undergrowth. It was populated by elephants and numerous other animals and the residents of the area avoided the forest. There were only a few settlers living within the boundaries of the reserve who had acquired property titles decades ago. In the cooperation of local entrepreneurs and other wealthy residents of the region with corrupt officials of the forest administration, the majority of the forest was cleared within a short time and converted into agricultural land or fallow land.

The rapid population growth in the whole of Bangladesh and the extreme poverty of the rural population led to a severe overexploitation of the areas of the protected area or to their loss for nature conservation through fire clearance and conversion into arable or pasture land, deforestation for use as construction or firewood, use as an industrial site or relocation. All of this has been fueled by centralized government, its weakness in enforcing nature conservation regulations and the lack of involvement of local communities. By 2010, all of Bangladesh had lost 90 percent of the original forest area, with an ongoing annual loss of one percent. In contrast, only 1.4 percent of the area of ​​the state was designated as nature reserve, one of the lowest proportions of protected rainforest in the world. In the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, large parts of the original evergreen forest have been replaced by rice fields , cultivation areas for betel pepper , fast-growing two-winged fruit trees and bamboo , areas for air-drying adobe bricks or settlement areas.

In 2006, the evaluation of aerial photographs showed that almost all of the forest in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary has been lost:

Land use Area (in hectares) percent
Forest, including plantations 93.98 ha 1.21%
Grass, including growing bamboo 714.30 ha 9.20%
Grass and shrub vegetation 2367.67 ha 30.50%
wasteland 3823.62 ha 49.25%
Bodies of water 763.45 ha 9.83%

At the beginning of the 21st century, extensive recultivation measures were carried out, which between 2002 and 2011 included the planting of trees on an area of ​​around 2000 hectares. The forest administration planted only half of the native trees and half of the Acacia auriculiformis, which is considered to be worthless in terms of nature conservation . This was justified by the fact that the officials were able to demonstrate rapid progress to their superiors in the ministry with the help of the fast-growing acacia. One consequence is the loss of the acacia-planted areas for the purpose of wildlife protection, as the trees do not provide any fruit or sprouts for the elephants and other herbivores.

Geology, geography and climate

The Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is located about 70 kilometers south of Chittagong in the Chittagong Hill Tracts . Portions of the reserve are within the boundaries of three Upazilas : Lohagara and Bashkhali in Chittagong District and Chakoria in Cox's Bazar District . Within the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary there are seven unions (the smallest administrative units in rural Bangladesh): Chunati, Adhunagar, Herbang, Puichari, Banshkhali, Borohatia and Toitong. In the north, south and south-east the protected area borders on forest areas with a lower protection status.

The Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is located on sedimentary rocks of the Pleistocene , Pliocene and Miocene , which is covered with neutral to slightly acidic clay soil. The terrain profile is hilly to mountainous and criss-crossed by ditches with flat to steep edges. The protected area is 30 to 60 meters above sea level. The whole area is criss-crossed by numerous streams that carry clear water and lead through gravel or rock beds. They provide good drainage after rainfall and serve as drinking places for game and numerous species of fish and amphibians as habitats. They provide the people with drinking and industrial water and the local farmers use them to irrigate the fields. The deforested areas, including the fields, are subject to severe erosion in the rainy season.

The reserve is located in the tropical rainforest, with an average temperature of more than 22 ° C throughout the year, from a minimum of 14 ° C in January to 32 ° C in May. The annual rainfall is around 3000 millimeters, with a maximum during the monsoons between June and September.

Flora and fauna

flora

The original vegetation consisted mainly of different species of two-winged fruit trees ( Dipterocarpus spp. ). Trees associated with them were numerous types of mangoes ( Mangifera spp. ), Breadfruit trees ( Artocarpus spp. ), Spindle trees ( Lophopetalum spp. ), Wool tree plants ( Bombax spp. ), Myrtle plants ( Syzygium spp. ) And mimosa plants ( Albizia spp. ). The remaining vegetation included a variety of different types of shrubs and grasses , including bamboo .

As part of the destruction of the original evergreen rainforest, some tree species have already completely disappeared from the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. As a result, the protected area lost a piece of its value as a bearer of biodiversity. In 2005 an assessment of the ecological value of the remaining flora and fauna was carried out. She came to the disheartening conclusion that there was no longer any ecologically valuable flora. Regardless, the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary continues to be of great importance. An inventory carried out in 2014 found 691 species of plants for the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, including 240 tree species, which indicates that the protective measures have been successful.

fauna

The loss of land within the boundaries of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary also affects fauna. Species that are primarily dependent on living together with the tree species that have disappeared are primarily affected. The use of forest areas as pastureland is also important, because the undergrowth that is necessary for cover and food for wild animals is damaged or removed. After all, poaching is an unsolved problem. People living within the protected area use the natural resources and fish and hunt for haired game and game birds or they collect clutches of birds for their own consumption. Since elephants, deer and wild boars cause massive damage to the rice and other crops cultivated areas, they are occasionally injured or killed by the farmers. Wealthy people living outside the reserve come to the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary to hunt in disregard of the protection regulations.

At the beginning of the 1990s, 178 species of terrestrial vertebrate were recorded, including 27 mammals and 137 bird species. The population of the western white-browed gibbon in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary was the second largest in all of Bangladesh. In 1997 only 57 species of terrestrial vertebrate were recorded, and by 2003 the number of gibbons had decreased by more than 90 percent. Like the remaining flora, the fauna of the protected area was no longer considered worthy of preservation. An exception was the value of the protected area as a corridor for Indian elephants migrating through, for whose needs it was also only partially suitable. The lack of forage plants and the lack of dense forest as a retreat played an important role here. An extensive inventory from 2014 showed significantly higher numbers. According to this, 40 species of mammals, 252 species of birds, 54 reptiles, 26 amphibians and 110 species of invertebrates lived in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. Since earlier studies used different methods to determine species richness, the high numbers from 2014 do not provide evidence of any development.

A list of fauna created in 1997 contains the following species:

Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Amphibians

Elephant protection

The Indian elephant was originally widespread in Bangladesh. Just a few decades ago, the number of animals in the country was estimated at more than 500. Habitat loss and poaching led to a sharp decline in the population. At the turn of the century, the number of elephants in Bangladesh was only estimated at 195 to 240, living almost exclusively in the rainforests of the Chittagong District and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Some herds migrate from the adjacent parts of India and Myanmar to Bangladesh and back. Without these migratory elephants, the number of elephants living in and around the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is estimated to be between 21 and 40. The Indian elephant is by the IUCN as endangered ( Endangered classified), the small population in Bangladesh is considered endangered ( Critically Endangered ).

The availability of forage plants is of crucial importance for the use of the protected area by elephants. The following suitable forage plants were found in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, some of which are exotic plants and some of them are useful plants:

The use of large parts of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary as agricultural land, with attractive food for the elephants, and encounters between elephants and the people living in the sanctuary, in which people were occasionally injured or killed, led to a reduced acceptance of the sanctuary among the population. In a survey of the population published in 2006, 49 percent of those questioned were in favor of protecting elephants, while 35 percent were against.

Involving the population

Since 1979, projects have been carried out in Bangladesh under the direction of the Ministry of Agriculture, which include the joint management of ecologically valuable areas by the authorities and the local population. Based on the positive experience, it was decided in 2004 to start the Nishorgo Support Project (NSP) with the support of the United States Agency for International Development . The aim of the project is to manage selected nature reserves and buffer zones in their surroundings together with the population. The administration of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary and its surroundings was one of five pilot projects. The pilot projects should develop models for the joint management of the protected areas. One of the main objectives was to create alternative sources of income for the population in order to end the impairment of the protected areas through ongoing, unsustainable economic use. The construction or expansion of the infrastructure in the protected areas should serve their administration and the expected visitors. Finally, the tasks included the design and implementation of a program for habitat management and renaturation of already damaged protected areas.

There are seventy human settlements in and around the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, which are grouped into 15 villages. 24 of these settlements are inside the reserve, 13 outside but in close proximity to its border, and five are less than three miles from the reserve. At the 1996 census, there were 21,428 people in 3,492 households in the area, most of them Muslims, with only a few percent Buddhists and Hindus each. At 65 percent, the illiteracy rate was significantly higher than the national average, only nine percent attend secondary school and two percent are studying. Girls usually visit a madrasa . In 2009, 50,000 people were already living in around 9,400 households in and around the protected area and were dependent on its resources. Ten percent make a living from collecting firewood, and collecting products other than wood such as medicinal plants, fruits, herbs, mushrooms, eggs and honey is commonplace. Several brick factories in the vicinity belong to the local elite and offer jobs that, unlike those in agriculture, provide employment and income year-round. But they also need large amounts of firewood all year round. There is also a need for wood for building purposes and the furniture industry. For the poorest inhabitants of the region, their precarious situation is the reason for the overexploitation of resources, and when accessible forests are cut down, the remaining roots are dug up and soil erosion is further increased.

The 2004-2008 Community Management Project for the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary resulted in the establishment of a number of local bodies working with representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture. Follow-up projects are still being carried out today. The aim is to manage the protected area in a way that takes into account both the protection of biodiversity and the population's interest in the economic use of resources. One of the measures to involve the population is the establishment of Community Patrol Groups , which are made up of villagers and perform control and monitoring tasks within the protected area.

A management plan published in 2006 states the following goals:

  • a strategy for the long-term protection of biodiversity in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary that allows residents to use designated areas sustainably;
  • building partnerships with all stakeholders and sharing in the success of the project;
  • the protection and maintenance of viable populations of wild animals, including elephants;
  • the best possible renaturation of flora and fauna and the restoration of a healthy natural forest;
  • promoting ecotourism in appropriate areas and developing appropriate infrastructure;
  • creating opportunities for sustainable livelihood security and further training for the local population.

successes

A 2008 study found that those involved in the sustainable use of resources and management of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary were able to quickly overcome poverty, while innocent villagers failed. All groups of the population recognized the benefits of the protected area. In addition to the direct benefits such as sustainable logging or fishing, the training of the population by the Ministry of Agriculture and measures such as the provision of better seeds also had an impact. Another aspect was the increasing socio-economic status of the people who actively participated in the protective measures. They consistently reported more frequent and positive social contacts within their community.

Since the impairment of the protected area by its inhabitants and the population of the surrounding area continued, a project was carried out from 2012 to 2015, within the framework of which households were offered options for alternative livelihoods. With technical or financial support from the authorities, small businesses such as the rearing of cattle and goats, poultry farming, fruit and vegetable cultivation, shops or service companies could be set up. It was found that the economic situation of the households that were funded improved significantly, and the extraction of wood from the protected area and other forms of use decreased significantly. At the same time, the number and diversity of trees in the protected area increased slightly.

The establishment of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary is described as a success despite the numerous shortcomings of voices close to the government, participating scientists and numerous interviewed members of the local population. It was possible to stop the loss of biodiversity with the joint administration by the ministry and the population and to create alternative work opportunities. Other voices complain about the man-made almost total destruction of the natural forest that still existed in 1990, the continued ignoring of the existing laws for the protection of nature, and the ineffectiveness of the environmental legislation that was tightened in 2012.

Threats

The Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, like most nature reserves in Bangladesh, is subject to a number of threats that call into question its continued existence. In 2014, the following were named:

  • lack of long-term funding;
  • illegal logging and the black market in illegally felled timber;
  • unsustainable use of resources by the local and regional population, some of whom are residents of the protected area;
  • illegal settlement construction in the protected area, also promoted by delays in the legal enforcement of protective provisions;
  • Tourism, including ecotourism
  • Corruption.

literature

Web links

Commons : Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary  - Collection of Pictures, Videos and Audio Files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e Abdul Bari and Utpal Dutta: Secondary Data Collection for Pilot Protected Area: Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary . Community Development Center (CODEC), Chittagong 2003, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fnishorgo.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F04%2F5-3-4-Secondary-Data-on-Chunati-Wildlife-Sanctuary.pdf~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  2. ^ A b Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury, Masao Koike and Shigeyuki Izumiyama: Introduction. In: Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury (Ed.): Forest Conservation. Pp. 1-21.
  3. ↑ a b c Mohammad Mahfuzur Rahman et al .: Developing alternative income generation activities reduces forest dependency of the poor and enhances their livelihoods: the case of the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh. In: Forests, Trees and Livelihoods. 2017, Volume 26, No. 4, pp. 256–270, doi: 10.1080 / 14728028.2017.1320590 .
  4. ↑ a b c Tapan Kumar Nath et al: Phytosociological Characteristics and Diversity of Trees in a Co-Managed Protected Area of ​​Bangladesh: Implications for Conservation. In: Journal of Sustainable Forestry. 2016, Volume 35, No. 8, pp. 562-577, doi: 10.1080 / 10549811.2016.1231615 .
  5. ↑ a b c d e f A. ZM Manzoor Rashid and Niaz Ahmed Khan: Role of Co-management Organizations in Protected Area Governance: Some Observations from the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury (Ed.): Forest Conservation. Pp. 181-200.
  6. ↑ TCH Sunderland include: Depleting tropical forest at a landscape scale: finding solutions for Bangladesh. In: Journal of Biodiversity and Ecological Sciences. 2011, Volume 1, No. 1, pp. 53-64, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.cifor.org%2Fpublications%2Fpdf_files%2Farticles%2FASunderland1104.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  7. ↑ IPAC (Ed.): Revised Site-Level Field Appraisal for Integrated Protected Area Co-Management: Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary (CWS) . United States Agency for International development (USAID), International Resources Group (IRG), Dhaka 2009, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fbfis.bforest.gov.bd%2Flibrary%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F11%2F4-1-3-1-IPAC_Report_PRA%Chunati_GBWS.pdf~ 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  8. ↑ a b Md. Mostafa Feeroz, M. Khairul Alam and Abdur Rob Mollah: Assessment of Conservation Values ​​of Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary and Identification of Critical Conservation Areas for Inclusion in Nishorgo Support Project . Nature Conservation Management, Dhaka 2005, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fnishorgo.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F02%2F7-20-Assessment-of-Conservation-Values_CWS.pdf~GB%3D~IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  9. ^ Mohammad Kamal Hossain: Bangladesh National Conservation Strategy. Biodiversity: flora . IUCN Bangladesh, Dhaka 2016, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fbforest.portal.gov.bd%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffiles%2Fbforest.portal.gov.bd%2Fnotices%2Fc3379d22_ee107420_4dec25%2Fnotices%2Fc3379d22_ee107420d88 .pdf ~ GB% 3D ~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  10. ↑ a b c Imtiaz Ahmed Sajal: Biodiversity of Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary , Daily Observer, October 29, 2015, accessed May 6, 2019.
  11. ^ IUCN Bangladesh (Ed.): Red List of Bangladesh. Volume 2. p. 103.
  12. ↑ Mahmudul Hasan et al .: A new species of genus Hoplobatrachus (Anura, Dicroglossidae) from the coastal belt of Bangladesh. In: Zootaxa 2012, Volume 3312, No. 1, pp. 45-48, doi: 10.11646 / zootaxa.3312.1.2 .
  13. ^ IUCN Bangladesh (Ed.): Red List of Bangladesh. Volume 2. p. 65.
  14. ↑ a b c IUCN Bangladesh (Ed.): Conservation of Asian Elephants in Bangladesh . IUCN Bangladesh, Dhaka 2004, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fportals.iucn.org%2Flibrary%2Fsites%2Flibrary%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2F2004-104.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  15. ↑ Mohammad Shamsuddoha and Md. Abdul Aziz: Conservation Status of the Asian Elephant in the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary in Bangladesh. In: Tigerpaper. Regional Quarterly Bulletin on Wildlife and National Parks Management. 2014, Volume 41, No. 1, pp. 6–13, digitized version http: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2F3%2Fa-i4265e.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelsided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D(entire issue).
  16. ↑ Md. Anwarul Islam and others: Current Status of Asian Elephants in Bangladesh. In: Gajah. 2011, Volume 35, pp. 21-24, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.asesg.org%2FPDFfiles%2F2012%2F35-21-Islam.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  17. ↑ Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury and Masao Koike: Conceptual Framework, Research Methods and Approaches. In: Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury (Ed.): Forest Conservation. Pp. 23-44.
  18. ↑ a b c Muhammad Ali Uddin and Abu Shadat Ahmed Foisal: Local Perceptions of Natural Resource Conservation in Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Jefferson Fox et al. (Ed.): Making Conservation Work. Pp. 84-109.
  19. ↑ Nishorgo Support Project (ed.): Management Plans for Chunoti Wildlife Sanctuary . Nishorgo Support Project, Dhaka 2006, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fnishorgo.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2017%2F04%2F5-5-4-Management_plans_for_chunati_WS.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  20. ↑ Mohammed Ehsanul Hoque: Evaluating co-management as a tool for the reduction of poverty and inequality in Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Jefferson Fox et al. (Ed.): Connecting communities and conservation. Pp. 227-246, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.eastwestcenter.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fresources%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2Fconnectingcommunities12chunati.pdf~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  21. ↑ a b Mohammad Mahfuzur Rahman, Md. Abdullah Al Mahmud and Farid Uddin Ahmed: Restoration of degraded forest ecosystem through non-forestry livelihood supports: experience from the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary in Bangladesh. In: Forest Science and Technology. 2017, Volume 13, No. 3, pp. 109–115, doi: 10.1080 / 21580103.2017.1349003 .
  22. ↑ Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury and Shigeyuki Izumiyama: Potential Threats, Their Patterns and Extent to the Protected Areas of Bangladesh: A 'Red Flag' to Biodiversity Conservation Efforts. In: Mohammad Shaheed Hossain Chowdhury (Ed.): Forest Conservation. Pp. 231-250.