History of virology

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Electron microscope image of rod-shaped particles of the tobacco mosaic virus that are too small to be viewed with a light microscope

The history of virology - the scientific study of viruses and the infections they cause - began in the last few years of the 19th century. Although Louis Pasteur and Edward Jenner developed the first vaccines to protect against viral infections , they did not know that viruses existed. The first evidence of the existence of viruses came from experiments with filters whose pores were small enough to hold back bacteria. In 1892, Dmitrij Iwanowski used one of these filters to show that the juice of a sick tobacco plant could infect healthy tobacco plants even though it was filtered. Martinus Beijerinck called the filtered, infectious substance a "virus". This discovery is considered to be the beginning of virology .

The subsequent discovery and partial characterization of bacteriophages by Frederick Twort and Felix d'Herelle further catalyzed the area. Many viruses were discovered in the early 20th century. In 1926, Thomas Milton Rivers defined viruses as obligatory parasites . According to Wendell Meredith Stanley, viruses turned out to be particles rather than liquids, and the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 made it possible to visualize their complex structures.

Pioneers

Adolf Mayer in 1875
An old, bespectacled man wearing a suit and sitting at a bench by a large window. The bench is covered with small bottles and test tubes. On the wall behind him is a large old-fashioned clock below frick u which are four small enclosed shelves on which sit many neatly labeled bottles.
Martinus Beijerinck in his laboratory in 1921

Despite his other successes, Louis Pasteur failed to find a rabies pathogen . He suspected a pathogen that is too small to be seen with a microscope. In 1884, the French microbiologist Charles Chamberland invented a filter - now known as the Chamberland filter - whose pores are smaller than bacteria. In this way he was able to filter a solution containing bacteria and completely remove the bacteria from the solution.

In 1876, Adolf Mayer , head of the agricultural research station in Wageningen , was the first to show that what he called the " tobacco mosaic disease " was contagious. He thought it was either caused by a toxin or by a very small bacterium. Later, in 1892, Russian biologist Dmitri Ivanovsky used a Chamberland filter to study what is now known as the tobacco mosaic virus. His experiments showed that crushed leaf extracts from infected tobacco plants remain contagious after filtration. Ivanovsky suggested that the infection could be caused by a toxin produced by bacteria, but did not pursue the idea any further.

In 1898 the Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck, teacher of microbiology at the Agricultural School in Wageningen, repeated experiments by Adolf Mayer and came to the conclusion that the filtrate contained a new form of an infectious agent. He observed that the pathogen only multiplied in dividing cells, and called it contagium vivum fluidum (soluble living germ) and reintroduced the word virus. Beijerinck claimed that viruses were fluid-like, a theory that was later discredited by American biochemist and virologist Wendell Meredith Stanley , who proved that they were actually particles. Also in 1898, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch let the first animal virus run through a similar filter and discovered the cause of foot-and-mouth disease .

By 1928 enough was known about viruses to make the publication of Filterable Viruses , a collection of essays on all known viruses edited by Thomas Milton Rivers . Rivers, a typhoid survivor who fell ill at the age of twelve, made a remarkable career in virology. In 1926 he was invited to speak at a conference organized by the Society of American Bacteriologists , where he said for the first time: "Viruses seem to be obligate parasites in the sense that their reproduction depends on living cells."

The assumption that viruses were particles was not considered unnatural and fit perfectly with germ theory. It is possible that John B. Buist in Edinburgh in 1886 described the first vaccinia virus particle, which he called “micrococci”, in the vaccine lymph. In the years that followed, as optical microscopes improved, "inclusion bodies" could be seen in many virus-infected cells, but these aggregates of virus particles were still too small to determine a detailed structure. Only with the invention of the electron microscope in 1931 by the German engineers Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll could it be shown that virus particles, especially bacteriophages, have complex structures. The virus sizes determined with this new microscope were a good match for those estimated by filtration experiments. The viruses were expected to be small, but the size range was surprising. Some were just a little smaller than the smallest known bacteria, and the smaller viruses were similar in size to complex organic molecules.

In 1935, Wendell Stanley examined the tobacco mosaic virus and found that it was mainly protein. In 1939, Stanley and Max Lauffer separated the virus into protein and nucleic acid , which, according to Stanley's fellow postdoctoral fellow Hubert S. Loring, has been shown to be specific RNA . The discovery of RNA in the particles was important because in 1928 Fred Griffith provided the first evidence that their "cousin," DNA , formed genes .

In Pasteur's day and for many years after his death, the word “virus” was used to describe all the causes of infectious diseases. Many bacteriologists soon discovered the cause of numerous infections. However, there were still some infections, many of them terrible, for which no bacterial cause could be found. These pathogens were invisible and could only be bred in living animals. The discovery of the viruses was the key that unlocked the door that hid the secrets of the cause of these mysterious infections. And although Koch's postulates could not be fulfilled for many of these infections, this did not prevent the pioneers of virology from looking for viruses in infections for which no other cause could be found.

Bacteriophage

Bacteriophage

discovery

Bacteriophages are the viruses that infect bacteria and multiply in them. They were discovered by the English bacteriologist Frederick Twort at the beginning of the 20th century. But even before that time, in 1896, reported the bacteriologist Ernest Hanbury Hankin that something in the water of the Ganges , the cholera vibrio - could kill - the cause of cholera. The pathogen in the water could pass filters used to remove bacteria, but was destroyed by boiling. Twort discovered the effect of bacteriophages on staphylococci . He noticed that some bacterial colonies became watery or "glassy" when growing on nutrient agar. He collected some of these aqueous colonies and passed them through a Chamberland filter to remove the bacteria and discovered that when the filtrate was added to fresh bacterial cultures, they became watery. He suggested that the pathogen could be "an amoeba, an ultramicroscopic virus, a living protoplasm or an enzyme with growth potential".

Felix d'Herelle was a mainly self-taught French-Canadian microbiologist. In 1917 he discovered that "an invisible antagonist" when added to bacteria on agar would create areas of dead bacteria. The antagonist, now known as bacteriophage, was able to pass a Chamberland filter. He carefully diluted a suspension of these viruses and discovered that the highest dilutions (lowest concentrations of virus), rather than killing all bacteria, created discrete areas of dead organisms. By counting these areas and multiplying by the dilution factor, he was able to calculate the number of viruses in the original suspension. He realized that he had discovered a new form of virus and later coined the term "bacteriophage". Between 1918 and 1921, d'Herelle discovered different types of bacteriophage that could infect various other types of bacteria, including Vibrio cholerae. Bacteriophages have been touted as potential treatments for diseases such as typhoid and cholera , but with the development of penicillin , their promise has been forgotten. Since the early 1970s, bacteria have continued to develop resistance to antibiotics such as penicillin, which has sparked renewed interest in the use of bacteriophages to treat severe infections .

Early research 1920–1940

Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent Bordet. Photomechanical print. Wellcome L0001844.jpg
Christopher Andrewes.jpg


Jules Bordet and Christopher Andrewes

D'Herelle traveled extensively to support the use of bacteriophages in the treatment of bacterial infections. In 1928 he became professor of biology at Yale and founded several research institutes. He was convinced that bacteriophages were viruses, despite resistance from established bacteriologists such as Nobel Prize winner Jules Bordet . Bordet was of the opinion that bacteriophages are not viruses, but only enzymes that are released from " lysogenic " bacteria. He said that "the invisible world of d'Herelle does not exist". But evidence was provided by Christopher Andrewes and others in the 1930s that bacteriophages were viruses. They showed that these viruses differed in their size and in their chemical and serological properties. In 1940, the first electron micrograph of a bacteriophage was published, and this silenced skeptics who had claimed that bacteriophages were relatively simple enzymes, not viruses. Numerous other types of bacteriophage were quickly discovered and shown to infect bacteria wherever they occur. Early research was interrupted by World War II. Despite his Canadian citizenship, d'Herelle was interned by the Vichy government until the end of the war.

Modern era

Knowledge of bacteriophage increased throughout the United States in the 1940s after the Phage Group was founded by scientists. One of the members was Max Delbrück , who established a chair in bacteriophages at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Other important members of the Phage Group were Salvador Luria and Alfred Hershey . In the 1950s, Hershey and Chase made important discoveries about the replication of DNA while studying a bacteriophage known as T2. Together with Delbrück, they received the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine “for their discoveries on the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses”. Since then, the study of bacteriophage has provided insight into how genes are turned on and off and a useful mechanism for introducing foreign genes into bacteria, and many other fundamental mechanisms in molecular biology .

Plant viruses

Chlorosis in Euphorbia viguieri due to the tobacco mosaic virus
Dmitry Iosifovich Ivanovsky.jpg
Martinus Willem Beijerinck.png


Dmitri Iossifowitsch Iwanowski and Martinus Willem Beijerinck

In 1882, Adolf Mayer described a condition of tobacco plants, which he called " mosaic disease " ("mozaïkziekte"). The diseased plants had brightly colored leaves that were spotted. He ruled out the possibility of a fungal infection and could not detect a bacterium and assumed that a "soluble, enzyme-like infection principle is present". He did not pursue his idea any further, and it was only the filtration experiments by Dmitri Iossifowitsch Iwanowski and Martinus Willem Beijerinck that suggested that the cause was a previously unrecognized infectious agent. After Tobacco Mosaic Disease was recognized as a viral disease, viral infections were discovered in many other plants.

The importance of the tobacco mosaic virus in the history of viruses cannot be valued highly enough. It was the first virus to be discovered and the first to crystallize and its structure shown in detail. The first X-ray diffraction images of the crystallized virus were obtained by John Desmond Bernal and JD Fankuchen in 1941. On the basis of their images, Rosalind Franklin discovered the complete structure of the virus in 1955. In the same year, Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat and Robley C. Williams showed that purified tobacco mosaic virus RNA and its coat protein can self-assemble into functional viruses, suggesting that this simple mechanism is likely to create viruses within their host cells.

Until 1935 it was thought that many plant diseases were caused by viruses. In 1922, John Kunkel Small discovered that insects could act as vectors and transmit viruses to plants, and in the following decade this route of transmission was discovered for many plant diseases. In 1939, Francis Holmes, a pioneer in plant virology, described 129 viruses that caused plant diseases. Modern intensive agriculture provides a rich environment for many plant viruses. In 1948 in Kansas, USA, 7% of the wheat harvest was destroyed by the Wheat Stripe Mosaic Virus. The virus was spread by mites called Aceria tulipae .

In 1970, Russian plant virologist Joseph Atabekov discovered that many plant viruses infect only a single species of host plant. The International Committee on Virus Taxonomy now recognizes over 900 plant viruses .

20th century

By the late 19th century, viruses were defined in terms of their infectivity and ability to be filtered and their need for living hosts. Up until then, viruses were only grown in plants and animals, but in 1906 Ross Granville Harrison discovered a method of growing tissue in lymph, and in 1913 Edna Steinhardt, C. Israeli and RA Lambert used this method to to grow vaccinia virus in fragments of corneal tissue from guinea pigs. In 1928 HB Maitland and DI Margrath cultivated the vaccinia virus in suspensions from crushed chicken kidneys. Their method was not widely adopted until the 1950s, when the poliovirus was bred on a large scale for vaccine production. In the years 1941–42, George K. Hirst developed test methods based on hemagglutination to quantify a wide range of viruses and virus-specific antibodies in serum.

Influenza

A woman at work during the 1918–1919 influenza epidemic. The face mask likely offered minimal protection.

Although the influenza virus that caused pandemic influenza in 1918–1919 was not discovered until the 1930s, descriptions of the disease and further research have shown that it was to blame. The pandemic killed 40 to 50 million people in less than a year, but evidence that it was caused by a virus was not obtained until 1933. Haemophilus influenzae is an opportunistic bacterium that often follows influenza infections. This led the eminent German bacteriologist Richard Pfeiffer to the wrong conclusion that this bacterium was the cause of influenza. A major breakthrough came in 1931 when American pathologist Ernest W. Goodpasture raised influenza and several other viruses in fertilized chicken eggs. Hirst recognized an enzymatic activity associated with the virus particle, later referred to as neuraminidase . This was the first evidence that viruses can contain enzymes. Frank Macfarlane Burnet showed in the early 1950s that the virus recombined at high frequencies, and Hirst later deduced that it had a segmented genome.

poliomyelitis

In 1949, John Franklin Enders , Thomas Huckle Weller, and Frederick Chapman Robbins first grew the poliovirus in cultured human embryo cells. It was the first virus to be grown without the use of solid animal tissue or egg cells. Infections with the poliovirus usually cause the mildest symptoms. This only became known when the virus was isolated in cultured cells and mild infections that did not result in poliomyelitis were found in many people. But unlike other viral infections, the incidence of polio - the rarer, severe form of the infection - increased in the 20th century and peaked around 1952. The invention of a cell culture system for growing the virus enabled Jonas Salk to produce an effective polio vaccine.

Epstein-Barr Virus

Denis Parsons Burkitt was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Ireland. He was the first to describe a type of cancer that is now called Burkitt's lymphoma after him. This cancer was endemic to Equatorial Africa and was the most common malignant disease in children in the early 1960s. In an attempt to find a cause for the cancer, Burkitt sent cells from the tumor to British virologist Anthony Epstein , who, along with Yvonne M. Barr and Bert Achong , and after many failures, found viruses in the fluid that surrounded the cells discovered that resembled the herpes virus. The virus later turned out to be a hitherto unknown herpes virus, now known as the Epstein-Barr virus . Surprisingly, the Epstein-Barr virus is a very common, but relatively mild, infection in Europeans. Why it can cause such a devastating disease in Africans is not fully understood, but decreased immunity to the virus caused by malaria could be to blame. Epstein-Barr virus is important in virus history as the first virus known to cause cancer in humans.

Late 20th and early 21st centuries

negatively stained TEM image of the poliovirus
Mumps virus
3D-model of the viroid of an adenovirus
Leukemia cells with evidence of Epstein-Barr virus
A rotavirus particle
Colored TEM image of a Hendra virus

The second half of the 20th century was the golden age of virus discovery, during which time most of the approximately 2,000 types of viruses that infect bacteria, animal cells or plant cells were discovered. In 1946, bovine viral diarrhea was discovered, which is probably still the most common disease in cattle worldwide, and equine arterivirus was discovered in 1957 . In the 1950s, improvements in virus isolation and detection methods led to the discovery of several important human viruses, including the varicella zoster virus, paramyxoviruses - which include measles virus and respiratory syncytial virus - and the rhinoviruses that cause the common cold . Even more viruses were discovered in the 1960s. In 1963 Baruch Samuel Blumberg discovered the hepatitis В virus. Reverse transcriptase, the key enzyme with which retroviruses convert their RNA into DNA, was first described independently in 1970 by Howard M. Temin and David Baltimore . This was important in the development of antiviral drugs - a major turning point in the history of viral infections. In 1983, Luc Montagnier and his team at the Pasteur Institute in France first isolated the retrovirus, which is now known as HIV. In 1989, Michael Houghton's team at Chiron Corporation discovered hepatitis C. Each decade of the second half of the 20th century, new viruses and viral strains were discovered. These discoveries have continued into the 21st century as new viral diseases such as SARS and the Nipah virus have emerged. Despite the achievements of scientists over the past hundred years, viruses continue to pose new threats and challenges.

literature

  • Herbert A. Neumann: The emergence of virology , ABW Wissenschaftsverlag, Berlin 2019, ISBN 978-3-940615-59-6 .

Individual evidence

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