Golden Age of Antarctic Research

The climax of the golden age of Antarctic research: Roald Amundsen and his companions were the first to reach the geographic South Pole in December 1911.

The golden age of Antarctica research - referred to as the "heroic age" in English-speaking countries - describes an era that extends from the end of the 19th century to the early 1920s. During this period of approximately 25 years, Antarctica advancedbecame the focus of international interest, leading to intense scientific and geographical exploration during which sixteen major expeditions were launched from eight different countries. What all expeditions had in common was the limited resources available before further developments in logistics and communication technology revolutionized the work of researchers. This meant that every expedition required extreme endurance that pushed its participants to the limits of their physical and mental capabilities. The label "heroic" that was later bestowed on them mainly referred to the adversity faced by these pioneers, some of whom did not survive the experience; 19 expedition members died during this time.

In the course of these expeditions, both the geographic and the magnetic South Pole were reached. The success of being the first to be at the geographic South Pole was the primary goal of some expeditions and the main reason for Amundsen's ventures. Still, this was only one aspect of the exploration of the polar regions during this period; other expeditions worked with specific destinations in different parts of the Antarctic continent. As a result of all of this activity, much of the continent's coastline has been discovered and mapped, and a significant number of inland areas have been explored. The expeditions also provided large amounts of scientific data and samples in many different scientific disciplines, the study and analysis of which have occupied scientists around the world for decades.

Beginning of the golden age

Sir John Murray

The first impetus for the great Antarctic expeditions was given during a lecture given to the Royal Geographical Society in London in 1893. It was John Murray, of the Challenger Oceanographic Expedition , who sailed Antarctic waters from 1872–76. He suggested that a new Antarctic expedition should be organized in order to "find answers to the open geographic questions that were still being asked in the south." In August 1895 the “Sixth International Geographical Congress” in London passed a general resolution calling on scientists around the world to promote reasons for exploring Antarctica “however it would appear most effective”. Such efforts would “benefit almost every branch of science”. The Norwegian Carsten Borchgrevink , who had just returned from a whaling expedition during which he was one of the first to set foot on the Antarctic mainland, had given a speech to the congress. During this speech, Borchgrevink outlined plans for a major groundbreaking Antarctic expedition based on Cape Adare .

Nevertheless, the golden age was finally ushered in in 1897 by an expedition by the Belgian Geographic Institute; Borchgrevink followed a year later with a privately financed expedition. The designation "hero age" came much later. The term is not mentioned in the early expedition reports or memoirs, nor in the biographies of the polar actors that emerged in the 1920s and 1930s. It is not clear when the term first appeared or was generally adopted. It was used in March 1956 by the British researcher Duncan Carse (1913-2004) who wrote for the Times . In a description of the first crossing of South Georgia in 1916, he wrote of "three men from the heroic age of Antarctic exploration, equipped with a carpenter's hatchet and 50 feet of rope between them." The word “hero age” has been used in the real sense. This is the term used to describe a time in which legends and myths about great heroes arise, and it was similar with the great personalities in polar research of the time, all of whom became (national) heroes in their home countries.

Expeditions 1897–1922

Hints

1. The summaries in the table do not address the scientific work during these expeditions, each of which brought back findings and samples for a wide range of scientific disciplines.
2. The table also does not contain any of the numerous whaling trips that took place during this period, nor any sub-Antarctic expeditions such as B. that of the German Carl Chun 1898–99, which did not reach the Antarctic Arctic Circle . The failed Cope expedition from 1920-22, which was discontinued due to a lack of funds, is also not included, although two men went ashore from a Norwegian whaler and spent a year on the Antarctic Peninsula.
3. † marks the death of the leader during the expedition

time	nation	designation	Ships)	ladder	summary	Ref.
1897 - 1899	Belgium	Belgica expedition	Belgica	Adrien de Gerlache	The first expedition to winter south of the Antarctic Circle after the ship was trapped in the ice in the Bellingshausen Sea . For the first time, year-round data was collected from the Antarctic. In addition, 71 ° 30 ′ S was reached and the Gerlache Strait was discovered.
1898 - 1900	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Expedition 1898 ( Southern Cross Expedition )	Southern Cross	Carsten Borchgrevink	The first expedition to winter on the Antarctic mainland ( Cape Adare ). Dog sleds were used for the first time. The great ice barrier (known today as the Ross Ice Shelf ) was entered for the first time and a new southern record was set at 78 ° 50 ′ S. In addition, the position of the Antarctic magnetic pole was calculated .
1901 - 1904	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Expedition 1901 ( Discovery Expedition )	Discovery	Robert Falcon Scott	She managed the first ascent of the western mountains in Victoria Land and she discovered the northern foothills of the polar plateau . A new southern record was set at 82 ° 17 ′ S. Many other geographic features have been discovered, mapped and named. It was the first of several expeditions to set up base camp on Ross Island in McMurdo Sound .
1901 - 1903	Deutsches Reich	First German Antarctic Expedition ( Gauss Expedition )	Gauss	Erich von Drygalski	The first expedition to explore the eastern part of Antarctica. The coast of Kaiser-Wilhelm-II.-Land and the Gaußberg were discovered . The expedition's ship was trapped in the ice, which prevented further exploration.
1901 - 1903	Sweden	Swedish Antarctic Expedition	Antarctica	Otto Nordenskjöld	This expedition worked on the east coast of Graham Land and had its base camp on Snow Hill Island . After the expedition ship sank, parts of the crew also had to winter on Paulet Island and Hope Bay . You were rescued by the Argentine corvette Uruguay .
1902 - 1904	United Kingdom	Scottish National Antarctic Expedition	Scotia	William Speirs Bruce	The Orcadas weather station in the southern Orkney Islands has been established. The Weddell Sea was penetrated to 74 ° 1 'S and the Coatsland coastline was discovered as the eastern limit of this bay.
1903 - 1905	France	Fourth French Antarctic Expedition	Français	Jean-Baptiste Charcot	Originally intended as a rescue operation for the stranded Nordenskjöld Group, the main task of this expedition was the mapping and surveying of islands and the west coast of Grahamland on the Antarctic Peninsula . A stretch of coast was explored and named Loubet Coast after the French President at the time .
1907 - 1909	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Expedition 1907 ( Nimrod Expedition )	Nimrod	Ernest Shackleton	The first Shackleton-led expedition. The first ascent of the Beardmore Glacier route to the South Pole was made from a base in McMurdo Sound . Only 97 nautical miles (approx. 180 km) from the pole, a new southern record was set at 88 ° 23 ′ S. The northern group reached the Antarctic magnetic pole for the first time.
1908 - 1910	France	Fifth French Antarctic Expedition	Pourquoi pas? IV	Jean-Baptiste Charcot	She continued the work of the previous French expedition. In addition to a general exploration of the Bellingshausen Sea, islands and stretches of coast were discovered including Marguerite Bay , Charcot Island , Renaud Island , Mikkelsen Bay and Rothschild Island .
1910 - 1912	Japan	Japanese Antarctic Expedition	Kainan Maru	Nobu Shirase	The first non-European Antarctic expedition conducted an exploration of the coast of King Edward VII Land and examined the eastern part of the great ice barrier. 80 ° 5 'S.
1910 - 1912	Norway	Amundsen's Fram expedition	Fram	Roald Amundsen	First at the South Pole: Amundsen set up camp on the large ice barrier near the Bay of Whales . He discovered a new route to the south polar plateau over the Axel-Heiberg-Glacier . A group of five men led by Amundsen reached the South Pole via this route on December 14, 1911.
1910 - 1913	United Kingdom	British Antarctic Expedition 1910 ( Terra Nova Expedition )	Terra Nova	Robert Falcon Scott  †	Scott's last expedition started like his first from McMurdo Sound. Scott and four other men reached the South Pole on the Beardmore Route on January 18, 1912, 35 days after Amundsen. All five died of hunger and cold on their way back from the Pole.
1911 - 1913	Deutsches Reich	Second German Antarctic Expedition	Germany	Wilhelm Filchner	The goal was the first crossing of the Antarctic. The expedition succeeded in advancing to the southernmost point in the Weddell Sea at 77 ° 45 'S. She discovered the Prinzregent-Luitpold-Land , the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf and the Vahsel Bay . The establishment of a coastal base for the start of the transcontinental march failed, and after a long drift through the pack ice of the Weddell Sea, she returned to South Georgia .
1911 - 1914	Australia	Australasian Antarctic Expedition	Aurora	Douglas Mawson	The expedition concentrated on the stretch of coast between Cape Adare and the Gaußberg, where mapping and studies of the coast and the hinterland were carried out. The expedition's discoveries include Commonwealth Bay , Ninnis Glacier , Mertz Glacier and Queen Marie Land , among others .
1914 - 1917	United Kingdom	Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition ( Weddell Sea Party )	Endurance	Ernest Shackleton	Another attempt to cross the Antarctic continent across the South Pole. The group failed to land in the Weddell Sea after the expedition ship Endurance got stuck in the ice and was crushed. The expedition members managed to save themselves after a long drift on an ice floe , Shackleton's journey in an open boat and the first crossing of South Georgia .
1914 - 1917	United Kingdom	Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition ( Ross Sea Party )	Aurora	Aeneas Mackintosh  †	The expedition should support the endurance expedition. The goal was to set up depots along the great ice barrier up to Beardmore Glacier to support the group that was to start the continental crossing from the Weddell Sea. All necessary depots were created, but three men were killed, including Mackintosh as the leader of the expedition.
1921 - 1922	United Kingdom	Shackleton Rowett Expedition Quest Expedition	Quest	Ernest Shackleton  †	Approximate goals included mapping the coast, possible bypassing the continent, exploring the sub-Antarctic islands, and oceanographic work. After Shackleton's death on January 5, 1922, the Quest, under the direction of Frank Wild, completed an abridged program before returning home.

See also : List of Antarctic Expeditions

Deaths during the expeditions

Nineteen men died on expeditions to Antarctica during this era, five of them from diseases unrelated to their experiences in Antarctica and two from accidents in New Zealand. The other twelve were killed in action on or near the Antarctic continent.

expedition	Surname	nationality	date of death	Place of death	Cause of death	Ref.
Belgica expedition	Carl August Wiencke	Belgium	Jan. 22, 1898	Waters around the South Shetland Islands , Antarctica	Drown
	Émile Danco		June 5, 1898	off the coast of Graham Land , Antarctica	Heart disease
Southern Cross Expedition	Nicolai Hanson	Norway	Oct 14, 1899	Cape Adare , Antarctica	Bowel disease
Discovery expedition	Charles Bonner	United Kingdom	Dec. 2, 1901	Port of Lyttelton , New Zealand	Fall from the mast of the ship
	George Vince		March 11, 1903	Ross Island , Antarctica	Slide over an icy slope
Swedish Antarctic Expedition	Ole Christian Wennersgaard	Norway	June 7, 1903	Paulet Island	Heart failure
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition	Allan Ramsay	United Kingdom	Aug 6, 1903	South Orkney Islands	Heart disease
Terra Nova Expedition	Edgar Evans	United Kingdom	Feb. 18, 1912	Beardmore Glacier , Antarctica	Hunger and hypothermia
	Lawrence Oates		March 17, 1912	Great ice barrier , Antarctica
	Robert Falcon Scott		March 29, 1912
	Edward Wilson
	Henry Bowers
	Robert Brissenden		Aug 17, 1912	Admiralty Bay, New Zealand	Drown
Second German Antarctic Expedition	Richard Vahsel	Deutsches Reich	Aug 8, 1912	Weddell Sea	syphilis
Australasian Antarctic Expedition	Belgrave Ninnis	United Kingdom	Dec 14, 1912	George V coast , Antarctica	Fall into a crevasse
	Xavier Mertz	Switzerland	Jan. 7, 1913		Food poisoning
Ross Sea Party	Arnold Spencer-Smith	United Kingdom	March 9, 1916	Great ice barrier, Antarctica	Hypothermia and scurvy
	Aeneas Mackintosh		May 8, 1916	McMurdo Sound , Antarctica	Fall through the ice sheet into the sea
	Victor Hayward		May 8, 1916
Shackleton Rowett Expedition	Ernest Shackleton	United Kingdom	Jan. 5, 1922	South Georgia	Heart disease

Another four men died shortly after their return from Antarctica (excluding those who died in World War I ):

• Herluf Kløvstad, medical officer of the Southern Cross Expedition, 1898–1900, died in 1900 of "nerve fever" .
• Jørgen Petersen, first mate on the Southern Cross , died in September 1900 on a ship during the return voyage from Australia under unspecified circumstances.
• Bertram Armytage , a member of the Nimrod Expedition, 1907–1909, shot himself on March 12, 1910.
• Hjalmar Johansen , a member of Amundsen's expedition, 1910–1912, shot himself on January 4, 1913.

End of the golden age

There are different views as to when exactly the golden age of Antarctic exploration ended. Shackleton's Endurance expedition is sometimes referred to as the last Antarctic expedition of that time. Other chroniclers extend the era to the date of Shackleton's death, January 5, 1922, and refer to the Shackleton Rowett or Quest expedition, during which Shackleton died, as the final chapter of that era. Margery and James Fisher, Shackleton's biographers, say: “If it were possible to draw a clear line between the so-called heroic age of Antarctic exploration and the mechanical era, one could just as easily use the Shackleton-Rowett expedition as a guide to to draw this line ”. A journalist who visited the ship before it set sail reported: “Devices! Devices! Technical equipment everywhere! ”. This included radio, an electrically heated crow's nest and an odograph that could determine and record the speed and route of a ship.

literature

• Caroline Alexander: The Endurance . Berlin-Verlag, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-8270-0296-6 .
• Roald Amundsen : The South Pole, Vol II . C Hurst & Co, London 1976, ISBN 0-903983-47-8 .
• Stephanie Barczewski: Antarctic Destinies . Hambledon Continuum, London 2007, ISBN 978-1-84725-192-3 .
• Carsten Borchgrevink : First on the Antarctic Continent . George Newnes Ltd. 1901. Retrieved August 11, 2008.
• David Crane: Scott of the Antarctic: A Life of Courage, and Tragedy in the Extreme South . Harper Collins, London 2005, ISBN 978-0-00-715068-7 .
• Ranulph Fiennes : Captain Scott . Hodder & Stoughton, London 2003, ISBN 0-340-82697-5 .
• Tom Griffiths: Slicing the Silence: Voyaging to Antarctica . Harvard University Press, United States 2007, ISBN 0-6740-2644-0 .
• Robert K. Headland: Studies in Polar Research: Chronological List of Antarctic Explorations and Related Historical Events . Cambridge University Press. 1989. Retrieved November 9, 2008.
• Roland Huntford : The Last Place on Earth . Pan Books, London 1985, ISBN 0-330-82697-5 .
• Roland Huntford: Shackleton . Hodder & Stoughton, London 1985, ISBN 0-340-25007-0 .
• Leonard Huxley (ed.): Scott's Last Expedition, Vol. II . Smith, Elder & Co., London 1913.
• Max Jones: The Last Great Quest . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2003, ISBN 0-19-280483-9 .
• Leif Mills: Frank Wild . Caedmon of Whitby, Whitby 1999, ISBN 0-905355-48-2 .
• Douglas Mawson : The Home of the Blizzard . Birlinn, Edinburgh 1988, ISBN 1-84158-077-5 .
• Diana Preston: A First Rate Tragedy . Constable & Co., London 1997, ISBN 0-09-479530-4 .
• Beau Riffenburgh: Encyclopedia of the Antarctic . Routledge. 2006. Retrieved December 12, 2008.
• Beau Riffenburgh: Nimrod . Bloomsbury Publishing, London 2005, ISBN 0-7475-7253-4 .
• Robert Falcon Scott : Scott's Last Expedition, Vol I . Smith, Elder & Co, London 1913.
• Ernest Shackleton : South Pole . Bastei-Lübbe, Bergisch Gladbach 2000, ISBN 3-404-14509-7 .
• Peter Speak: William Speirs Bruce . NMS Publishing, Edinburgh 2003, ISBN 3-404-14509-7 .
• Kelly Tyler-Lewis: The Lost Men . Bloomsbury Publishing, London 2007, ISBN 978-0-7475-7972-4 .

Web links

• Antarctic Explorers - Adrien de Gerlache . South-pole.com. 2008. Retrieved September 22, 2008.
• Adrien de Gerlache, Belgica : Belgian Antarctic Expedition 1897–99 . Cool Antarctica. December 2, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2008.
• Antarctic History - The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Cool Antarctica. December 2, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2008.
• Borchgrevink, Carsten Egeberg (1864–1934) . Australian Dictionary of Biography Online Edition. 2006. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
• Carsten Borchgrevink (1864-1934) . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 8, 2008.
• British Antarctic Expedition 1910-13 . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. May 2008. Retrieved December 4, 2008.
• Carl Chun Collection . Archive Hub. Retrieved December 11, 2008.
• Erich von Drygalski 1865–1949 . South-pole.com. 2008. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
• Explorer and leader: Captain Scott . National Maritime Museum. 2008. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
• Wilhelm Filchner, 1877–1957 . South-pole.com. 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
• The Forgotten Expedition . Antarctic Heritage Trust. November 29, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2008.
• German National Antarctic Expedition 1901-03 . Cool Antarctica. December 2, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2008.
• James A. Goodlad: Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 2: Antarctic Exploration . Royal Scottish Geographical Society. 2003. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
• David Harrowfield: The Southern Cross Expedition . University of Canterbury, New Zealand. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
• John Lachlan Cope's Expedition to Graham Land 1920-22 . Scott Polar Research Institute. Retrieved December 11, 2008.
• Mawson, Sir Douglas 1882-1958 . Australian Dictionary of Biography. 2006. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
• Douglas Mawson . Cool Antarctica. December 2, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2008.
• Mountaineering and Polar Collection - Antarctica . National Library of Scotland. 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2008.
• Norway's Forgotten Explorer . Antarctic Heritage Trust. 2008. Retrieved August 6, 2008.
• Nobu Shirase, 1861-1946 . South-pole.com. 2008. Retrieved September 24, 2008.
• Otto Nordenskiöld 1869–1928 . South-pole.com. 2008. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
• Linn Ryne: Roald Amundsen . Norwegian Embassy (UK). Retrieved September 25, 2008.
• The Voyage of the Challenger . Stony Brook University, NY. Retrieved November 9, 2008.

Individual evidence

1. ^ ^{A b} Antarctic History - The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Cool Antarctica. Archived from the original on May 10, 2012. Retrieved November 9, 2008.
2. ↑ Barczewski, p. 19. (Barczewski describes a number of 14 expeditions)
3. ↑ ^{a b c d} Fisher, p. 449
4. ^ Huntford, p. 691 - "Before machines took over."
5. ↑ The scientific results of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 1902-04, for example, were published in 1920 (Speak, p. 100). 25 volumes with the results of the Terra Nova Expedition , 1910-13, were not published until 1925. ( British Antarctic Expedition 1910-13 . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved December 4, 2008.)
6. ^ Crane, p. 75
7. ^ ^{A b} J. Scott Keltie, Hugh Robert Mill (Ed.): Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, held in London, 1895 . William Clowes and Sons, London 1896, p. 780 .
8. ↑ Borchgrevink, Carstens: First on the Antarctic Continent . George Newnes Ltd. 1901. Retrieved August 11, 2008. pp. 4-5
9. ^ Jones, p. 59
10. ↑ In some history books, the Discovery Expedition, which started in 1901, is considered the first expedition of this age. See Mountaineering and Polar Collection - Antarctica . National Library of Scotland. Archived from the original on June 23, 2009. Retrieved November 19, 2008.
11. ^ Carse, quoted by M. and J. Fisher, p. 389
12. ↑ Carl Chun Collection . Archive Hub. Archived from the original on May 10, 2012. Retrieved on December 11, 2008.
13. ^ John Lachlan Cope's Expedition to Graham Land 1920-22 . Scott Polar Research Institute . Retrieved December 11, 2008.
14. ^ Adrien de Gerlache de Gomery: The Belgian Antarctic expedition . Hayez, Brussels 1904 (English). Retrieved from the Internet Archive on March 5, 2013.
15. ↑ Antarctic Explorers - Adrien de Gerlache . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 22, 2008.
16. ^ Adrien de Gerlache, Belgica : Belgian Antarctic Expedition 1897–99 . Cool Antarctica. Archived from the original on October 9, 2010. Retrieved November 19, 2008.
17. ^ The Forgotten Expedition . Antarctic Heritage Trust. Archived from the original on November 20, 2009. Retrieved on August 13, 2008.
18. ↑ Borchgrevink, Carsten Egeberg (1864–1934) . Australian Dictionary of Biography Online Edition. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
19. ^ Preston, p. 14.
20. ↑ Recalculations based on analysis of photos of their southernmost point suggest that their true latitude was 82 ° 11 ′ S. See Crane, pp. 214-15.
21. ^ Preston, pp. 57-79
22. ↑ Crane, p. 253 (map); Pp. 294–95 (maps)
23. ^ Fiennes, p. 89
24. ↑ Erich von Drygalski 1865-1949 . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
25. ^ German National Antarctic Expedition 1901-03 . Cool Antarctica. Archived from the original on May 22, 2012. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
26. ^ Crane, p. 307
27. ↑ James A. Goodlad: Scotland and the Antarctic, Section II: Antarctic Exploration . Royal Scottish Geographical Society. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
28. ↑ Otto Nordenskiöld 1869–1928 . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
29. ↑ ^{a b} Barczewski, p. 90
30. ^ Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 5: The Voyage of the Scotia . Glasgow Digital Library. Retrieved September 23, 2008.
31. ^ Speak, pp. 82-95
32. ^ ^{A b} William James Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers . ABC-CLIO. Retrieved September 23, 2008. pp. 135-139
33. ↑ Jean-Baptiste Charcot . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 24, 2008. ( Francais voyage)
34. ^ ^{A b} Jean-Baptiste Charcot, 1867-1936: Biographical Notes . Cool Antarctica. Retrieved September 24, 2008.
35. ^ Scotland and the Antarctic, Section 3: Scott, Shackleton and Amundsen . Glasgow Digital Library. Retrieved September 24, 2008.
36. ↑ Riffenburgh, pp. 309–12 (summary of achievements)
37. ↑ Huntford ( Shackleton Biography) p. 242 (map)
38. ↑ Jean-Baptiste Charcot . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 24, 2008.
39. ↑ Roald Amundsen : The South Pole, Vol II . C Hurst & Co, London 1976, ISBN 0-903983-47-8 .
40. ^ Nobu Shirase, 1861-1946 . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 24, 2008.
41. ↑ Amundsen, Volume I, pp. 184-95; Volume II, pp. 120-134
42. ↑ Huntford ( Last Place on Earth ), pp. 446-74
43. ↑ Roald Amundsen . Norwegian Embassy (UK). Retrieved September 25, 2008.
44. ↑ Scott's Last Expedition Volume I pp. 543-46, pp. 580-95
45. ↑ Preston, pp 184-205
46. ↑ Explorer and leader: Captain Scott . National Maritime Museum. Archived from the original on December 2, 2008. Retrieved September 27, 2008.
47. ^ Huntford ( Shackleton Biography), pp. 366-68
48. ↑ ^{a b} Wilhelm Filchner, 1877–1957 . South-pole.com. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
49. ↑ Mills, p. 129 ff.
50. ^ Mawson, Sir Douglas 1882-1958 . Australian Dictionary of Biography. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
51. ↑ Douglas Mawson . Cool Antarctica. Archived from the original on May 22, 2012. Retrieved September 28, 2008.
52. ↑ Shackleton, pp. 63-85
53. ↑ Alexander, pp. 143-53
54. ↑ Tyler-Lewis, pp. 193-197
55. ^ Huntford ( Shackleton ), p. 684
56. ^ Fisher, p. 483
57. ↑ de Gerlache de Gomery, Adrien: Voyage de la Belgica , Ch. Bulens, Brussels 1902, p. 112 .
58. ^ Belgian Antarctic Expedition 1897-1899 . Paul Ward, Cool Antartica. Archived from the original on October 9, 2010. Retrieved October 22, 2010. ("The crew in more detail" section)
59. ^ The Southern Cross Expedition . University of Canterbury, New Zealand. Retrieved August 10, 2008 ("First Burial on the Continent" section)
60. ↑ Crane, pp. 137-38
61. ↑ Crane, pp. 165-66
62. ^ John Stewart: Antarctica - An Encyclopedia . Vol. 2, McFarland & Co., Jefferson and London 2011, ISBN 978-0-7864-3590-6 , p. 1685 (English).
63. ^ Speak, pp. 88-89
64. ↑ Scott, pp. 572-73
65. ^ Scott, p. 592
66. ↑ Preston, pp. 203-05
67. ↑ Huxley, pp. 345-46
68. ↑ Huxley, p. 389
69. ^ Beau Riffenburgh: Encyclopedia of the Antarctic . Routledge. 2006. Retrieved December 12, 2008. Page 454
70. ^ Robert K. Headland: Studies in Polar Research: Chronological List of Antarctic Explorations and Related Historical Events . Cambridge University Press. 1989. Retrieved November 9, 2008. Page 252
71. ^ Two of Antarctic Expedition Killed . New York Times. February 26, 1913. Retrieved December 4, 2008.
72. ↑ Tyler-Lewis, p. 191
73. ↑ Tyler-Lewis, pp. 196-97; P. 240
74. ↑ Alexander, pp. 192-93
75. ^ ^{A b} Bernacchi, To the South polar regions , Hurst & Blackett, London 1901, p. 331.
76. ^ Riffenburgh, p. 304
77. ^ Huntford: The Last Place on Earth , p. 529
78. ↑ Alexander, pp. 4-5
79. ^ Scotland and the Antarctic, Part 3 . Glasgow Digital Library. Retrieved December 4, 2008.

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