Nimrod expedition
The Nimrod Expedition (officially British Antarctic Expedition 1907-1909 ) was a research trip to Antarctica , which is referred to in the literature after the name of the expedition ship. It was the first of the three Antarctic expeditions organized and directed by the British polar explorer Ernest Shackleton . With this trip, Shackleton intended to be the first person to reach the geographic South Pole . In the run-up to the expedition, there was a dispute with Robert Falcon Scott , who claimed the privilege of this goal for himself. Shackleton defied an agreement made with Scott about the expedition's target area, but did not reach the South Pole. About 180 kilometers from the destination, he and three other expedition members had to turn back due to insufficient equipment, lack of provisions and increasing exhaustion. Nevertheless, this was the closest approach to one of the two geographic poles of the earth.
A number of significant successes were also achieved during the trip. Shackleton, Frank Wild , Jameson Adams and Eric Marshall were the first to advance across the Transantarctic Mountains to the central polar plateau . They discovered, among other things, the Beardmore Glacier , the largest glacier known at the time. The three-man team around the Welsh-Australian geologist Edgeworth David was the first to reach the location of the Antarctic magnetic pole . The first ascent of Mount Erebus , the highest volcano on Ross Island, also succeeded . The scientific staff of the expedition, among them the later leader of the first Australian Antarctic expedition Douglas Mawson , carried out extensive geological, zoological and meteorological studies.
Upon his return, Shackleton quickly dispelled the Royal Geographical Society's initial doubts about the achievements of his expedition and received numerous awards. Among other things, King Edward VII knighted him for his services . In retrospect, Roald Amundsen also paid tribute to Shackleton's achievements after he was the first to reach the geographic South Pole in December 1911.
prehistory
In the course of the Sixth International Geographical Congress in London in 1895, Antarctica had become the focus of geographic research. With a resolution, the Congress had called for the still almost unknown Antarctic continent to be explored more closely. Several well-known congress participants had campaigned for this goal years earlier, for example Georg von Neumayer and John Murray . From 1897 onwards, various expeditions from different nations had set out to Antarctica, had opened up different stretches of coast there and thus ushered in the so-called golden age of Antarctic research . The focus of British research interests has been in what is now known as Ross Dependency . The driving force behind British Antarctic research was Clements Markham , President of the Royal Geographical Society since 1893 . At Markham's initiative, the Royal Geographical Society had organized the Discovery Expedition (1901-1904) together with the Royal Society , the direction of which had been transferred to Robert Falcon Scott and whose participants had included Ernest Shackleton .
According to some historians, differences of opinion and hostilities between Scott and Shackleton during and after the Discovery Expedition should have led Shackleton to try to organize and direct his own research trip to Antarctica. The starting point of the conflict between the two polar explorers was Scott's unsuccessful attempt to reach the geographic South Pole or at least a geographic latitude of 85 ° S together with Shackleton and Edward Wilson . In the course of this venture, Shackleton was seriously ill with scurvy , as a result had spat blood while coughing and, according to Scott's diary entry of February 2, 1903, suffered a "total [physical] collapse" in the meantime.
Although Shackleton had recovered quickly after reaching base camp on the Hut Point Peninsula , Scott had sent him back to England early. Shackleton had wanted to stay on the expedition, but Scott had found him unfit for duty. In his opinion, Shackleton should "take no further risk of hardship in his current state of health." The statements of other expedition participants suggest, however, that this was only a pretended reason for Shackleton's exclusion. According to Scott biographer Diana Preston, Shackleton's "tendency to question things and to resist government" had defied the discipline that had been of great importance to Scott. In addition, there had been indications that there had been an argument between Scott and Shackleton when they marched together towards the South Pole.
After his return to England, Shackleton had taken on a temporary position under Vice Admiral Pelham Aldrich for the equipment and loading of the Terra Nova , one of the two rescue ships of the expedition. However, he had declined the offer to return to Antarctica as the ship's first officer. He found satisfaction at the findings of an Admiralty doctor who, contrary to Scott's assessment, had declared him fit for duty.
The conflict between Shackleton and Scott had reached its preliminary climax after the publication of Scott's expedition report The Voyage of the Discovery in 1905, in which Scott repeatedly referred to Shackleton as "our invalid ", giving the impression that despite a new southern record, it was disappointing reached latitude of 82 ° 17 'S was primarily Shackleton and his poor physical condition to blame. Furthermore, with his claim that Shackleton had to be pulled over long distances on the transport sledge on January 21st and 30th, 1903, after comparisons with identical statements by Shackleton and Wilson, Scott had apparently concealed facts or presented them completely untrue.
Both polar explorers treated each other with courtesy and respect in personal encounters and in their correspondence , but according to polar historian Roland Huntford , Scott's actions and publications were a deliberate humiliation of Shackleton, who has since despised Scott. Shackleton felt that Scott's dismissal was a personal flaw and challenge to “return to Antarctica and try to outdo Scott”. In his later expedition report, however, Shackleton described his motivation as a mixture of a thirst for adventure, the urge to expand scientific knowledge and the "mysterious fascination of the unknown."
Goals of the expedition
Shackleton intended to use the largest of the three huts that had been built on McMurdo Sound during the Discovery expedition as a base camp for a landing party of nine to twelve people. From there, three separately operating groups were supposed to march towards one destination each: the geographic South Pole, the Antarctic Magnetic Pole, and the Edward VII Land (now known as the Edward VII Peninsula ). For the group that should advance to the Antarctic magnetic pole, Shackleton had provided an additional base of operations in the vicinity of Mount Melbourne .
In addition to the main goal of reaching both poles for the first time, Shackleton intended to explore the previously unknown southern course of the Transantarctic Mountains. In addition, he planned glaciological , geological and mineralogical work to elucidate the type and direction of the glacier movement of the Great Ice Barrier (now known as the Ross Ice Shelf ) and the nature of the Edward VII Land east of the barrier. Zoological research should expand previous knowledge about the biodiversity in the target area. Meteorological studies should answer the question to what extent the weather in Australia and New Zealand is influenced by the Antarctic continent. With the expedition ship, Shackleton finally wanted to explore the coast of Wilkesland starting from the Balleny Islands in a westward direction .
However, Shackleton had hardly ever shown any interest in scientific work. Hugh Robert Mill (1861–1950), Shackleton's friend and longtime librarian of the Royal Geographical Society, said in the first biography of Shackleton: "He [Shackleton] was neither particularly fond of polar regions, nor was he an outstanding researcher." Shackleton years after the expedition himself revealed to Hubert Wilkins : “You have to decide whether you want to be a scientist or a successful expedition leader. You can't do both at the same time. ”He presented the expedition to potential participants as a“ joyride ”to the Pole, but was aware that he needed a scientific cover to secure public interest and financial support.
Preparations
financing
At the beginning of 1906 Shackleton had started planning his own Antarctic expedition. According to initial calculations, the cost should be around £ 17,000 (around EUR 2.05 million when adjusted for inflation). At this point, however, Shackleton had no significant financial resources. It was only when Shackleton's employer, entrepreneur William Beardmore , offered a guarantee of £ 7,000 that Shackleton was ready to present his plans to the Royal Geographical Society (RGS). He did this on February 12, 1907 at a reception by the RGS for Roald Amundsen , who had returned from the successful Gjøa expedition , and Fridtjof Nansen was also present, who later advised Shackleton. Shackleton hoped for patronage from the renowned learned society, which should give his project the prestige it needs to win further sponsors . He had previously unsuccessfully presented his plans to about 70 potential donors. Beardmore's support was also small compared to the sums other polar explorers received from their donors. Beardmore's reluctance to work is attributed to Shackleton's negligent way of handling money, as he didn't collect his salary regularly.
Shackleton's initial calculations soon proved unrealistic. When he approached the RGS with his plans, the estimated cost had grown to £ 30,000. While press reports about his project aroused great public interest, the reaction of those responsible at the RGS was very restrained. As Shackleton only found out later, Scott had previously submitted plans to the RGS for another expedition to Antarctica, but had kept them secret from the public. For Shackleton, this meant that he had to do without institutional support for the time being.
After rumors of upcoming French and Belgian expeditions to the target area surfaced, Shackleton wanted to reach Antarctica in January 1908. To do this, he had to leave England in the summer of 1907. From the announcement of his plans to his departure, there were only six months to get equipment and supplies, put together the expedition team and find further donors.
Donations from his private circle, the support of industrialists such as Edward Cecil Guinness and financial contributions from the governments of Australia and New Zealand finally raised £ 30,000. However, because of the additional costs, Shackleton finally expected liabilities of £ 45,000. In order to be able to pay the outstanding bills with his equipment suppliers after the trip, he planned lecture trips and the publication of a book. He hoped for additional income from special postage stamps from the New Zealand government with the stamp of a post office set up in the Antarctic base.
Choice of means of transport for the marches
As a means of transport for equipment and provisions during the marches, sleds were to be used, which were to be pulled by Manchurian ponies , sled dogs and an automobile specially built for use in extreme cold conditions . The latter proved to be an effective advertising medium in advance , as the English press particularly emphasized the use of the vehicle from the Scottish manufacturer Arrol-Johnston in their reports on the planned expedition .
Shackleton's choice of modes of transport in general and the preference for ponies over dogs as draft animals in particular were controversial. The Norwegian polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen had advised him, based on his own experience during the crossing of Greenland (1888) and the North Pole Expedition (1893–1896), to use skis and sled dogs in combination to make rapid progress . Nansen's findings had already been confirmed by other polar researchers such as Otto Sverdrup , Roald Amundsen , Robert Edwin Peary and Luigi Amadeo of Savoy in the Arctic and Carsten Borchgrevink , Erich von Drygalski and Otto Nordenskiöld in the Antarctic. Shackleton relied on Frederick George Jackson's expertise on the use of horses in arctic regions on this point . He had used ponies during an expedition through Siberia in 1893 and when exploring the Franz-Josef-Land (1894-1897) archipelago . Jackson had in particular affirmed the endurance, resilience and frugality of these horses and their "very great use in Arctic research". Because of this, and because of bad experiences with dogs during the Discovery Expedition, which were more due to a lack of experience and patience in handling the animals, Shackleton gave the ponies priority. Nansen's efforts to change his mind about this decision were unsuccessful. In a four-page information paper that Shackleton had previously written to attract investors, however, he had placed the focus of his transport strategy on dogs: "[...] with sixty dogs and a few ponies, I'm pretty sure the South Pole can be reached."
Shackleton planned to take in the event of failure of the draft animals and the car, the transport carriage on foot ( Engl. Man Hauling ) and to renounce the use of skis. Roland Huntford attributes Shackleton's aversion to the use of skis to the amateurish use of obsolete ski equipment during the Discovery Expedition, with which Shackleton, Scott, and Wilson " trudged awkwardly like rheumatic crows, wasting energy with every step." Shackleton's decision to man-haul was based on a recommendation from Clements Markham. Markham was a great admirer of Francis Leopold McClintock , who had traveled great distances in this way in the search for the lost Franklin Expedition in 1859. Scott also preferred the exhausting man-hauling as the only worthy mode of transport for a British polar explorer, since “no journey made with dogs could ever reach the ideal value of men on their own in the face of hardship, danger and difficulties Nansen, like Amundsen and the British mountaineer William Martin Conway, was of the opinion that man-hauling was pointless drudgery that should be avoided at all costs. However, Shackleton did not change his mind - a decision that, according to current knowledge, worsened the expedition's chances of success and the consequences of which confirmed Nansen's assessment.
Purchase of equipment and ship
Shackleton traveled to Norway in April 1907. In Kristiania (today's Oslo ) he ordered thirty sleds made of ash and American hickory wood from L. H. Hagen & Co., which had also equipped Nansen's North Pole expedition . In Drammen he had the furrier Wilhelm Christian Møller (1829–1911) made sleeping bags, gloves and footwear from fur . Due to the tight deadline, Shackleton's order had to be completed in a fraction of the usual time. As a result, not all boots were of the desired quality. The best boots in the seeds developed Finn Shoe -Machart ( norw. Finnsko , Engl. Finnesko ) are made of fur from the legs of the reindeer made. However, Shackleton was only able to acquire a dozen pairs of these. The remaining 80 were also made from less heat-insulating parts of the reindeer skin . Shackleton had the gloves, which were worn over woolen inner gloves, made from the usual wolf and dog fur . For other clothing such as trousers, overalls, hooded jackets and underwear, as well as sleeping bags and blankets for winter quarters, he relied on the English companies Burberry and Jaeger . The Burberry clothing made of fine worsted yarn proved to be good protection against the cold when intact during the course of the expedition, but was not very hard-wearing. The same applied to the tents made of special canvas .
In Sandefjord , on the advice of Belgian polar explorer Adrien de Gerlache , Shackleton wanted to buy Björn, the seal catcher specially built for polar waters . At £ 11,000, however, the cost of the three-year-old ship in prime condition far exceeded Shackleton's financial resources. Finally, he bought the Nimrod for 5,000 pounds , a 334- ton sealer used off the coast of Newfoundland , which was built in 1865 by Alexander Stephens & Son in Dundee from oak, greenheart and iron bark wood . The tonnage of the ship was only about half the Discovery that Scott and Shackleton had been on during the joint expedition.
When the Nimrod arrived on the Thames on June 15, 1907 , Shackleton was disappointed in the neglected condition of the ship. He had it repaired in the shipyard of R. & H. Green in Blackwall Yard in London's East End and converted from a schooner into a schooner bark with square sails on the foremast and gaff sails on the main and mizzenmast . Crew quarters were set up in the bow and hold, and the ship received a new steam engine with 60 nominal horsepower , with the help of which it reached a speed of six knots and consumed four tons of coal a day in calm seas. The coal consumption in connection with the low loading capacity limited the range of the Nimrod in motor operation, which Shackleton forced to change the journey to the target area .
Composition of the expedition team
upper row ( from left to right ): Davis, England, Reid (executive director of the expedition), Dunlop, Michell
Middle row ( from left to right ): Mackintosh, McGowan, Craft, Spice, Riches, Morrison, McRae, Ansell
lower row ( from left to right ): ): AB Bull, Berry, Ellis, Cheetham
Because of the tight preparation time, Shackleton tried to be pragmatic when choosing his companions. A lengthy selection process seemed impossible to him. Therefore, he first approached men directly who had already demonstrated their suitability for a trip to polar regions. So he intended to take over most of his crew from Scott's Discovery Expedition. He offered his friend Edward Wilson the post of deputy expedition leader. To his disappointment, Wilson refused, on what Shackleton saw as a pretext that he was bound by his word of honor to work as a field observer for the committee set up by the Agriculture Committee to investigate grouse disease. He received further rejections from Albert Armitage and George Mulock, among others . Through Mulock, Shackleton learned in passing of Scott's plans for another expedition to Antarctica, and that the officers of the Discovery expedition had committed themselves to participate in this expedition. From the Discovery team, Shackleton was ultimately only able to win Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce for his project. He offered Joyce supervision of the sledges and the few dogs that traveled with them. Shackleton transferred the management of the supplies to Wild. Joyce and Wild were also to act as typesetters and printers of an expedition book he planned.
Shackleton selected the other participants of the expedition primarily from his circle of friends and acquaintances, or he relied on advice and recommendations from recognized experts. In place of Wilson, Shackleton appointed Jameson Adams as his deputy and in charge of conducting meteorological work. Adams and Shackleton combined their training in the British Merchant Navy and membership of the Royal Naval Reserve (RNR), the reserve forces of the Royal Navy . For the position of chief expedition doctor, Shackleton had selected Eric Marshall , who had volunteered at a joint meeting in 1906. Marshall, who was responsible for a large part of the photographs and film recordings made during the expedition, met with little sympathy from other expedition participants because of his harsh and often arrogant manner. Later he took the view, never expressed to Shackleton, that he should have been the head of the company. He also felt left out in the choice of the deputy expedition leader. In addition to Marshall, the Scottish naval doctor Alistair Mackay (1877-1914) and the Canadian ship doctor Rupert Michell belonged to the medical staff. On the recommendation of William Speirs Bruce and John Murray , James Murray (1865-1914) became the expedition's biologist. The 41-year-old Murray was a specialist in microorganisms and had researched bear and rotifers .
Shackleton appointed Rupert England (1878-1942) to the captain of the Nimrod , who had previously served as first officer on the rescue ship Morning in the final stages of the Discovery expedition . England's post at the time was taken over by 23-year-old John King Davis on the Nimrod , who, according to his own statement, had made a spontaneous application after stumbling across the expedition's office on Regent Street . Aeneas Mackintosh , like Adams and previously Shackleton, an officer in the British Merchant Navy, stood by Davis as second officer . Shackleton also planned it for the later landing crew. Shackleton chose his Irish compatriot Harry Dunlop as a marine engineer . He was also supposed to take care of the car carried along with Bernard Day (1884–1934), an expert on internal combustion engines .
The only 20-year-old Philip Brocklehurst became the first paying participant in an Antarctic expedition . He had already expressed interest in a trip to Antarctica when Shackleton met him in March 1906. Brocklehurst was to work as an assistant to geologist Raymond Priestley and had influential relationships that proved helpful in funding the trip beyond the £ 2,000 he contributed. The task of the expedition draftsman fell to George Marston . He convinced Shackleton not only of his artistic abilities, but also by his physical strength and his special humor, which made him popular with other expedition participants. Priestley described Marston as "a prizefighter of build and face with the mind of a fallen angel."
The scientific team around Adams, Priestley, Brocklehurst and Murray was added to Australia by the renowned geologist Edgeworth David and his protégé Douglas Mawson . Besides David and Mawson, the third Australian expedition member who was part of the landing crew was Bertram Armytage , whom Shackleton recruited on David's recommendation and entrusted with the care of the ponies.
Agreement with Robert Falcon Scott
Robert Falcon Scott had submitted plans for another Antarctic expedition to the Royal Geographical Society in January 1907 and the representatives of the society had sworn to keep them confidential. His memorandum entitled The Sledging Problem in the Antarctic: Men versus Motors included as one of the goals the achievement of the geographic South Pole with the help of motorized vehicles.
Scott learned of Shackleton's announcements, which overlapped with his own intentions, from a report in the London Times . In two letters written to Shackleton on February 18, 1907, Scott claimed his alleged prerogative to explore the target area and appealed to the loyalty Shackleton owed his former superior. In the midst of his preparations, Shackleton was confronted with a competitor on the way to the geographic South Pole, whose priority question posed endangered the completion of the Nimrod expedition. In his reply ten days later, he affirmed that he had no knowledge of Scott's plans at the time of the announcement of his own plans, and explained the predicament that resulted for him from Scott's demands: “Of course I would like to agree with your views, so far It is possible without putting myself in a position that would be untenable for me in view of the agreements already made. ”Both opponents took Edward Wilson into this dispute and Shackleton in particular hoped to win Wilson over as a neutral mediator. Wilson, however, made an unequivocal stand for Scott when he wrote to Shackleton: “Well, Shackles, I think your situation is clear [...]. You should stay away from McMurdo Sound. [...] It will diminish your chances of a great success or the greatest of all, but I also wholeheartedly believe that Scott has the right to use this base before anyone else. "
Wilson's partisanship prompted Shackleton to relocate the planned base of his expedition to Edward VII Land east of the Great Ice Barrier . Shackleton's assumption, thus complying with Scott's wish, contradicted Wilson in another letter. In it, he advised Shackleton not to make any new plans until he heard the limits Scott put on his rights. Shackleton in his response to Wilson refused to give in to Scott's increasing obstruction to his intentions. In May 1907 there was a conversation between Shackleton and Scott, in which the latter now claimed the territory west of the 170th western longitude for himself. Scott was again supported by Wilson, who at the end of March 1907 had accepted Scott's offer to participate in another trip to Antarctica. Eventually an agreement was reached in which the massively pressured Shackleton agreed to Scott's claims, "unless the physical nature of the site prevents me from advancing east of that longitude to the Pole." This was a pledge that followed Opinion of Shackleton biographers Margery (1913–1992) and James Fisher "Scott [...] should never have demanded" and, according to historian Beau Riffenburgh, "no one could demand a clear conscience and which [Shackleton] should never have given because she had Effects on the overall risk of Shackleton's expedition. "
Expedition trip
Drive from England to New Zealand
The Nimrod left the Isle of Wight on August 5, 1907 during Cowes Week , after King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra had bid farewell to the crew and ship the previous day . Shackleton disembarked in Torquay to make further preparations for a few more weeks. From Torquay, Captain England set course for the Cape Verde Islands on August 7th to stash coal in São Vicente . After another stopover in Cape Town , the crossing over the Indian Ocean followed . After a total of 16 weeks, the Nimrod reached the port of Lyttelton in New Zealand on November 23, 1907 .
Priestley, Wild, Joyce, Marshall, Day, Marston, Adams and the cook William Roberts (* 1872) set out for New Zealand from Liverpool in early November 1907 . The eight men were quartered in a single cabin on the Runic emigrant ship . Due to the narrowness and hardly any possibilities of retreat, according to Priestley, a special camaraderie developed among them between friendship and competitive relationship with "a thick corps spirit and [...] the deepest gaps between us, which later worked to our advantage [...]."
Around the same time, Philip Brocklehurst traveled to New Zealand at his own expense on board the RMS Omrah and joined the rest of the crew in Christchurch . Shackleton had already left England on the mail ship RMS India a week before Brocklehurst . In Sydney and Melbourne he gave widely acclaimed lectures about the planned expedition and was able to win David and Mawson for his project. Edgeworth David, Professor of Geology and Physical Geography at the University of Sydney , was one of the world's most respected experts in glaciology and had shown an interest in polar regions in this research discipline as early as 1895. He willingly accepted Shackleton's offer to participate in the expedition and persuaded the Australian Prime Minister Alfred Deakin to support the expedition with 5000 pounds. Douglas Mawson was a former student of David, lecturing mineralogy and petrology at Adelaide University . His interest in the expedition was "to see a continental ice cap in person and to become familiar with the formation of glaciers and their geological effects." In mid-December 1907 Shackleton traveled to New Zealand with David and Mawson.
The 15 ponies ordered from Manchuria were initially kept in a quarantine station on Quail Island after their journey via Tientsin , Hong Kong and Sydney . Due to the lack of space on board the Nimrod, Shackleton only took ten of the animals on the voyage. The only nine dogs chosen for the expedition by Ernest Joyce were descendants of the Samoyed and Greenland dogs that the Norwegian Carsten Borchgrevink had left behind on Stewart Island in 1900 after the Southern Cross expedition was over . Their number grew to 22 animals in the course of the expedition.
Drive from New Zealand to Antarctica
When the Nimrod was loaded in the port of Lyttelton, it became clear that due to the ship's low loading capacity, it was not possible to take enough coal for the further voyage. Shackleton received support from the Union Steam Ship Company with the help of the New Zealand government . From the steamboat Koonya should Nimrod over 2,430 kilometers to the southern polar circle be towed. In doing so, Shackleton hoped to save enough coal to advance south through the pack ice and return to New Zealand, as well as keep enough fuel for base camp.
On New Year's Day 1908, the overloaded Nimrod left the port of Lyttelton in tow of the Koonya in front of around 50,000 onlookers. In the following days the ships got into heavy seas. The superstructure of the Nimrod was damaged and one of the dogs cooped up on deck drowned. In addition, one of the ponies was injured so badly that it had to be shot. The weather did not improve until January 10th. Four days later, the expedition members saw the first icebergs . At noon on January 15, the hawser between the two ships was cut and the crew of the Koonya started on their way home. The expedition participants on the Nimrod continued their journey south through the Ross Sea .
After the fastest crossing of the Antarctic pack ice belt to date, the Great Ice Barrier came into view on January 23. Since the Nimrod was still west of the demarcation line agreed with Scott of 170th western longitude, Shackleton let the ship turn in an easterly direction along the barrier. Shackleton's destination was the Balloon Bight ( English for "balloon bay"), where he and Scott had ascended with a tethered balloon during the Discovery Expedition . This required the passage of the Barrier Inlet, a gap in the Great Ice Barrier, but this could not be found. The edge of the Great Ice Barrier had receded so much in the years since the Discovery Expedition that instead of the inlet, the expedition participants came across a large bay , which Shackleton named the Bay of Whales because of the numerous whales to be found there . Beyond the edge, Priestley said the barrier was “wavy because extensive arches were broken up by long or fairly long flat sections. It looks like either land is nearby or the ice has covered a landscape of low lying nature. ”Priestley used it to describe the ice-covered Roosevelt Island , which was only officially discovered in 1934 by the American Richard Evelyn Byrd .
Several attempts to reach the mainland to the east failed because of thick pack ice. In the meantime, the ship was in danger of being pressed against the barrier by ice masses pushing from the north. On the evening of January 25th, after consulting with Captain England, Shackleton decided to go to McMurdo Sound , contrary to the agreement made with Scott . Even if not all expedition participants were of the same opinion, this decision arose according to the deputy second officer Arthur Harbord (1883–1961) "in view of the difficulties caused by ice pressure, coal shortages, lack of time and the lack of a secure base that was closer than the McMurdo- Sund, common sense. ”Decades later, Eric Marshall insisted that Shackleton had alternatives to McMurdo Sound and that he lacked the courage to take the necessary risk.
Establishment of the base camp on Ross Island
On January 29, 1908, the Nimrod reached McMurdo Sound after the ship had passed the evening before at the celebration of Edgeworth David's 50th birthday at Cape Crozier , the Eastern Cape of Ross Island . Massive pack ice in the sound prevented the journey to the Hut Point Peninsula , the base camp of the Discovery expedition. Shackleton decided to wait a few days, hoping the ice would break. In preparation for a landing, he had the ponies' stables on deck dismantled and the automobile put into operation.
An initial driving test by Bernard Day on a safe ice surface showed that the automobile was only partially operational because it got stuck in the snow. There were also several setbacks: On January 30, Shackleton shot another pony that had been affected by the cold and the heavy seas while the ship was in transit. One of the dogs drowned in the sea after killing dozens of penguins in a blood frenzy and crashing off a cliff in the process. While unloading part of the sled equipment on January 31, Aeneas Mackintosh was caught in the ship's crane hook in the right eye. Eric Marshall, Alistair Mackay and William Mitchell were able to remove the injured eye in an emergency operation . The injury meant for Mackintosh that he was canceled as a member of the landing crew and instead had to return to New Zealand with the Nimrod . He recovered quickly from the accident and in the following year was part of the crew that resumed the landing crew with the Nimrod .
On February 1, Shackleton sent Jameson Adams, Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce on an inspection march to Hut Point, from which they returned two days later with the news that the hut there was undamaged. After the road to Hut Point had not cleared of ice by the afternoon of February 3rd, Shackleton decided not to wait any longer and instead headed for Cape Royds on the west side of Ross Island. In the late evening the Nimrod anchored in a small bay on the Cape and Shackleton, Edgeworth David and Harry Dunlop were looking for a suitable location for the prefabricated expedition hut. They found it at 77 ° 33 ′ 10.7 ″ S , 166 ° 10 ′ 6.5 ″ E and thus around 37 kilometers north of the hut at Hut Point, which was originally intended as a base camp - an additional route that was next on the march to the South Pole Spring had to be covered. Nevertheless, the location turned out to be favorable, as there was sufficient drinking water available from a nearby freshwater lake and the numerous seals and Adelie penguins in the area made it possible to supply the team with fresh meat.
Bad weather with temperatures as low as −27 ° C hampered the unloading of the Nimrod . Further difficulties arose due to the precautionary measures taken by the captain of England: he steered the ship, fearing that it could be damaged by drifting ice masses, repeatedly far offshore into open waters until the situation near the coast became safer in his opinion. As a result, the expedition members had to transport supplies and equipment over long distances and unsafe ice for two weeks. When the expedition doctor Eric Marshall and later other parts of the crew complained more and more violently about the captain, Shackleton asked after an interview that England should resign from his position as captain on the pretext of illness, which he refused. The unloading of the ship lasted until February 22nd. During this time, tons of landed material and supplies were buried by meter-thick ice masses as a result of a four-day snow storm with wind speeds of up to 160 km / h and had to be laboriously excavated.
Shackleton did not let the unresolved conflict between himself and Captain England rest. Before the return of the Nimrod to winter in New Zealand, he handed the naval engineer Harry Dunlop a letter to the expedition agent Joseph Kinsey (1852-1936). This contained the instruction to dismiss England from service while retaining his salary and to appoint another master for the return of the ship in the coming year. Kinsey hired Frederick Pryce Evans (1874-1959), the captain of the Koonya .
The expedition hut, which was assembled from prefabricated parts on an area of 10 by 5.8 meters, was ready for occupancy at the end of February 1908. The ponies were housed in a stable on the sheltered side of the hut and the dogs in kennels under the canopy. Frank Wild set up a storage facility on the right side of the porch . Inside the hut was divided into a common room with a kitchen, sleeping chambers for two people each, a darkroom and a small laboratory, separated by boards or burlap. The furniture was made from storage boxes. As the only member of the expedition, Shackleton moved into a single cabin, which also housed the library. Were used for lighting gas lamps , which by one of Bernard Day installed and maintained acetylene were fed. According to Jameson Adams' specifications, a meteorological station was built on a hill on the weather side of the hut.
First ascent of Mount Erebus
The Nimrod left on February 22, 1908. The ice surface that had previously prevented the journey to the Hut Point Peninsula had receded in the meantime. This cut off the way to the Great Ice Barrier for the expedition members, which made it impossible for the time being to use the transport sled to create storage depots in order to prepare for the march to the geographic South Pole. To keep the men busy, Shackleton decided that some of them should tackle the ascent of nearby Mount Erebus .
Neither Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink nor Robert Falcon Scott had considered climbing the 3,794 meter high volcano on their Antarctic expeditions , which James Clark Ross first sighted and named in 1841. Borchgrevink had only briefly entered Ross Island on Cape Tennyson ( 77 ° 22 ′ S , 168 ° 18 ′ E ) on February 9, 1900 during the Southern Cross Expedition . Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce were involved in exploring the lower foothills of the mountain during Scott's Discovery Expedition in 1904 and had reached a height of about 900 meters. However, neither Joyce nor Wild were members of the team that began the rise on March 5, 1908. To her, however, belonged Edgeworth David, Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay in the group that should make the ascent to the summit. Eric Marshall, Jameson Adams, and Philip Brocklehurst served as support in a second group. None of them had any mountaineering experience worth mentioning. Without letting her know, Shackleton had little hope that the first ascent would be successful.
On the first day, both groups, who together pulled a 280 kilogram sled with equipment and provisions, reached a height of around 840 meters. The next day their ascent became steeper and the sledge overturned several times in the passage of the Great Sastrugi . Despite these difficulties, the team had reached an altitude of around 1700 meters in the evening. On March 7th, Jameson Adams decided that both groups should ascend to the summit together. The next day they were stopped by a snow storm , so the ascent could not continue until March 9th. That day the six men reached the rim of the main crater . Brocklehurst's feet were already badly frostbitten , so it was decided to leave him in the camp built below the crater. The other men left there at 6 a.m. on March 10, and after four hours they reached the active summit crater rising from the main crater . Adams conducted some meteorological studies while the others, under David's guidance, collected rock samples. After that, the descent began, with the men mainly sliding down the snow-covered slope. They reached the base camp at Cape Royds together with Brocklehurst on March 11th, according to Marshall "almost dead". Adams, David, Armytage, Joyce, Wild and Marshall brought the sled that was left halfway down the descent, along with the collected geological material, to the expedition hut a few days later.
wintering
From mid-March to early October 1908, the scientific work was limited to the immediate vicinity of the expedition hut. David, Priestley and Brocklehurst explored the various granite deposits at Cape Royds. Murray, with assistance from Armytage, collected biological samples from the ocean and nearby lakes. Mawson undertook physical studies of the structure and formation of ice and observations of the aurora borealis , while Adams continued the meteorological observation program begun at the summit of Mount Erebus. Shackleton required each member of the expedition to do household chores in addition to their actual job. In contrast to the military ranking in the Discovery expedition, there were no privileges for higher ranks . All the landing crew members lived, ate, and worked together. Shackleton advocated celebrating birthdays and other occasions and encouraged conversation and discussion over dinner to help build morale and togetherness among his crew in the adverse conditions of the Antarctic winter and polar night . According to Brocklehurst, he had the ability “to make everyone on the expedition feel his appreciation. He made us feel more important than we could actually be. "
At the same time, Shackleton's reputation was suffering from reports in the English and New Zealand press about his falling out with Captain England. Scott was outraged by Shackleton's broken promise and cursed him against a representative of the Royal Geographical Society as an "avowed liar". The Nimrod had also proven unsuitable for the geomagnetic and oceanographic survey work Shackleton had promised the Australian and New Zealand governments in return for their financial support. Shackleton had a reputation for being a lavish adventurer whose deeds differed from what he had announced.
During the winter, the expedition book Aurora Australis was created , of which Joyce and Wild created around a hundred copies with the help of a printing press they had brought with them and the cover of which Bernard Day made from polished crate boards, leather strips and silk thread. It contains ten contributions by the participants of the expedition, which are illustrated with lithographs and etchings by George Marston.
The most important task at this time was to prepare the march to the geographic South Pole in the coming spring. The fact that, contrary to the agreement with Scott, the base camp was located much further west also brought the Antarctic magnetic pole back within reach. Shackleton intended to send David, Mawson, and Mackay on this mission because of their good collaboration in climbing Erebus. Armytage and Priestley trained the ponies and dogs for their upcoming duties. Marshall, Brocklehurst and Mawson worked on improvements in the use of cameras and in the development of roll film and photographic plates in cold conditions. In addition, Marshall began to put together the provisions for the march. The main meals of the sled team consisted of hoosh , a thick soup-like stew based on pemmican , and a hard biscuit fortified with milk protein , with chocolate, cocoa and tea. One month before the start of the marches, Marshall ordered the expedition participants to eat fresh, poorly cooked penguin and seal meat every day to prevent the dreaded scurvy . The ponies were fed with crushed corn , pressed bales made of oats , oatmeal and chopped straw , as well as maujee , a dry food made from dried beef , carrots , milk powder , raisins and sugar .
The prospect of reaching both poles suffered a severe setback during the winter when four of the eight ponies landed perished after eating volcanic sand to meet their salt needs. Shackleton therefore gave up his plan to set off for the geographic South Pole with six people. He also had to do without Philip Brocklehurst, whose toes, frozen on the climb to Erebus, had not healed. In April 1908, when a big toe showed signs of gangrene , Marshall had amputated it .
Creation of the supply depots
On August 12, 1908, the team began to create the supply depots for the march to the geographic South Pole. Shackleton, David and Armytage set out that day across the frozen McMurdo Sound to the old base camp of the Discovery expedition on the Hut Point Peninsula , which was to serve as an advanced base. The weather was still too cold for the ponies with temperatures as low as −49 ° C, so that the three men had to laboriously pull the transport sledge themselves. They reached the Discovery Cabin two days later. After a subsequent exploration of about 20 kilometers further south over the Great Ice Barrier, a snow storm held them in the Discovery Hut for five days. Shackleton and his two companions used the time to prepare the inhospitable quarters for the next supply teams. It was not until August 22 that they were able to return to Cape Royds. Until 13 October followed by further supply marches, where the expedition equipment and supplies transported to the Discovery hut and the so-called vault A about 200 kilometers south of Cape Royds on the ice shelf at 79 ° 36 ' S , 168 ° 0' O docked.
March towards the geographic south pole
Shackleton's decision in a four terms instead of the scheduled six-member team (southern group, Engl. Southern Party ) to take the march to the South Pole in attack, was mainly determined by the number of remaining ponies. He still had little confidence in the performance of the sled dog. The automobile, which was meanwhile easy to control on level ground, could not cope with the conditions on the Great Ice Barrier. In any case, Shackleton had not seriously considered using the vehicle to cover longer distances, contrary to what he said earlier. The men Shackleton selected to accompany him on the march were Jameson Adams, Eric Marshall, and Frank Wild. Ernest Joyce, who, unlike Adams and Marshall, was more experienced in the Antarctic, had to give up his hopes of participating after Marshall's medical examinations revealed that there were doubts about his physical fitness. Marshall had diagnosed Joyce with unspecified liver disease and " very early stage myocarditis ."
There to 88 ° 23 ′ S, 162 ° E
The march south began on October 29, 1908. Shackleton had calculated a total of 2,765 kilometers for the round trip, which should be covered within 91 days. This resulted in a daily workload of just over 30 kilometers. Because the weather was bad and the ground was soft and because one of the ponies was paralyzed after a short time, the men initially only covered short distances every day. In addition, a kicking pony injured Adams below the knee joint , which prevented him from walking for a few days and delayed the advance of the southern group. Shackleton decided to cut the food rations to increase the time available to 110 days and reduce the daily workload to 15 miles. Until November 7th, the southern group was accompanied by a five-man support group, who turned back to base camp between White Island and Minna Bluff . Shackleton, Wild, Adams and Marshall, who were now on their own, made good progress between November 9 and 21, but the ponies suffered from the difficult terrain on the Great Ice Barrier. When they reached the 81st degree of southern latitude on November 21, the emaciated gelding Chinaman was the first of the four draft animals to be shot. The meat of the horse served as food for the further journey. 80 pounds were deposited in another depot (Depot B). On 26 November, the southern group reached the mark of 82 ° 18 ' S , 168 ° 0' O . Scott's old southern record of December 1902 was broken and the men celebrated that evening with a "nice little sip of Curaçoa [ sic !] That made us all very happy." They only had 29 days for this distance instead of the 59 days required by Scott needed. The reason for this was presumably that the southern group consciously moved east of Scott's route and was therefore not confronted with the difficult ice conditions that had made Scott's progress difficult.
As the group entered uncharted territory, the barrier's ice became increasingly brittle and unpredictable with a tangle of press mounds . On November 28 and December 1, respectively , Shackleton had the exhausted ponies Grisi and Quan shot. The Transantarctic Mountains , which so far towered on the western flank , now curved in an easterly direction and blocked the group's direct route to the south. This shattered Shackleton's hope that the pole was on the barrier. When looking for a suitable route, he and his companions were helped by an unusual glow of light on the south-eastern horizon . The cause of this phenomenon was revealed on December 3rd, when the four men, after climbing the northern foothills, saw “an open road to the south” in front of them, “a large glacier that runs almost exactly from south to north between two high ones Before them lay the Beardmore Glacier , as Shackleton later named it in honor of the greatest patron of the expedition; through the reflection of the sunlight, it had produced the glow of light previously observed.
The ascent over the Beardmore Glacier initially caused great problems. The remaining Pony Socks, in particular, had enormous difficulties finding a secure footing on the ice without shoeing . On December 7th, Socks broke into a crevasse and almost swept game with it. Luckily for Wild and the others, the log of the harness broke when the horse fell , so that the transport sledge pulled by Socks with essential provisions remained on the surface of the glacier. The loss of the pony was a serious setback, as its meat was planned as food and the southern group had to pull the last two transport sleds themselves from now on. The heavy weight of the sled forced the men to continue on rolling stages as they continued their ascent over the glacier until December 22nd: After they had transported part of the material over a certain distance, they turned back to fetch the other part. This slowed their progress considerably despite the good weather. Nevertheless, the southern group did not neglect to survey the area and carry out scientific studies. On December 17, Wild took on a mountainside one later than Buckley Island named nunataks in the upper section glacier geological samples, the carbon contained. Wild's discovery was the first evidence of this fossil fuel in Antarctica and paleobotanical evidence that the Antarctic continent had once been forested.
Exhaustion, hunger, and the frustration at their slow progress caused hostility to arise between the men without being openly discussed . Wild secretly expressed a wish that Marshall fall into a crevasse a thousand feet deep. Marshall, for his part, mocked Shackleton for moving like an old woman who needs constant breaks. Despite the tension, the men celebrated Christmas together on December 25th at temperatures of almost −45 ° C at an altitude of around 2900 meters with plum pudding , crème de menthe and cigars. Wild noted: "I would only allow my worst enemies to celebrate Christmas in such a horrific, godforsaken place." Her position was at 85 ° 55 'S, 454 kilometers from the South Pole. The review of their supplies showed that they could barely hold out for more than another month with their previous consumption. They had previously deposited the remaining food and additional fuel in depots on their way south for the way back. They realized the South Pole was out of their reach, but Shackleton was not yet ready to admit it had failed. He again cut the daily rations and left all expendable material on the glacier. From the information in his expedition report it can be determined that the four men, with a daily requirement of at least 6000 kcal, now consumed a maximum of 2500 kcal per day.
On Boxing Day, the ascent over the Beardmore Glacier was done and the southern group entered the wide plain of the polar plateau at an altitude of almost 3000 meters . However, this did not improve conditions as hoped. Shackleton and Adams showed symptoms of altitude sickness, and on December 29, Marshall found that body temperatures for all members of the Southern Group were about 2 ° C below normal. According to Shackleton, December 31, with strong headwinds and temperatures of −26 ° C, was the worst day they had until then. On New Year's Day, their position was 87 ° 6 '30 ″ S, which is 321 kilometers from the South Pole. The southern group had thus reached the closest approach to one of the two geographic poles of the earth. Wild noted angrily: "If only we had Joyce and Marston instead of these two ridiculously useless scoundrels [meaning Marshall and Adams], we'd make it very easily [to the Pole]."
On January 4, 1909, Shackleton gave up the "conquest" of the South Pole and changed the objective to at least undercut the prestigious mark of 100 geographical miles (about 185 kilometers) from the pole. The men, exhausted by the lack of food, fought on until their march south ended on January 9 after a final push without a sledge at 9 a.m. at an altitude of more than 3,500 meters and after a total distance of almost exactly 1,300 kilometers. Shackleton wrote, "We shot our powder and can report from 88 ° 23 ′ S , 162 ° 0 ′ E. " They were 97 geographic miles (about 180 kilometers) from the Pole. The Union Jack , which the expedition members had received from Queen Alexandra two years earlier in August , was hoisted and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII. As symbolic proof of what they had achieved, the southern group buried a brass cylinder with postage stamps issued by the New Zealand government in support of collecting money for the expedition.
Way back to Hut Point
The return journey began on the 73rd day of the southern group's march. Shackleton justified his decision to turn back later to his wife with the words: "Better a living donkey than a dead lion". The departure to the north happened in a hurry. Jameson Adams was later of the conviction: "If we had stayed only an hour longer, we would not have come back." The four men had 51 days on the way back, since Shackleton had instructed that the Nimrod be on 1 March at the latest before setting off south . March 1909 to return to New Zealand. Despite their weakened condition due to the scarce food rations, they covered considerably greater distances on the polar plateau every day than on the way there. On January 17, Shackleton measured 22 miles (850 yards ), the next day 26 miles (900 yards) and on January 19, 47 kilometers (29 miles). The distances determined based on estimates by dead reckoning , as the hasty retreat of the remaining fixed to the transport carriage odometer was lost on 15 January.
On January 20, Shackleton, Wild, Adams and Marshall reached Beardmore Glacier and began their descent. With half the ration they had five days to get from Depot E not far from Buckley Island to Depot D at the foot of the glacier. It took them twelve days to get there on the way up. Shackleton's health had deteriorated dramatically. Wild noted: “His heels are torn open in four or five places, his legs are bruised and sore, and today he had severe headaches from several falls. Nevertheless, he keeps up just as well as everyone else. "
By January 26th, they ran out of supplies. Marshall began giving cocaine to himself and the others every hour to suppress the pain caused by hunger . The next day, Adams and Wild collapsed, exhausted. While Shackleton, who was also weakened, stayed in a camp with them, Marshall hurried to Depot D alone and returned with four pounds of pony meat, cheese, pemmican, biscuits and tobacco. On January 28, the southern group reached the Great Ice Barrier again.
On January 30th, Wild showed the first symptoms of bacterial disturbance . At meals, he was only able to consume hard biscuits , which were already tight . On January 31, Shackleton gave Wild a biscuit intended for him, a gesture of which Wild remarked: “I suppose no one else in the world can really gauge the generosity and sympathy it showed; I know and God is my witness that I will never forget. No money in the world could have bought that one biscuit. ”In early February, the entire group suffered from diarrhea , a result of eating spoiled horse meat, which Marshall described as“ Grisi's revenge ”. Despite the health problems, they covered distances between 13 and 32 kilometers over the next few days. In the meantime, they were helped by a strong tail wind, which made it easier to pull the sledge with a sail attached .
From Shackleton's notes of February 4th and 5th, 1909, it emerges that he was worried about the safe return because of the limited supplies and the state of health of the southern group: “[...] gloomy prospects [...] Please, God, grant us well get through. Great fear. ”On February 18, the four men sighted Mount Discovery , which they used as a guide for their further journey north. In this way, they reached the Bluff Depot on February 23 , which had been set up a month earlier by a group of four led by Ernest Joyce with the help of the sled dogs and which ensured that the southern group was fed the rest of the way.
The final stage of around 125 kilometers to Hut Point was interrupted on February 25 by a snow storm that kept the southern group trapped in their tents for a day. On February 26th, Marshall suffered from "stomach paralysis and recurring diarrhea." Shackleton decided to make a quick push with Wild to Hut Point with the aim of preventing the ship from leaving until Marshall and Adams were also rescued. In the late evening of February 28, Shackleton and Wild finally reached the old base camp of the Discovery expedition. Hoping that the Nimrod would be nearby, they set Scott's former compass hut on fire the next morning to attract attention. After the ship, which was moored at the Erebus glacier tongue ( 77 ° 44 ′ S , 166 ° 32 ′ E ), came into view, Wild commented: "No human eye has ever seen a happier sight." Shackleton directed then a four-man rescue team, who, having reached Adams and Marshall's camp on the barrier on March 2nd, brought both men back to the Nimrod by March 4th .
March to the Antarctic magnetic pole
In September 1908, while Shackleton was preparing the march to the geographic South Pole, he gave Edgeworth David instructions to undertake a reconnaissance march in Victoria Land with another team (Northern Group, English Northern Party ) . The northern group should reach the area around the Antarctic magnetic pole and conduct geological surveys in the region of the Antarctic dry valleys . The northern group included Edgeworth David, Douglas Mawson and Alistair Mackay, who had previously been involved in the first ascent of Mount Erebus .
Way there to 72 ° 15 ′ S, 155 ° 16 ′ E
Since the sled dogs were needed to create depots for the southern group and other routine work and the ponies were only intended for the march to the geographic South Pole, David and his companions had to pull their two transport sleds themselves. After a few days of preparation, the three men set out on October 5, 1908. They covered the first few kilometers in the automobile driven by Bernard Day. After they set out on foot from Cape Barne ( 77 ° 35 ′ S , 166 ° 14 ′ E ) and after crossing McMurdo Sound, the headland in the estuary known as Butter Point ( 77 ° 39 ′ S , 164 ° 14 ′ E ) of the Ferrar glacier, they made a depot here for the way back.
Due to unfavorable ice conditions and bad weather, the northern group made slow progress on the further way. By the end of October, David, Mawson and Mackay had only traveled 100 kilometers north on the blunt sea ice along the rugged coast of Victoria Land. Mawson urged on October 23 that the search for the magnetic pole be abandoned and that the geological program be completed instead. David refused and managed to cut the daily food rations by half and leave all expendable materials behind to speed up the further march and to increase the range of their provisions. However, it took more than another month until after exceeding the Nordenskjold-ice tongue ( 76 ° 11 ' S , 162 ° 45' O ) and because of their pressing walls and distortions treacherous the Drygalski ice tongue in a north-westerly direction in the area penetrated, in which, according to Louis Bernacchi's long-term measurements during the Southern Cross and Discovery expeditions , was assumed to be the position of the Antarctic magnetic pole at that time. David escaped death on the Drygalski Ice Tongue thanks to Mawson's help on December 11th after sinking into a crevasse.
The way to the inland plateau, which reached the Northern Group on December 27, ran through a glacier labyrinth between Mount Nansen and Mount Larsen ( 74 ° 50 ′ S , 162 ° 10 ′ E ), which is now known as the Reeves Glacier ( 74 ° 45 ′ S , 162 ° 15 ′ E ) is known. After that, their daily workload increased to an average of 17 kilometers. During the further march across the plateau, the northern group carried out regular geomagnetic surveys. On January 15, 1909, the inclinatorium used for this indicated that David, Mawson and Mackay were only a short distance from the Antarctic magnetic pole. However, exact details were difficult because, according to Mawson's findings, the pole center performed a daily hike around its middle position. Mawson predicted that the Pole would come to them within 24 hours if they waited in place. Instead of doing so, the three men walked an additional 13 miles to the calculated mean position the following day until they finally reached their destination at 72 ° 15 ' S , 155 ° 16' E on the afternoon of January 16, 1909 Reached a height of 2210 meters. According to Shackleton's instructions, David formally took possession of the area for the British Empire .
Way back to Relief Inlet
Shackleton had announced to David that after February 1, 1909, Nimrod, returning from New Zealand, would search for the northern group on the coast of Victoria Land. Since a return to base camp was out of the question due to the lack of time, David, Mawson and Mackay planned to return to their depot, which was laid out on December 14, 1908, on the Drygalski Ice Tongue and wait for the ship to arrive. They had to cover this approximately 400-kilometer route within 15 days. Despite their dwindling strength, they initially kept their daily workload. On January 30th, however, when descending over the Larsen Glacier ( 75 ° 6 ′ S , 162 ° 28 ′ E ) , they got caught in a tangle of steep slopes, crevasses and ice needles, through which they missed their depot by 26 kilometers to the north . After a 23-hour forced march, they set up camp on the morning of February 3, which the Nimrod passed only a little later on a north course towards Mount Melbourne . Heavy snow had prevented the ship's crew from discovering the northern group's camp on the coast.
After the ship turned on February 4, the northern group was finally found on the coast of the bay, later named Relief Inlet ( 75 ° 13 ′ S , 163 ° 45 ′ E ) north of the Drygalski ice tongue. In the rush to get to the ship, Mawson fell into a crevasse more than five meters deep, but survived this serious fall unharmed.
March of the western group
The geological program of the northern group was supplemented by the work of the western group ( English Western Party ) under the leadership of Bertram Armytages. Shackleton had left him instructions to leave for Butter Point on December 1st, in order to first set up a depot with provisions for the northern group. Armytage was then to ascend with Raymond Priestley and Philip Brocklehurst after crossing the frozen McMurdo Sound again over the Ferrar Glacier to Depot Nunatak ( 77 ° 45 ′ S , 161 ° 4 ′ E ).
On the first 30 kilometers, the group was supported by Bernard Day and George Marston with the automobile, whereby the fragile sea ice presented an increasing danger. After the depot was established, the western group returned to the base camp to tackle the trail again on December 9th. Six days later, the ascent to the Ferrar Glacier began, where Priestley searched in vain for fossils in the sedimentary rocks of the rocks . It soon turned out that the Depot Nunatak could not be reached, as the men had the order to meet with the northern group on January 1, 1909 at Butter Point . After a survey of the Taylor Glacier in the area of the Solitary Rocks ( 77 ° 47 ′ S , 161 ° 12 ′ E ), which led to significant corrections to the maps left by the Discovery expedition, the western group returned shortly after Christmas to Butter Point. There was no trace of the northern group to be found here. Army days, Priestley and Brocklehurst took on January 6, a walk to the beach Moraines ( 77 ° 45 ' S , 164 ° 31' O ), the one day's walk farther south moraines of Koettlitz Glacier to collect more rock samples. On January 12, the group made a detour to the Taylor Valley estuary , where Priestley discovered a line of beach 180 meters above sea level and Brocklehurst climbed a nearby mountain. On January 26, 1909, the Nimrod arrived at Butter Point and took on the western group. The day before they were rescued , Armytage, Priestley and Brocklehurst had barely been able to save themselves ashore from an ice floe drifting out to sea.
Return to England
After the north and west groups had been salvaged, the Nimrod returned to Cape Royds on February 15, 1909. After scientific material, personal luggage and even the automobile had been taken on board under adverse weather conditions, Captain Evans, to the annoyance of the expedition members belonging to the landing team, failed to implement Shackleton's orders to rescue the southern group. Coal and supplies had not been unloaded at Cape Royds, nor had a search party been sent south on February 25. Douglas Mawson headed a six-man crew who would spend another year at Cape Royds, "recovering the bodies [of the southern group]," as Evans put it. All of the planning became obsolete when Shackleton and Wild showed up at Hut Point on March 1st.
On March 4, after the southern group had been rescued, unfavorable winds prevented another anchoring at Cape Royds, with which the remaining personal items from the expedition hut could be taken on board. Later, heavy ice blocked the way to the geological samples that the northern group had left behind on Depot Island ( 76 ° 42 ′ S , 162 ° 58 ′ E ). After the Nimrod had reached Cape Adare on March 6 , Shackleton let the ship advance in a westerly direction into the pack ice zone between Cape North ( 70 ° 41 ′ S , 165 ° 48 ′ E ) and the Balleny Islands . He hoped to map the coastline of this as yet unexplored part of Antarctica to Adélieland further west , but the thick ice thwarted his plan and caused him to abandon it at 69 ° 47 ' S , 166 ° 14' E. Nevertheless, the Nimrod had penetrated this Antarctic sector as far west as no ship before.
On March 9th, the Nimrod finally left the Antarctic coast and on March 22nd she reached the Lords River on the uninhabited south side of Stewart Island . The next day, Shackleton, accompanied by Adams, Joyce, Marshall, Wild, and Brocklehurst, rowed to Oban Town , from where he sent a series of telegrams , including a 2,500-word article to the Daily Mail on the expedition's progress . Two days later, the entire expedition team on board the Nimrod was greeted by a cheering crowd in Lyttelton harbor. A similar greeting awaited them upon arrival in Sydney on April 20th. There the paths of the expedition participants parted. While David and Mawson stayed in Australia, Wild drove ahead to England to work in the London expedition office, and Brocklehurst went on a vacation trip, Shackleton first traveled to Port Said with Adams, Armytage and Mackintosh on board the RMS India . During the crossing he worked with the New Zealand journalist Edward Saunders (1882-1922) on a first version of his expedition report under the title The Heart of the Antarctic . After a stopover in Brindisi , Shackleton and his companions arrived incognito in Dover by land and after crossing the English Channel on June 12, 1909 .
After Captain Evans' demise in Lyttelton on March 25, 1909, the former first officer John King Davis was given command of the Nimrod . With other expedition members on board, including Harry Dunlop and Alfred Cheetham , the ship set off from Sydney on May 8, 1909 for a voyage to the South Pacific. Davis was supposed to check the existence of some sub-Antarctic islands and archipelagos on the Admiralty maps south of the 50th parallel . The route led eastwards across the Royal Company Islands , Emerald Island , the Nimrod Group and Dougherty Island , all of which turned out to be Phantom Islands . Davis also found that Macquarie Island was in the wrong position on the nautical charts. After the Nimrod had circled Cape Horn at the end of June , she arrived in Falmouth on August 24, 1909 , after a stopover in Montevideo and an almost two-month voyage across the Atlantic .
Contemporary reception
Despite recognition from other polar explorers such as Nansen and Amundsen, the Royal Geographical Society's (RGS) response to news of the expedition's outcome was muted. Clements Markham had expressed doubts about the southern record claimed by Shackleton, and Robert Falcon Scott's anger over the failure to keep an agreement on the expedition's destination had also had an effect on the RGS. Still, on June 14, 1909, Shackleton was received by RGS Chairman Leonard Darwin and an enthusiastic crowd at Charing Cross Station in London. According to Hugh Robert Mill, Scott was reluctant to attend the welcoming ceremony "as a slave to his sense of duty". Scott used a dinner speech at a reception at the Savage Club to underline his own ambitions. In any case, an Englishman must be the first to be at the Pole and he is ready to "take on this subject". He added ambiguously, "Now all I have to do is thank Mr. Shackleton for showing me the way in such a decent way."
Markham's doubts about the southern record of the Nimrod expedition were based on Shackleton's method of determining position and the distances covered. On the last stages to the south, Shackleton had navigated and calculated distances using coupling alone . On January 9, he had covered a distance of 29 kilometers to reach 88 ° 23 ′ S within five hours, which he had covered within five hours on the way back. The southern group had not covered such a long distance in such a short time on any other day's stage. It should be taken into account that at this point in time the march south was carried out as a rapid advance without a transport sledge. Shackleton's data withstood a new calculation by Edward Ayearst Reeves (1862-1945), navigation expert and responsible for maps at the RGS, and were finally verified during Scott's march to the South Pole.
Shackleton was officially recognized for his achievements by King Edward VII, who appointed him Commander of the Royal Victorian Order on July 12, 1909 and knighted him on December 13 of the same year. In addition, Shackleton received numerous awards and honorary memberships at home and abroad, including the gold medals of the Society for Geography in Berlin and the Frankfurt Geographical Society . The RGS awarded him the polar medal in gold on June 28, 1909, but with the previously disparaging note to the manufacturer: “We make it up to us not to make the medal as big as the one that Capt. Scott was awarded. ”Markham had used his influence with the learned society to punish Shackleton for breaking promises to his protégé Scott. Other expedition participants were honored with a silver version of the medal.
Scientific results
Shackleton's expedition report, entitled The Heart of the Antarctic , was first published in November 1909 as a two-volume work by the London publisher William Heinemann (1863–1920). The first volume contains Shackleton's descriptions of the preparation and course of the expedition including the failed march to the geographic South Pole. Edgeworth David's treatise on the march to the Antarctic magnetic pole, five chapters on the scientific findings of the trip, and a medical bulletin prepared by Eric Marshall are included in the second volume. At the same time as the book was published, a review article was published in the Geographical Journal. In addition, James Murray published the results of the biological work in his own work in 1910. The detailed evaluation of the glaciological , physiographical , stratigraphic , tectonic , palaeontological and petrological data, in addition to Edgeworth David, Douglas Mawson and Raymond Priestley, Thomas Griffith Taylor (1880–1963), Scott's chief geologist on the Terra Nova expedition (1910–1913), took several years to complete. The knowledge gained in this way was published in two volumes in 1914 and 1916.
The three marching groups had mapped large areas of the previously unknown Antarctic mainland and corrected erroneous geographic surveys during the Discovery expedition. The southern group had discovered the southern boundary of the Great Ice Barrier and proved that the geographic South Pole is on the Antarctic mainland mass. According to the database of the Geographic Names Information System , well over a hundred geographic objects in the Ross Dependency between 74 ° 22 ′ S , 161 ° 49 ′ E and 85 ° 53 ′ S , 174 ° 43 ′ E were discovered and named during this research trip. In addition, there are other objects that are listed in the provisional New Zealand geographic lexicon for the Ross Dependency (New Zealand Provisional Gazetteer of the Ross Dependency) from 1958 (see list of geographic objects discovered during the Nimrod expedition ). John King Davis's voyage on the Nimrod from Sydney to Cape Horn had disproved the existence of some of the sub-Antarctic islands noted on previous nautical charts.
With the discovery of the Antarctic magnetic pole, the northern group around Edgeworth David had solved the problem which 70 years earlier had been the real reason for the beginning of scientific Antarctic research. The fundamental work of the German physicist and mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauß on geomagnetism led to extensive magnetic investigations in the southern hemisphere under the influence of Alexander von Humboldt and under the direction of the Göttingen Magnetic Association , since without such measurements, Gaussian theory could be used for a reliable Navigation was not fully possible. Almost simultaneously, three large research expeditions were sent out between 1838 and 1843 to carry out these investigations and to find the magnetic pole, the position of which Gauss had calculated to be 66 ° 0 ′ S , 146 ° 0 ′ E. The Briton James Clark Ross was able to determine the position of the magnetic pole more precisely in 1841 ( 75 ° 5 ′ S , 154 ° 8 ′ E ). Ross had come so close that the magnetic needle tilted 89 degrees. However, he had not been able to reach the pole because it was on the Antarctic mainland, which Ross had not been able to enter because of a 40 to 60 meter high ice barrier. The northern group of the Nimrod expedition had now found that the pole had shifted about 317 kilometers northwards since 1841.
In the geological work, Frank Wild's first detection of coal in the Antarctic and the fossilized remains of a paleozoic conifer species , which the Australian biologist Ernest James Goddard (1883–1948) from the University of Sydney discovered after completing the expedition in a thin section of a sandstone sample , stand out . which the southern group had taken on December 11, 1908 from the central moraine of Beardmore Glacier . In addition, the geologists of the expedition large deposits had of Kenyit found a Phonolith with characteristic diamond-shaped phenocrysts of feldspar ( anorthoclase ) in a predominantly glassy matrix until then only John Walter Gregory on Mount Kenya discovered in Africa and named after this would have. The geological collection of the Natural History Museum contains exhibits made of gneiss , granite and igneous rocks such as porphyry , basalt , trachyte and olivine - basanite , which Priestley, Mawson and David took mainly from Ross Island and the Dellbridge Islands .
James Murray's work was the first in which the Antarctic freshwater fauna was examined in detail. Murray's focus was on the micro- and meiofauna of the lakes located at Cape Royds, in which he had detected species of bear and rotifers , belly croissants , sun animals as well as roundworms and vortex worms . The biological samples also contained 13 previously unknown Antarctic lichen species .
Aftermath and modern evaluation
Shackleton's hope of making financial gains from the Nimrod expedition was not fulfilled. He was barely able to repay outstanding loans and guarantees. The British government saved him from bankruptcy with a public grant of £ 20,000 . In addition, part of his debt is said to have initially been deferred and ultimately no longer called in.
The southern record set up lasted for almost three years until Roald Amundsen and four companions beat it on December 8, 1911 on their way to the geographic South Pole, which they were the first to reach six days later. Shackleton's ambitions as a polar explorer then shifted to crossing the Antarctic, which he tackled unsuccessfully on the endurance expedition (1914–1917). The events during this expedition, despite the failure associated with the loss of the expedition ship, consolidated his reputation as an exceptional expedition leader who was able to motivate his subordinates to perform at their best in apparently hopeless situations.
Numerous expedition members took part in further research trips to the Antarctic or Arctic in the years after the Nimrod expedition. Douglas Mawson led the first Australian Antarctic expedition (1911-1914) and the BANZARE (1929-1931), whose ships were commanded by John King Davis. Raymond Priestley , Bernard Day and Alfred Cheetham were on the crew of Scott's Terra Nova Expedition (1910-1913). Cheetham and George Marston in the Weddell Sea group and Aeneas Mackintosh as leader and Ernest Joyce as a member of the Ross Sea Party participated in Shackleton's endurance expedition. Mackintosh was killed during this trip. A tragic fate also befell James Murray and Alistair Mackay, who took part in the Canadian Arctic Expedition in 1914 led by Vilhjálmur Stefánssons . They have been missing since their attempt to reach land with two comrades after the sinking of the expedition ship Karluk northeast of Wrangel Island . After returning from Mawson's first Antarctic expedition, Frank Wild was deputy commander in both expeditions Shackleton undertook after the Nimrod expedition was over. In the Quest Expedition (1921-1922) Wild took over the expedition leadership after Shackleton's unexpected death in January 1922.
The Nimrod sank after serving as a museum ship and then selling it to reimburse the expedition costs on January 31, 1919 off the coast of Norfolk , after running onto the cliffs of Barber Sands . Only two men of the twelve-man crew survived.
The originals of the Aurora Australis expedition book remained in the private sphere of the expedition participants. Some have survived to the present day. In March 2006, one such example sold for £ 53,000 at auction in Northumberland . The reprint of the original appeared in a luxury edition of The Heart of the Antarctic in 1909 in a limited edition of 300 copies. Further facsimiles appeared in 1986 and 2005.
The preservation of the expedition hut built at Cape Royds as a cultural and historical monument , decided by the consultative conference of the Antarctic Treaty in 1972, has been in the hands of the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust since 2004 . In 2010, employees of the foundation recovered five boxes of whiskey and cognac that had been spilled under the hut since 1909 and that had been discovered in 2006.
At the turn of the year 2008/2009 the Shackleton Centenary Expedition took place, in which a three-person team led by Henry Worsley, a descendant of Captain Frank Worsley , followed the footsteps of the Nimrod Expedition and repeated the historic march towards the South Pole and the 180 missing at the time Kilometers completed.
Despite the numerous pioneering achievements, the Nimrod expedition is generally one of the lesser-known research trips of the Golden Age of Antarctic research . Although it was groundbreaking for the two subsequent Antarctic expeditions under Roald Amundsen and Robert Falcon Scott, their fame is far greater because of the race to the geographic South Pole between the Norwegian polar explorer and his inferior British adversary. From a scientific point of view, according to polar historians, the Nimrod expedition was the most important of Ernest Shackleton's three trips to the Antarctic.
literature
Standard works on the Nimrod expedition
- Beau Riffenburgh: Nimrod . Berlin Verlag, Berlin 2006, ISBN 3-8270-0530-2 .
- Ernest Shackleton : The Heart of the Antarctic, Vol I and Vol. II . William Heinemann, London 1909 (accessed in the Internet Archive on September 11, 2009).
- David M. Wilson: Nimrod Illustrated . Reardon Publishing, Cheltenham 2009, ISBN 1-873877-90-0 .
Shackleton Biographies
- Margery and James Fisher : Shackleton . James Barrie Books, London 1957.
- Roland Huntford : Shackleton . Hodder and Stoughton, London 1985, ISBN 0-340-25007-0 (accessed from Google Books on November 5, 2013).
- Hugh Robert Mill: The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton . William Heinemann, London 1923 (English, accessed on the Internet Archive on September 10, 2009).
Contemporary complementary works
- Roald Amundsen : Sydpolen, den norske sydpolsfærd med Fram, 1910–1912 . tape 2 . J. Dybwad, Kristiania 1912 (Norwegian, limited preview in Google book search).
- Louis Bernacchi : To the South Polar regions . Hurst & Blackett, London 1901 (accessed September 3, 2017).
- Frederick George Jackson : The Great Frozen Land . McMillan, London 1895 (accessed August 23, 2013).
- Frederick George Jackson: A thousand days in the Arctic . Harper & Brothers, London 1899 (accessed August 24, 2013).
- John Scott Keltie and Hugh Robert Mill ( Eds. ): Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, held in London, 1895 . John Murray, London 1896 (accessed November 4, 2013).
- Francis L. McClintock : Fate of Sir John Franklin . John Murray, London 1869 (accessed December 28, 2009).
- James Clark Ross : A voyage of discovery and research in the southern and Antarctic regions, during the years 1839–43, Vol. II . John Murray, London 1847 (accessed November 8, 2013).
- Robert Falcon Scott : The Voyage of the Discovery, Vol. I and Vol. II . Macmillan, London 1905 (accessed September 11, 2009).
- Vilhjálmur Stefánsson : The friendly Arctic . Macmillan, New York 1921 (accessed December 27, 2009).
- Scott Polar Research Institute (abbreviation: SPRI MS), Cambridge University manuscript collection .
Modern complementary works
- Pierre Berton : The Arctic Grail . Viking Penguin, New York 1988, ISBN 0-670-82491-7 .
- David Crane: Scott of the Antarctic . HarperCollins, London 2005, ISBN 0-00-715068-7 .
- Regina W. Daly: The Shackleton Letters . Erskine Press, Norwich 2009, ISBN 978-1-85297-101-4 .
- Ranulph Fiennes : Captain Scott . Hodder and Stoughton, London 2004, ISBN 0-340-82699-1 .
- Kurt Hassert : The polar research. History of voyages of discovery to the North and South Poles . Goldmann, Munich 1956.
- Roland Huntford: The last Place on Earth . Pan Books, London 1985, ISBN 0-330-28816-4 (accessed November 11, 2013 from Google Books).
- Philip R. Kyle ( Ed. ): Volcanological and Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus, Antarctica . American Geophysical Union, Washington 1994, ISBN 0-87590-875-6 .
- Hugh Robert Mill: An Autobiography . Longman, Green & Co., London 1951.
- Leif Mills: Frank Wild . Caedmon of Whitby, Whitby 1999, ISBN 0-905355-48-2 .
- William James Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers, Vol. I . ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara 2003, ISBN 1-57607-422-6 (accessed November 8, 2013).
- Russell Owen : The Antarctic Ocean . Whittlesey House, New York 1941 (accessed November 11, 2010).
- Lincoln Paine: Ships of Discovery and Exploration . Houghton Mifflin, Boston 2000, ISBN 0-395-98415-7 (accessed November 8, 2013).
- Diana Preston: A First Rate Tragedy . Constable and Robinson, London 1999, ISBN 0-09-479530-4 (accessed November 9, 2013).
- John Stewart: Antarctica - An Encyclopedia . McFarland & Co., Jefferson and London 2011, ISBN 978-0-7864-3590-6 .
- Isobel Williams: With Scott in the Antarctic - Edward Wilson: Explorer, Naturalist, Artist . The History Press, Stroud 2008, ISBN 978-0-7509-4879-1 .
Web links
- Sir Ernest Shackleton's British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition 1907–1909 , information on the homepage of the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust (English)
- Ernest Shackleton - Nimrod, British Antarctic Expedition 1907–1909 , information on coolantarctica.com (English)
- British Antarctic Expedition 1907-09 , information page of the Scott Polar Research Institute with numerous photos (English)
- Christoph Gunkel: The glory of failure. Report and photos on one day from January 15, 2009
- Shackleton's Hut , 360 ° interior view of the expedition hut at Cape Royds on Google Maps
- Cape Royds. Panoramic images of Shackleton's hut (inside and outside) and the surrounding landscape on antarktis.net
Individual evidence
- ↑ Amundsen: Sydpolen, den norske sydpolsfærd med Fram, 1910–1912. Volume 2, 1912, p. 114: "Sir Ernest Shackletons navn vil for alltid stå risset i den Antarctic forsknings historie med flammende bokstaver." (German: "Sir Ernest Shackleton's name will be written in flaming letters forever in the history of Antarctic research.")
- ^ Georg Neumayer: About south polar research. In: Keltie and Mill: Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, held in London, 1895. 1896, pp. 109-162.
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. I, 1905, p. 20.
- ^ M. Bouquet de la Grye et al .: Resolutions considered and passed by the Sixth International Geographical Congress, 3rd Antarctic Exploration. In: Keltie and Mill: Report of the Sixth International Geographical Congress, held in London, 1895. 1896, p. 780.
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. I, 1905, pp. 20-24.
- ^ Wilson: Nimrod Illustrated. 2009, p. 9.
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. II, 1905, p. 91: “ total collapse ”.
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. II, 1905, pp. 127-128: “ ought not to risk further hardships in the present state of health. ”
- ↑ According to the deputy expedition leader Albert Armitage , Scott's assessment contradicted that of the expedition doctor Reginald Koettlitz, who had certified Shackleton in better health than Edward Wilson. Scott insisted that Shackleton be sent home for health reasons and threatened to dismiss him dishonorably if he did not (see Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 126).
- ↑ The expedition biologist Thomas Vere Hodgson (1864-1926) confirmed that Scott had personal reasons for sending Shackleton home (see Fiennes: Captain Scott. 2004, p. 107).
- ↑ According to Clarence Hare (1880-1967), the steward of the officers' mess , Shackleton, as a third officer, had violated standard military rules by becoming friends with members of the expedition of lower ranks (see Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 104).
- ^ Preston: A first rate tragedy. 1997, p. 68: “ prospensity to argue and to resist authority ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 123-124.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. P. 130.
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. II, 1905, p. 85. and p. 90: “ our invalid ”.
- ↑ New calculations based on Shackleton's photographs and Wilson's drawings indicated that they may have only reached 82 ° 11 ′ S (see Crane: Scott of the Antarctic. 2005, pp. 214–215).
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. II, 1905, pp. 83. and pp. 89-90.
- ↑ Edward Wilson confirmed Shackleton's account that he and Scott had forced Shackleton to be pulled on the sled on January 21st. On January 30, the weakened Shackleton did not use the sled, but could easily keep up with the pace of the other two men on skis (see Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 156).
- ^ Crane: Scott of the Antarctic. 2005, p. 310.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, pp. 143-144.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 144: " return to the Antarctic and attempt to outdo Scott "
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 1: “ the mysterious fascination of the unknown. ”
- ^ A b c E. H. Shackleton: A New British Antarctic Expedition. In: Geographical Journal. 29 (3), 1907, pp. 329-332. (accessed November 6, 2013).
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 1-2.
- ↑ Mill: The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton. 1923, p. 57: “ He had no natural affinity for the polar regions, no genius for scientific research. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 409. Letter from Hubert Wilkins to Margery Fisher from June 27, 1956, SPRI MS 1456/82: “ You must decide whether you want to be a scientist, or a successful leader of expeditions, it is not possible to do both. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 185: “ dash ”.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, pp. 102-103.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 99.
- ↑ Mill: The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton. 1923, p. 104.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 83.
- ↑ The publisher George Newnes (1851-1910) financed the Southern Cross Expedition of Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink with 40,000 pounds (inflation-adjusted about 5.04 million euros) and the discovery expedition under Robert Falcon Scott was supported by the businessman Llewellyn Longstaff ( 1841–1918) with 25,000 pounds (adjusted for inflation about 3.04 million euros) (see Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 82–83).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 145 and 148.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 158.
- ^ Henryk Arctowski , participant in the Belgica expedition (1897–1899), and Jean-Baptiste Charcot , leader of the fourth French Antarctic expedition (1903–1905), tried at the same time as Shackleton to finance their own expeditions to the Antarctic (see Mill: The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton. 1923, p. 105. ).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 148.
- ^ A b Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 314.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 305.
- ^ King Edward VII Land Stamp. Image and information about the stamps on the New Zealand Post homepage (accessed November 7, 2013).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 169.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 164-167.
- ↑ Jackson: The Great Frozen Land. 1895, p. 147.
- ↑ Jackson: A thousand days in the Arctic. 1895, p. 3: “ very great advantage in Arctic exploration ”.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 110.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 102: “ […] with sixty dogs and a couple of ponies, I am quite certain the South Pole could be reached. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 109.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 105: “ […] they plodded gawkily, like rheumatic crows, squandering energy with each step. ”
- ^ Berton: The Arctic Grail. 1988, p. 187.
- ^ McClintock: Fate of Sir John Franklin. 1869, p. 215 (illustration).
- ^ Scott: The Voyage of the Discovery. Vol. I, 1905, p. 343: “ no journey ever made with dogs can approach that height of fine conception which is realized when a party of men go forth to face hardship, dangers and difficulties […]. ”
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 105.
- ^ Huntford: The last Place on Earth. 1985, p. 95.
- ↑ LH Hagen , information about the company on woodenskis.com (English, accessed on August 23, 2013).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 168-169.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 20-21.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 157.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 11.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 332.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 175.
- ^ Paine: Ships of Discovery and Exploration. 2000, p. 102.
- ↑ Alexander Stephens & Son (Dundee) Whaling Ships. Information on the Friends of Dundy City Archives homepage (accessed September 3, 2013).
- ↑ 75038 Discovery . (PDF 151 kB) Lloyd's Register , 1935, archived from the original on March 26, 2009 ; Retrieved on May 6, 2019 (English, original website no longer available (entry of Discovery under registration number 75038)).
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 16.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 170-171.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 152-153. Original document cited: Letter from Edward Wilson to Ernest Shackleton dated February 14, 1907, SPRI MS 232/2.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 153. Original document cited: Letter from George Mulock to Ernest Shackleton dated February 19, 1907, SPRI MS 1537/2/14/10.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 173.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 174.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 184. Original document cited: Conversation between Jameson Adams and James Fisher on October 5, 1955, SPRI MS 1456/63.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 187.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 187-188.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 211. Original document cited: Letter from Eric Marshall to John Kandall of August 17, 1952, SPRI MS 656/1/16.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 231. Original document cited: Entry in Eric Marshall's expedition diary of February 23, 1908, SPRI MS 1456/8.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 183.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 175.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 176.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 175-176.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 186-187.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 186. Original document cited: Raymond Priestley, Prelude to Antarctic Adventure. SPRI MS 1097/10/1: 6: “Frame and face of a prize fighter and the disposition of a fallen angel. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 191-193.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 194.
- ^ Preston: A First Rate Tragedy. 1997, p. 87.
- ↑ Scott had written to Leonard Darwin , President of the Society, and John Scott Keltie (1840–1927), Secretary of the Society, in strictly confidential letters (see Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 18).
- ^ Huntford: The Last Place on Earth. 1985, p. 221. Original document cited: SPRI MS 342/30 / D.
- ^ New British Expedition to the South Pole. In: The Times. (London), February 12, 1907, p. 12.
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, pp. 35-39.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 154.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 156. Original document cited: Letter from Ernest Shackleton to Robert Falcon Scott of February 28, 1907, SPRI MS 25.
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 55: “ For naturally I would like to fall in with your views as far as possible without creating a position that would be untenable to myself in view of the arrangements already made. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 159. Original document cited: Letter from Edward Wilson to Ernest Shackleton dated February 28, 1907, SPRI MS 1537/2/14/15.
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 51: “ Now Shackles - I think your position is quite clear […]. I think you ought to offer to retire from McMurdo sound as a base. [...] It largely diminishes your prospects of a big or the biggest success. But I do wholly agree with the right lying with Scott to use that base before anyone else. ”
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 74. Original document cited: Letter from Edward Wilson to Shackleton dated March 8, 1907. SPRI MS 1537/2/15/8.
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 74. Original document cited: Letter from Ernest Shackleton to Edward Wilson dated March 11, 1907. SPRI MS 1537/2/15/10.
- ^ Williams: With Scott in the Antarctic. 2009, p. 193.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 161. Original document cited: Letter from Ernest Shackleton to Robert Falcon Scott dated May 17, 1907, SPRI MS 1537/2/15/21.
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 74: “ unless prevented when going to the South from keeping to the East of that meridian by the physical features of the country. ”
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 114: “ a promise […] which Scott, with the same background, should never have demanded. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 162: “ should never ethically have been demanded and one that should never have been given, impacting as it might on the entire safety of Shackleton's expedition. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 180.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 85.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 130. Original document cited: Raymond Priestley, Prelude to Antarctic Adventure. SPRI MS 1097/10/1: 6: “ solid block with esprit-de-corps laid on with trowel and […] with deepest cleavages amoung ourselves which later developed to advantage […]. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 188.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 193. Original document cited: Letter from Douglas Mawson to Margery Fisher from August 18, 1956, The Mawson Collection MS 48 DM: “ to see a continental ice-cap in being and become acquainted with glaciation and its geological repercussions. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 195 and 197.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 23-24.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 70.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 197.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 61: “ after a tow of 1510 miles ”.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 38.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 140.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 201.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 62-63.
- ↑ The Koonya was the first steel ship to cross the Arctic Circle (see Robert B. Stephenson: Antarctic Firsts. Information on antarctic-circle.org, July 12, 2011 (accessed October 5, 2013)).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 206.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, pp. 32-33.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 73-74.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 208. Original document cited: Entry in Raymond Priestley's expedition diary of January 24, 1908, SPRI MS 298/1/1: “ undulating, as convex slopes separated by long or fairly long stretches. This looks as if we were probably due to the proximity of the land or to the fact that the ice has passed over land of low lying character. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. P. 210. Original document cited: Arthur Harbord in conversation with James Fisher on June 9, 1956, SPRI MS 1456/70: “ […] dictated by common sense in demanding difficulties of ice pressure, shortage of coal, pressing time and the lack of any sure base nearer than McMurdo Sound. ”
- ^ Leif Mills: Polar Friction: the Relationship between Marshall and Shackleton. Publication on the Polar Publishing homepage, 2012, pp. 1–17 (PDF; 280 kB, English, accessed on November 24, 2013).
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 83-84.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 90-91.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 88-89.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 100.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 89.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 94-96.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 97-98.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 123: “ minus 16 ° Fahr. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 219-227.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 122: “ a force of a hundred miles an hour. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 122-131.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 229.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 16-17: “ thirty-three feet by nineteen feet ”.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 135-140.
- ↑ From April 1908 Shackleton left the quarters to Philip Brocklehurst, who suffered from frostbite, and from then on lived in a shared bedroom with Bertram Armytage.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 142-143.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 140.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 170-193.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 233-238.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 173.
- ^ Bernacchi: To the South Polar regions. 1901, pp. 256-257.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 171.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 172.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol I, 1909. S. 176: " the total weight of the load and sledge being 560 lb . ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 178: “ about 2750 ft. Above see level ”.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 178: “ at an altitude of 5630 ft. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 179.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 186-187.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 197 (illustration).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 238. Original document cited: Entry in Eric Marshall's expedition diary of March 11, 1908, SPRI MS 1456/8: “ nearly dead. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 193.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 202-210.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 248. Original document cited: Philip Brocklehurst in conversation with James Fisher on December 16, 1955, SPRI MS 1456/95: “ had a faculty for treating each member of the expedition as though he were valuable to it. He made us feel more important that we could have been. ”
- ↑ a b Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 239.
- ↑ Daly: The Shackleton Letters. 2009, p. 152. Original document cited: Letter from Robert Falcon Scott to John Scott Keltie dated March 28, 1908, RGS / RFS / 4a: “professed liar”.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, pp. 188-191.
- ^ Aurora Australis 1908–1909. Digitized version of the expedition book on the homepage of the National Library of Australia (accessed November 8, 2013).
- ^ 'Aurora Australis': printed at The Sign of the Penguins . Royal Museum Greenwich , December 18, 2010, accessed March 28, 2018 . Information on the expedition book on the homepage of the National Maritime Museum , Greenwich, London
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 397.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 37.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 161-162.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 223.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 227.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 231-232: “ fifty-six degrees below zero ”.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 227-233.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 243.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 257-259.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 238.
- ^ A b E. H. Shackleton: Some Results of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1907-9. In: Geographical Journal. 34 (5), 1909, pp. 481-500. (accessed November 12, 2013).
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, pp. 237-238.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 21.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 255. Original document cited: Letter from Eric Marshall to John Kandall dated August 22, 1950, SPRI MS 656/1/1: “ a myocarditis in a very early stage ”.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 262-266.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 269.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 289-291.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 272-273. Original document cited: Entry in Frank Wild's expedition diary of November 26, 1908, SPRI MS 944/1: “ […] a nice little tot of curaçoa [sic!], Which made us all fell quite happy. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 299. and p. 303.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 308: “ an open road to the south, for there stretched before us a great glacier running almost south and north between two huge mountain ranges. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 315.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 293.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol I, 1909, p. 327.
- ^ Robert B. Stephenson: Antarctic Firsts. Information on antarctic-circle.org, July 12, 2011 (accessed October 5, 2013).
- ↑ Mills: Frank Wild. 1999, p. 93.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 263.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol I, 1909, pp. 335-336.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 298. Original document cited: Entry in Frank Wild's expedition diary of December 25, 1908, SPRI MS 944/1: “ May none than my worst enemies ever spend their Xmas in such a dreary God farsaken spot as this. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 297.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol I, 1909, pp. 337-338: “ with an altitude above the sea of 9820 ft. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol I, 1909, p. 340: “ Marshall took our temperatures to-night, and we are all at about 94 ° [Fahrenheit] […]. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 341.
- ↑ The closest approach to the North Pole by Robert E. Peary on April 20, 1906 was at 87 ° 6 ′ N (see RE Peary: Nearest the Pole . Doubleday, Page & Co., New York 1907, p. 134. (English , accessed from the Internet Archive on October 5, 2013)). According to research by polar explorer Wally Herbert , Peary's claim to the record at the time is doubtful (see Wally Herbert: Commander Robert E. Peary: Did He Reach the Pole? In: National Geographic . September 1988, pp. 387-413).
- ↑ Mills: Frank Wild. 1999, p. 96. Original document cited: Entry in Frank Wild's expedition diary of December 31, 1908, SPRI MS 944/1: “ If we had only Joyce and Marston instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 347. Original document cited: Entry in Ernest Shackleton's expedition diary of January 9, 1909, SPRI MS 1537/3/6: “ We have shot our bolt, and the tale is latitude 88 ° 23 ′ South, longitude 162 ° East. ”
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 300: “ a live donkey is better than a dead lion ”.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 305. Original document cited: Jameson Adams in conversation with James Fisher on October 5, 1955, SPRI MS 1456/63: “ If we'd gone one more hour, we should'nt have got back. ”
- ^ A b Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 403.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 329-330.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 350.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 330. Original document cited: Entry in Frank Wild's expedition diary of January 19, 1909, SPRI MS 944/1: “ Both his heels are split on four or five places, his legs are bruised and chafed and today he has had a violent headache through falls, and yet he gets along as well as anyone. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 333.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 355.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 336. Original document cited: Entry in Frank Wild's expedition diary of January 31, 1909, SPRI MS 944/1: “ I do not suppose that anyone else in the world can thoroughly realize how much generosity and sympathy was shown by this. I DO and BY GOD I shall never forget. Thousands of pounds would not have bought that one biscuit. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 337. Original document cited: Letter from Eric Marshall to John Kandall, August 24, 1950, SPRI MS 656/1/2: “ Grisi's Revenge ”.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 404.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 357.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 358: “ […] outlook serious […] Please God we will get through allright. Great anxiety. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 52-60.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 367: “ Paralysis of the stomach and renewed dysentery ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 360. Original document cited: Frank Wild, Memoiren: 54; Mitchell Library; State Library of New South Wales ML MSS 2198/1: CY Reel 15; Mrs Anne M. Fright: “ No happier sight ever met the eyes of man. ”
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, pp. 370-371.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, pp. 73-74.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 238.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 83-84.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 89.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 309-311.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 98.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 145.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 318-319.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 180-181.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 75.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. I, 1909, p. 183.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, p. 206.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 355-356.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 211-213.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 35-36.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 61-69.
- ^ Frederick Pryce Evans, Narrative of BAE: 8, SPRI MS 369: “ to find the dead bodies ”.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 357-363.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 226-230.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 236.
- ↑ The report is the longest overseas telegram that has ever been sent from New Zealand (see Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 365).
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 230-232.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 365-367.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 240.
- ^ JK Davis: Voyage of the SY "Nimrod.": Sydney to Monte Video Viâ Macquarie Island, May 8-July 7, 1909. In: Geographical Journal. 36 (6), 1910, pp. 696-703. (English, accessed October 16, 2013).
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 371-373.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. 1985, p. 308. Original document cited: Letter from Clements Markham to Robert Falcon Scott dated March 31, 1909, SPRI MS 10.
- ↑ Mill: An Autobiography. 1951, p. 148: "as a slave of his sense of duty".
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 390. Quoted from The Observer of June 20, 1909: “ to go forth in search of that object ” and “ All I have to do now is to thank Mr. Shackleton for so nobly showing the way. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, p. 385.
- ↑ London Gazette . No. 28321, HMSO, London, December 13, 1909, p. 9763 ( PDF , accessed October 1, 2013, English).
- ↑ Mill: The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton. 1923, pp. 293-294.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 251. Quoted from the letter from John Scott Keltie (RGS) to Cuthbert Bayes (maker of the medal) of April 19, 1909: “ We do not propose to make the Medal so large as that which was awarded to Capt. Scott. ”
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. P. 379.
- ↑ James Murray: British Antarctic Expedition 1907-9. Reports of the Scientific Investigations. Vol. I and Vol. II , William Heinemann, London 1910 (English, accessed from the Internet Archive on September 11, 2013).
- ^ TW Edgeworth David et al .: British Antarctic Expedition 1907-9. Reports on the scientific investigations, Geology, Vol. I , William Heinemann, London 1914 (accessed in the Internet Archive on November 11, 2013).
- ^ WN Benson et al: British Antarctic Expedition 1907-9. Reports on the scientific investigations, Geology, Vol. II , William Heinemann, London 1916 (English, accessed from the Internet Archive on November 11, 2013).
- ↑ British Antarctic Expedition (Brae) (1907-09) . Results after entering the term “1907-09” under “Discription” in the search mask “Search Antarctica Data” of the database of the Geographic Names Information System of the United States Geological Survey (English, accessed October 18, 2013). Note: 151 hits appear, 22 of which are only indirectly related to the Nimrod expedition (Antarctica ID 67, 229, 620, 989, 2012, 3201, 6337, 6559, 7676, 7678, 7918, 8482, 9457, 10737 , 12241, 12256, 12987, 13618, 14817, 15037, 16782 and 16785). Some objects, such as B. the David Glacier , are not included in the search query.
- ↑ Hassert: The polar research. 1956, pp. 229-230.
- ^ Stewart: Antarctica. 2011, p. 1460.
- ↑ These were the French expedition of Jules Dumont d'Urville 1837–1840 (see Stewart: Antarctica. 2011, pp. 587–589), the American expedition of Charles Wilkes 1838–1842 (see Stewart: Antarctica. 2011, Pp. 1615–1618) and the British expedition of James Clark Ross 1839–1843 (see Stewart: Antarctica. 2011, p. 1325).
- ^ Ross: A voyage of discovery and research in the southern and Antarctic regions, during the years 1839–43. 1847, pp. 446-447.
- ^ Anita McConnell: Surveying terrestrial magnetism in time and space. In: Archives of Natural History. 32, 2005, pp. 346-360.
- ↑ In some modern sources a different position of 75 ° 30 ′ S, 154 ° E is mentioned (see Mills: Exploring Polar Frontiers. Vol I, 2003, p. 399. and Stewart: Antarctica - An Encyclopedia. 2011, p. 1460).
- ↑ Hassert: The polar research. 1956, p. 209.
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 300-301.
- ↑ Anorthoklas , entry in the Mineralienatlas (accessed November 8, 2013).
- ^ Shackleton: The Heart of the Antarctic. Vol. II, 1909, pp. 268-296.
- ^ Kyle: Volcanological and Environmental Studies of Mount Erebus, Antarctica. 1994, p. Xi.
- ^ Shackleton's British Antarctic. Information page of the Natural History Museum, London (accessed October 31, 2013).
- ^ Stewart: Antarctica. 2011, p. 930.
- ^ Huntford: Shackleton. P. 315.
- ^ Owen: The Antarctic Ocean. 1941, p. 195.
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 220.
- ^ Stefánsson: The friendly Arctic. 1921, pp. 722-723.
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 403-404.
- ↑ Polar book is sold off for £ 53,000. In: The Journal. March 23, 2006 (accessed October 16, 2013).
- ↑ Fisher: Shackleton. 1957, p. 188.
- ^ Ernest H. Shackleton: Aurora Australis . Paradigm Press, Boulder 1986, ISBN 978-0-948285-07-3 .
- ^ Ernest H. Shackleton: Aurora Australis . The Long Riders' Guild Press, London 2005, ISBN 978-1-59048-242-1 .
- ↑ HSM 15: Shackleton's hat. Information on the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat homepage (accessed October 16, 2013).
- ↑ Project Status . Antarctic Heritage Trust , archived from the original on October 17, 2013 ; accessed on March 28, 2018 (English, original website no longer available). Information on the homepage of the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust (accessed October 16, 2013).
- ↑ Story - Shackleton loved whiskey. Polar News, December 22, 2009, accessed March 27, 2018 .
- ↑ Ernest Shackleton's whiskey discovered in Antarctica. In: The world . April 6, 2010 (accessed August 16, 2010).
- ^ Shackleton Centenary Expedition. Homepage of the anniversary expedition (accessed on February 21, 2011).
- ^ Henry Worsley: In Shackleton's Footsteps . Lyons Press, Guilford 2011, ISBN 0-7627-7763-X .
- ^ Riffenburgh: Nimrod. 2006, pp. 7-8.
- ^ Wilson: Nimrod Illustrated. 2009, p. 5.
Conversion data
- ↑ For this and all following amounts of money, the conversion is carried out using the template: inflation and template: exchange rate .
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around 829,000 euros.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around EUR 3.55 million
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around EUR 5.25 million.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around EUR 1.3 million.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around 592,000 euros.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around 237,000 euros.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around 585,000 euros.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around EUR 2.33 million.
- ↑ Adjusted for inflation, around 86,000 euros.
Belgica expedition (1897–1899) |
Southern Cross Expedition (1898–1900) |
Discovery Expedition (1901–1904) |
Gauss expedition (1901–1903) |
Swedish Antarctic Expedition (1901–1903) |
Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (1902–1904) |
Fourth French Antarctic Expedition (1903–1905) |
Nimrod Expedition (1907–1909) |
Fifth French Antarctic Expedition (1908–1910) |
Amundsen's Fram Expedition (1910–1912) |
Terra Nova Expedition (1910–1913) |
Second German Antarctic Expedition (1911–1912) |
Australasian Antarctic Expedition (1911–1914) |
Endurance expedition (1914–1917) |
Quest Expedition (1921-1922)
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