Red fox

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Red fox
Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) Barking fox? / I

Red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) Barking fox ? / i
Audio file / audio sample

Systematics
Order : Predators (Carnivora)
Subordination : Canine (Caniformia)
Family : Dogs (Canidae)
Tribe : Real foxes (Vulpini)
Genre : Vulpes
Type : Red fox
Scientific name
Vulpes vulpes
( Linnaeus , 1758)

The red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ) is the only Central European representative of the fox and is therefore mostly referred to as "the fox". It is the most common wild dog in Europe .

features

Red fox in a Danish animal park

general characteristics

Skeleton ( Lomonosov University , Moscow)
skull
Silberfuchs Zoo Osnabrück

The body dimensions of the red fox are subject to strong geographical and seasonal fluctuations. The average body weight for males is 5.5 to 7.5 kg, for females 5 to 6.5 kg. Heavier animals (up to 14.5 kg) are rare. The body length (without tail) for males is 65 to 75 cm, for females 62 to 68 cm, the tail length correspondingly 35 to 45 cm or 30 to 42 cm (average values ​​for European foxes).

The fur is reddish on top, white on the underside; Depending on the area of ​​distribution, the color varies on the top between reddish yellow to deep red-brown and on the underside between pure white to slate gray. The lower parts of the legs and the back of the ears are colored black. Overall, the coat color varies greatly. The most common color variant is the black fox with a yellow-red top, white throat and white tip of the tail. The rarer cabbage or burnt fox is overall dark, predominantly dark brown-red, belly and throat are gray-white, the white tip of the tail is missing. The cross fox has a dark stripe across the shoulders and along the back. The silver fox is dark gray to black (→ silver fox fur ). The fox changes coat twice a year. In the spring from the beginning of April it loses its thick winter coat, while the light summer coat forms at the same time. This becomes visible on the lower legs from the end of April and has covered the legs, stomach and flanks by the end of June. The coat change continues over the face to the back to the tip of the tail, which is reached in late August. The summer coat is not complete until September. As early as October, the winter coat starts to form again from the legs to the tail, back and face.

traces

Trot track
Feces ( solution )
Wild red fox in a nature reserve in North Rhine-Westphalia

The following gaits occur in the red fox:

  • Trot: The imprints of the hind paws are offset at an angle in front of those of the front paws, which are roughly the same size, while the posture is slightly oblique to the direction of movement.
  • Fast trot ("lacing"): the fox places its paws so that the left hind paw steps into the imprint of the right front paw and vice versa. This results in a track in which the imprints are arranged like on a string with a distance of about 30 cm.
  • Escape: with different steps and changing stride lengths.

The single print with the main ball of the foot, four toe balls and claws is similar to that of a small dog and differs in the following combination of features:

  • the imprint of the fox is more elongated and oval, it can look rounded in winter due to thicker hair,
  • the foot pads of the two front toes are pushed forward, their rear edges are roughly on a line (or slightly above) with the front edges of the ball of the outer toes (in dogs the line usually intersects),
  • the main ball (back) is rather round, in the dog more heart-shaped,
  • the space between the ball of the toes and the main ball is relatively large, as the main ball is further back than on a dog.

The imprint of a (house) cat is somewhat smaller, more rounded and usually has no claw imprints.

Occupied burrows can be recognized by the remains of prey lying around, the bare sandy soil and the footprints . The typical fox odor is often described in the literature as a “penetrating predator odor” or something similar, the perception of smells is strongly dependent on the observer. The smell at the burrow can be caused by urine marks at the entrance and therefore does not necessarily mean that a fox is currently under construction.

voice

Foxes have a number of different sounds:

  • Three- to five-syllable barking (hoarser than dogs) "wow-wow-wow" with emphasis on the last syllable can be heard mainly from December to February ("ranzbellen") and is probably used to keep in contact over longer distances;
  • drawn-out, monosyllabic screaming or "wailing" ("waaah"), often in the mating season, can be brought about by both sexes, probably especially by the females to attract the males ;
  • trill-like sound (similar to a chicken chuckling) or whimpering (especially of the subordinate animal), which can increase to screeching, when greeting old animals among themselves;
  • Cackling (toneless "kkkk") in aggressive confrontations, with puppies in play and with females responding to an advertising dog;
  • soft, rough noise similar to blowing when greeted by old animals;
  • Alarm barking of the old animals to warn the young: a muffled cough at close range, transition to sharp barking at a greater distance.
Fox barking, UK, January 1977

urine

Structural formula of one of the organic sulfur compounds in the urine of the red fox

The urine of the red fox is used as a marking fluid for territorial delimitation and contains methyl (3-methylbut-3-enyl) sulfide and 2-phenylethylmethyl sulfide, organic sulfur compounds.

distribution and habitat

Distribution area

Distribution area of ​​the red fox (green = native, blue = introduced, orange = unsecured occurrence)
Red fox lying in the snow on Hokkaidō, Japan
American red fox in Alaska

Of all wild predators , red foxes have the largest geographic range: they can live north of the Arctic Circle as well as in almost tropical areas. In North America, they occur from the Aleutian Islands to Newfoundland - with the exception of Arizona, South Florida and a strip from Alberta to Mexico. Red foxes colonize Eurasia from Ireland to the Bering Sea. In the mid-19th century, red foxes were introduced from England for traditional fox hunting in Australia. The slow marsupials indigenous there were not adapted to the new settlers and were easy prey. Since then, all of Australia except for the Northern Territory and the northern parts of Queensland has been populated by foxes. In 1893 the first bounties were offered. New Zealand is fox free. In Tasmania, measures to exterminate foxes are underway to protect species.

Habitat, size of the home area

The food opportunist red fox does not make any special demands on its habitat. Forests , grasslands, fields and, more recently, increasingly also settlement areas are different suitable habitats for the red fox.

The first city foxes became known in the London suburbs in the 1930s. The cause is suspected to be a style of architecture that was new at the time, in which rural areas were transformed into loosely built-up areas with a high proportion of green space. City foxes were not seen in many northern English cities until the 1980s. From the 1980s on, reports of fox observations in large cities on the European mainland (e.g. Berlin, Oslo, Paris, Zurich) began to appear, which were initially only assessed as individual cases. Urban fox populations have also been known from Australia, Japan, and North America since around 1990. For the greater Berlin area, data collected between 2010 and 2015 were used to identify two genetically different populations that largely coincided with the areas of the urban agglomeration and the neighboring rural areas.

The city offers several options for foxes:

  • Areas without human interference (at night: cemeteries, parks)
  • Small-scale structures
  • Plentiful supply of food: compost heaps, leftover food, fruits, insects, mice, rats, rabbits
  • Safe retreats (sheds, piles of wood, vegetation along railway lines)
  • large-scale fox hunting is hardly feasible.

Depending on the resources of the habitats, there are considerable differences in the use of space and thus also in the size of the home area. While areas of up to 3,000 hectares were found in areas of Scandinavia that were poor in food, areas in the open landscapes of Europe remained significantly smaller with sizes between 200 and 700 hectares. The smallest grazing areas were found in urban habitats. As a rule, foxes have roaming areas of less than 50 hectares here, although animals have also been known that lived on a few hectares. Typical densities for city foxes are 2 to 12 adult foxes per 100 hectares. In Bristol, the population density reached a peak of 37 foxes per square kilometer before an outbreak. There are currently high population density data from English cities (e.g. Bournemouth with 23, London with 18 and Brighton with 16 foxes per 100 hectares). In rural areas, on the other hand, the settlement density is lower with only 0.2 to 2.7 foxes per 100 hectares. Further examples of action area sizes and settlement densities:

  • In the Bavarian Forest National Park with a high proportion of forests, an average area of ​​430 hectares was determined, whereby the males had larger areas than the females.
  • In an agriculturally used study area northeast of Berlin, the area covered was 185 ha on average.
  • A study in the Swiss Jura found the area to be roamed from 116 to 353 ha. In the Zurich city fox population, roaming areas of 29 to 31 ha were determined, with the intensively used areas often only amounting to a few hectares. The smallest area covered was eight hectares.
  • In the Berlin district of Neukölln, the fox density was estimated at 1–2 fox families per 100 ha (reference data 2007 to 2009). Parasites such as mange and diseases such as distemper were seen as the reason for this relatively low density .

In addition to the resource endowment, density also plays a major role in the size of the home area, as demonstrated in the city fox population in Bristol before and after the mange outbreak. Before the outbreak in 1990, the area covered was an average of 29 ha, after the outbreak in 1999 it was an average of 169 ha.

Way of life

Reproduction and development

Red foxes mating, the picture shows what is known as “hanging”.
Red fox cub

The red fox becomes sexually mature at around 10 months . Foxes mate once a year during the mating season (Ranz). The male is capable of fertilization from December to March, the female only for two to three days in January / February. During this time, the dominant male of a group (see chapter social structure ) follows a selected female for a longer period of time in order to be able to overcome her defensive behavior precisely at this point in time, however, some male dogs also undertake hikes to neighboring territories during this time in order to join them Able to mate.

As with many canines (e.g. wolves ), mating can be completed by "hanging" (this is not always the case), whereby the male's swollen penis is held in the female's vagina for up to an hour . During this time, the couple - looking in opposite directions - remains firmly connected. The function of hanging is discussed in terms of ensuring paternity.

With a high population density at the limit of the habitat's carrying capacity and stable external conditions (e.g. in national parks), the reproduction rate is low. High mortality (e.g. from epidemics or hunting) leads to a high proportion of females participating in reproduction and a higher number of young per litter.

Foxes and dogs cannot be crossed due to different chromosome numbers (red fox: 34 to 38, domestic dog: 78 chromosomes), although both belong to the canine family.

Construction site

Entrance of a burrow

Foxes' earth burrows have several escape tubes in addition to the main tube and the cauldron . The earth that accumulates when digging is carried back between the legs so that a pile of earth forms at the entrance. Foxes can also build badgers. If the burrow is big enough, it happens that other animal species use the burrow at the same time as the fox (see chapter Relationships with other species ).

Foxes also adopt simple dwellings under garden houses, tree stumps or crevices for raising young. In a study in the Berlin district of Neukölln, earthworks were represented by 32.1%. Buildings, sheds and garages accounted for the largest share with 34.0%, other construction sites were e.g. B. Piles of sand, compost and piles of wood.

Rearing boys

Fox pups in front of their den
Fah plays with young

After a gestation period of just over 50 days, the female gives birth to an average of four to six young. The fox pups weighing 80 to 100 grams are born with their eyes closed and have a woolly, gray-brown coat. After 12 to 14 days, the puppies open their eyes. They are suckled for four to six weeks and leave the burrow for the first time after a month. At this point in time a change of coat has already taken place; the young foxes now have the typical reddish color. As soon as the milk teeth protrude, the young foxes have a strong need to chew on suitable objects (e.g. sticks, shoes for city foxes).

In the first few weeks after birth, the female rarely leaves the den. Especially during this time, the male provides the female with food. Although the female can raise the puppies alone, the care of both parents (or other group members, see the chapter on social structure ) increases the puppy's chances of survival. The prevalence of breeding by females, which has been observed in some cases, may be due to the fact that more males are shot than females during battue hunts in winter, as well as the occurrence of polygamy .

Life expectancy

Dead fox on the roadside (Upper Austria)

Foxes can live up to 14 years in captivity. Most foxes die before they reach a year old; often 95% of the animals in a population are not older than four years. Especially in autumn and winter, migration (increased number of game accidents ) and seasonally heavy hunting can lead to increased mortality among young foxes.

In Bristol, the mean age of the population prior to a major mange outbreak was 18 months; in London, during a period of heavy hunt, 14 months. In rural England, up to 80% of the animals killed were less than one year old. Of 1,169 foxes found dead or shot in Berlin between 2007 and 2009, 51% were one year old, the average age was 18 months and the oldest fox was eleven years old. The youngest population to date was recorded in Iowa when double premiums were paid for fox skins for seven years: 84 percent of foxes hunted were less than a year old.

Social status and age are related: Dominant city ​​foxes in Bristol were older with an average of 4.5 years than low-ranking animals with an average of 2.1 years.

Social structure

Up until the 1970s, foxes were considered loners who lived in territories and defended them against conspecifics. In the late 1970s, English studies at Oxford showed that foxes lived in family groups there and exhibited a distinct social life. Something similar has meanwhile become known from other areas.

Foxes live in family groups and have complicated social lives, the details of which are not yet fully understood. Each group is based on a male and a female. Where mortality is low, the couple can stay together for life; where mortality is high, exchanges occur more frequently. In addition to the reproducing couple, one or more low-ranking individuals may belong to the group. In years when food is cheap, the low-ranking females can also have young. Low-ranking individuals are often descendants of the couple from the previous year who did not migrate, or former high-ranking individuals. They help the reproductive female to raise young.

Genetic studies on city foxes in Bristol revealed one to three litters per group. Both males and females mated within a group with more than one partner, with the result that a litter could have different fathers. Within a group, dominant females did not mate with low-ranking males, while dominant males mated with low-ranking males. Dominant and lower ranking males also carried pups from dominant and lower ranking males from other groups. In the case of low population densities, no litters with multiple fathers were detected, and the number of litters whose father came from a different group decreased.

The number of low-ranking group members is variable (up to 10 individuals in city foxes in Bristol), some groups only consist of the reproducing pair. Groups that contain lower-ranking members in addition to the couple are formed under stable environmental conditions (e.g. low mortality) and a high food supply. Both are often the case with city foxes. The gender ratio in city fox groups in Bristol was balanced in the case of high settlement density, shifted in favor of the females in the case of low settlement density.

In addition to family groups, individual males can also move around without a fixed area of ​​activity and cover long distances or share parts of the area of ​​activity of a family group, but avoid contact with the group members.

The fox groups use a common space, which is mostly interpreted as territory defended against foreign group members. However, large action areas (see the section on the size of the home area ) cannot be defended against other foxes with the same intensity as small ones. Overall, the overlapping of the action spaces increases as the action space increases.

In addition to studies from English cities, family groups are also described from rural areas such as the Swiss Jura. On the other hand, an investigation in the area of ​​the Feldberg in Baden-Württemberg, despite stable external conditions, did not reveal any evidence of the existence of social groups, mutual avoidance behavior or territoriality: the seven adult foxes , telemetry at the same time, behaved loyally, the roaming areas overlapped. The extent of the overlap varied from minor overlaps to almost identical grazing areas. Cases of more frequent encounters could be explained by the common use of certain areas. The interpretation of the use of space in investigations other than territorial behavior is discussed against the background that territoriality was assumed there if the overlap of grazing areas was small (or that those foxes whose grazing areas have wide overlaps occupy a territory as a group). It should be noted, however, that when choosing where to live, foxes are also influenced by the distribution of important resources such as food sources. The distribution of the grazing areas then reflects the conditions of the habitat. From this it does not necessarily follow that animals whose roaming areas are concentrated in certain areas of an area defend a common territory, nor that these individuals join together to form social groups. Aggressive behavior that has been observed in some cases between foxes could also be traced back to their immediate proximity and / or to disputes regarding the hierarchy and need not necessarily be a sign of territoriality.

When foraging for food, foxes are mostly solitary. Studies of city foxes in Bristol often revealed short contacts within family groups, while longer contacts were used to play or to groom each other. A fox met every other family group member on average one and a half to two times in 24 hours, and in winter the hit rate increased to up to three times per night. Most of these meetings were friendly. In an investigation in the Bavarian Forest National Park, however, only a few contacts were found. The foxes observed evidently avoided contact with each other even in the best foraging locations. Simultaneous use was seldom observed and only in autumn when short-term clumped food deposits such as windfalls occurred.

According to research on city foxes in Bristol, more males than females migrate from parental territory. Adult individuals can also migrate. Whether an individual migrates or not depends on several factors. The larger the group and the larger the litter from which the individual comes and the lower the social status (expressed e.g. via the number of positive social contacts such as mutual grooming), the higher the likelihood that an individual will migrate. The relationship to the dominant male had no influence on Bristol city foxes, but the relationship to the dominant female did: Males with dominant mothers migrated more often than males with lower-ranking mothers, while migrating females more often had lower-ranking mothers.

food

Fox hunting for mice
Fox on "rabbit hunt"
Fox with a captured mouse

The red fox is an undemanding omnivore. If there are fluctuations in the number of prey animals, he changes his diet at short notice and generally prefers what is easy to prey and offers a high energy content (opportunistic diet). The food composition is therefore locally and seasonally different. Important prey animals are field mice and at least regionally (for example in the Camargue or in some regions of England) rabbits. Earthworms are particularly preyed on fresh grassland soils. Due to their fat and protein content, they represent energy-rich food. In the case of the brown hare and deer , the fox is usually not able to grab healthy old animals, but it can capture young or weakened old animals. Domestic chickens , domestic geese and house ducks are mainly captured in the rearing season, as the fox family has a high need for food during this time.

Fruits play an important role in summer, with sweet varieties such as cherries, plums and mirabelle plums being preferred. On the west coast of central Italy, juniper berries are the main food of the foxes all year round. Foxes, along with other mammals, can play a role in the spread of plant crops. For the buckthorn plant Ziziphus lotus in Spain, foxes are decisive for the distribution of the fruits.

Even Aas can play an important role in the diet of foxes.

In urban foxes, natural sources of food such as rodents make up only a small proportion; instead, cultivated fruits, kitchen waste (including compost and leftover meat) and food offered for cats or birds dominate.

Foxes can also hide food. For this purpose, a 10 cm deep hole is dug in loose soil, the food is placed in it and the hole is then brought back into line with the environment with soil and leaves. The hiding place is later found again with the sense of smell.

Relationships with other species

Although wolves rarely eat and usually do not hunt foxes, they kill them whenever the opportunity arises. Foxes avoid the common areas of wolves in Italy. More peaceful relationships with wolves have also emerged in Alaska, where there has been no evidence of wolves bothering foxes. The foxes used the prey left over by the wolves, while wolves enlarged foxes to raise their young. However, foxes warn as soon as wolves appear near burrows with pups.

Lynx can prey on foxes. Studies from Sweden and Spain indicate that (at least high) lynx populations may limit the fox population.

Red foxes are able to kill adult deer when high snowfall prevents deer from moving. However, they usually only beat young animals that are no more than two months old. Studies in different countries and at different times have shown the influence of the red fox on the deer population: For the Bernese Mittelland it is estimated that a fox kills an average of eleven fawns in the months from May to July. In Scandinavia, where mange led to a drastic decline in the red fox population in the late 1970s and 1980s , the average number of fawns a doe wields in the fall rose by 30 percent. The average deer population increased by 64 percent. On the Norwegian island of Jöa , red foxes killed almost half of the fawns in their first few months. On the other hand, on the island of Storfosna , not far from Jöa , where there are no foxes, 18 percent of the newborns died. On Jöa, significantly more fawns who took cover in meadows fell victim to the fox. It is believed that red foxes may infer where the fawns have taken cover from the behavior of the doe.

Badger and fox can successfully raise their young together in one den. Sometimes it can also happen that the young of the other species are killed. When the young foxes get older and livelier, most badgers apparently feel disturbed and leave the den. This has nothing to do with the fox's own odor. When investigating a feeding place and burrows inhabited by badgers (but not at the same time by foxes), most of the encounters between badger and fox were not aggressive. In aggressive encounters, the badger dominated with brief attacks on the fox without physical contact. The badgers drove the foxes away from the feeding places than from the burrows. Otherwise, both types ignored each other. Evidence suggests that foxes sometimes seek the company of badgers, possibly related to the expectation of food.

Shared building use is also possible with other species such as polecat , wild rabbit or shelduck . The fox then keeps a "truce" in the vicinity of its burrow, ie it leaves potential prey there unmolested.

Tree and stone martens avoid red foxes. Foxes can prey on both species. Pine martens can also prey on young foxes. After the mange outbreak in Sweden in the 1980s, the fox population decreased while that of the pine marten increased. It is believed that the fox can influence the pine marten population through predation . A negative influence on pine marten through predation is also suspected for Norway; conversely, a study in Finland did not give any indications of a population-influencing effect of the fox on the pine marten.

Investigations in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania did not reveal any negative effects of raccoon dogs and raccoons on the fox population due to the different habitat use, given favorable resources .

Fox jumping

Foxes and house cats often meet in the city, but in most cases hardly pay any attention to each other. In the event of a conflict, the fox usually flees. Only in rare cases does it come to a fight, and only in exceptional situations do foxes try to capture young cats, usually a few weeks old or cats weakened by illness or accident. Playing and sitting together as well as mutual expulsions were also observed. The hunting behavior of the fox is similar to that of a cat, which can be seen in the slow creeping up and the mouse jump. Also, foxes climb better than other canines. Foxes and cats belong to different families zoologically, but have undergone a convergent development in the course of evolution due to their common specialization in small rodents as prey .

The red fox is not one of the main prey for golden eagles and white-tailed eagles , but both species can beat adult foxes. Eagle owls can prey on young foxes, but adult foxes are no longer part of the food spectrum.

Parasites and diseases

Adult fox tapeworm, 1.5 mm long

In European foxes, 55 worm species with regionally different focuses have been identified. Infestation with tapeworms , in particular the fox tapeworm , is widespread . In addition, roundworms occur, especially trichinae , for which the fox is a reservoir host . According to recent studies, around 20% of foxes in Germany are carriers of Trichinella spiralis , which they transfer to wild boars and, less often, to domestic pigs. When consumed, the trichinae pass over to humans, where they cause notifiable trichinae . Although due to the statutory trichinae examination in Germany, the number of trichinae diseases in humans (from 2016 to 2019 only 10 reported cases) and the evidence of trichinae in pigs have fallen sharply (from 2000 to 2009 only 92 wild boars tested positive out of 3.4 million and 4 domestic pigs of 453 million) the trichinae examination is still considered indispensable due to the pathogen reservoir in the fox population.

Furthermore occur ectoparasites on, including fleas (especially the dog flea ), ticks (especially the fox tick ) and mites. The latter can cause the mange . Virus infections include fox encephalitis, distemper and rabies , bacterial infections include leptospirosis .

In a Berlin population, distemper and mange (formerly also rabies) were major causes of loss in addition to road traffic deaths and had a population-limiting effect. In Bristol, an outbreak of mange reduced the fox population there by 95% in two years.

Systematics

The first scientific description of the red fox comes from the tenth edition of the Systema Naturae by Carl von Linné from 1758.

The red fox belongs to the genus Vulpes . In a current system of dogs, which was based on molecular genetic studies, the genus Vulpes was compared as a sister taxon to the raccoon dog ( Nyctereutes procyonoides ). Were compared while 15 kilobases of exon - and intron - sequences . The scoop dog ( Otocyon megalotis ) has been identified as the sister species of these two genera . Together these three genera were grouped together as the red fox clade. This corresponds to parts of the group originally summarized as real foxes (Vulpini), which, however, did not include the raccoon dog and which also contained the gray foxes ( Urocyon ), which are now regarded as the basic sister group of all dogs.

For the classification of the genus Vulpes see the graphic on the right. In addition to the nominate form Vulpes vulpes vulpes , numerous other subspecies are distinguished:

Phylogenetic classification of the genus Vulpes .
  Vulpes  


 Cape fox ( V. chama )


   

 Bengal fox ( V. bengalensis )


   

 Pale fox ( V. pallida )


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 Afghan fox ( V. cana )


   

 Fennek ( V. zerda )



   


 Kit fox ( V. macrotis )


   

 Arctic fox ( V. lagopus )



   


 Steppe fox ( V. corsac )


   

 Tibetan fox ( V. ferrilata )



   

 Red fox ( V. vulpes )


   

 Rüppellfuchs  ( V. rueppelli )







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  • Vulpes vulpes vulpes , Northern Europe (Scandinavia)
  • Vulpes vulpes abietorum , southwest Canada (Alberta and British Columbia)
  • Vulpes vulpes alascensis , Egypt, Israel, Libya
  • Vulpes vulpes alpherakyi , Alaska and Northwest Canada (Northwest Territories and Yukon)
  • Vulpes vulpes alphaerakyi , Kazakhstan
  • Vulpes vulpes anatolica , Turkey
  • Vulpes vulpes arabica , Arabian Peninsula
  • Vulpes vulpes atlantica , Algeria (Atlas Mountains)
  • Vulpes vulpes bangsi , Northeast Canada ( Labrador Peninsula )
  • Vulpes vulpes barbara , North West Africa (Barbarian Coast)
  • Vulpes vulpes beringiana , Northeast Siberia
  • Vulpes vulpes cascadensis , northwest USA (Cascade Mountains, Oregon and Washington)
  • Vulpes vulpes caucasica , Caucasus
  • Vulpes vulpes crucigera , Europe to northern and central Russia
  • Vulpes vulpes daurica , Siberia, Amur region
  • Vulpes vulpes deletrix , Newfoundland
  • Vulpes vulpes dolichocrania , Ussuri region
  • Vulpes vulpes flavescens , northern Iran
  • Vulpes vulpes fulvus , Eastern United States
  • Vulpes vulpes griffithi , Afghanistan and northern Pakistan
  • Vulpes vulpes harrimani , Alaska
  • Vulpes vulpes hoole , southern China ( Fujian and Sichuan )
  • Vulpes vulpes ichnusae , Corsica and Sardinia
  • Vulpes vulpes induta , Cyprus
  • Vulpes vulpes jakutensis , Siberia (south of Jakutsk)
  • Vulpes vulpes japonica , Japan
  • Vulpes vulpes karagan , Mongolia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan
  • Vulpes vulpes kenaiensis , Kenai Peninsula
  • Vulpes vulpes kurdistanica , northeastern Turkey and Armenia
  • Vulpes vulpes macroura , USA ( Mountain States )
  • Vulpes vulpes montana , Himalayas
  • Vulpes vulpes necator , California and Nevada
  • Vulpes vulpes ochroxantha , Seven Rivers Land
  • Vulpes vulpes palaestina , Jordan and Lebanon
  • Vulpes vulpes peculiosa , Korea
  • Vulpes vulpes pusilla , northwest India to Iraq
  • Vulpes vulpes regalis , Northern Great Plains
  • Vulpes vulpes rubricosa , Eastern Canada
  • Vulpes vulpes schrenckii , Hokkaido and Sakhalin
  • Vulpes vulpes silacea , Iberian Peninsula
  • Vulpes vulpes splendidissima , Kuril Islands
  • Vulpes vulpes stepensis , steppes in the south of Russia
  • Vulpes vulpes tobolica , Siberia, lower Ob basin .
  • Vulpes vulpes chiliensis , northeast China

Use, hunting, species protection

Use of the red fox

European red fox fur

Archaeologists have discovered evidence of fox breeding in the late Iron Age on Orkney Island off the north coast of Scotland . Breeding is said to have ceased after the Vikings attacked Scotland around 800.

Red fox skins are still used for clothing purposes, although the demand depends heavily on the respective fashion and the acceptance of fur. In fur farms , rare varieties of color such as silver foxes and cross foxes are mainly bred.

Fox liver was used as an emetic in folk medicine. It was also used as a tuberculosis drug until the Middle Ages .

According to § 13a LMEV, the import of fox meat from third countries into the Federal Republic is prohibited.

Hunting

Front of riflemen, drivers and dogs during a hunt for red foxes

Fox hunting is legal in many states.

Hundreds of thousands of red foxes are shot every year in Germany. In Switzerland tens of thousands of red foxes kills recorded annually. The majority of their skins are not processed further in either country and are disposed of, although there are individual initiatives that want to change that.

In the Federal Republic of Germany at the end of the 1960s, all accessible burrows were fumigated to combat rabies , before they were closed for animal welfare reasons. The foxes in the burrow were supposed to be killed, but numerous badgers also fell victim to the fumigation. Since 1987, when the foxes were immunized by vaccination, the number of rabies cases has decreased considerably. Terrestrial rabies has been officially eradicated in Germany since 2008.

Parforce hunt on horseback and with a pack of dogs as it was common in England for a long time

Fox hunting is controversial in Great Britain , where the way it was carried out led to disputes between animal rights activists and hunters. Parforce hunting on horseback with packs of dogs has been officially banned throughout Great Britain since February 2005, but this did not end the discussion about fox hunting as such.

Species protection

The red fox is listed as Least Concern in the Red List of Endangered Species of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) due to its large distribution area and high populations .

To prevent bird strikes at airports, there are considerations to specifically encourage foxes with artificial structures or not to hunt them there.

For some years now, in addition to habitat deterioration, predation by the red fox has been given as the main cause of the decrease in the population of ground-breeders such as the lapwing , black- tailed godwit or capercaillie (especially due to intensive agriculture) . This led to the demand and implementation of a predator management as a species protection strategy, which can also show the desired results with year-round and intensive hunting. The population cycles of vole species are also discussed as a possible cause for the sometimes high level of stalking by the fox.

In some cases, however, no strong negative influence of the fox on ground breeders was found. Carrying out predator management does not always have to lead to an increase in the survival rate of the target species. If the fox density is lower, marten species can replace the fox's share of the high predation rate. The effectiveness of active (killing the predator) or passive (changing habitat structures) predator management as a nature conservation measure is controversial and requires intensive preparation and individual assessment.

Especially in English-speaking countries, the subject of animal ethics has been increasingly discussed for wild animals for about 15 years, especially in the area of ​​population control of (highly developed) vertebrates, especially foxes, and has led to local initiatives for the red fox.

Cultural meaning

Reyneke Vosz de olde. Woodcut by Erhard Altdorfer (1539)

religion

In the Bible the fox is mentioned as a symbol for wilderness or also for devastated, therefore inhabited landscapes ( Klgl 5.18  EU , Hes 13.4  EU , Neh 3.35  EU ), as a pest ( Hld 2.15  EU ) , but also as a symbol of cunning and malice ( Lk 13.32  EU ). Jesus uses the fox, which at least has a burrow, as a counter-image to his own homelessness ( Mt 8.20  EU , Lk 13.32  EU ). The fox has a special position in the Book of Judges ( Ri 15.4–5  EU ), which tells how Simson uses foxes to destroy opposing fields.

In Christian iconography the fox used for humanization and personification of sin .

literature

The name "Reineke" is based on a Latin poem from 1150 with the title Ysegrimus , in which the fox appears as "Reinardus". In 1175, Pierre de Saint Cloud wrote the novel de Renard . This story, intended as a parody of the courtly lifestyle, depicts the fox in a double role as villain and hero (for details see Reineke Fuchs ). In the further Middle Ages, stories with "Reineke" spread quickly. The fox is portrayed as false, vengeful, unruly, cunning and solitary. Above all, Goethe's version of Reineke Fuchs from 1793 is known. The female fox in the fable is named Ermelyn.

In some regions of the German-speaking area, the red fox plays a positive role as an Easter fox : In Easter customs, like the Easter bunny, it takes on the task of bringing eggs.

The red fox also plays a role in mythology and fable in Japan (see Kitsune ). In China it was not only a symbol of cunning and cunning, but also of erotic seduction and demonia . The stories in which men with a fox spirit in the form of a beautiful woman get involved and find their undoing are particularly numerous .

  • Reading fox with clerical headgear (Book of Hours, around 1460)

  • A Japanese Kitsune statue

  • Nine-tailed fox; from the Qing edition of Shan Hai Jing

  • Illustration by Reineke Fuchs in a children's book from 1869

A negative representation of foxes dominated fairy tales and children's books until the 20th century. E.g. in Grimm's fairy tales as a cunning figure (KHM 57 , 72 , 74 , 132 , 191 ) or as an outwitted one (KHM 8 , 38 , 45 , 75 , 86 ), in the story of Nils Holgersson or in the children's song Fuchs, you have them Stolen goose .

Cultural history

Fox bones as grave goods can be found in grave 1 of the site of ʾUyyun al-Hamman (Wadi Ziqlab, Jordan), which dates to the geometric section of the kebaria . The tomb contained two burials that were buried at different times. Under the chest of burial B, an adult, was a complete fox skull and an upper arm (v. Vulpes vulpes). In Tomb VIII, however, there was an almost complete fox skeleton, the skull and humerus missing. The bones probably belong to the same animal. In the Natufien settlement of Kfar HaHoresh (Israel), parts of fox skeletons lay in children's burials. However, foxes were also eaten at this time, as evidenced by finds from the Carmel caves. A fox is shown on pillar 2 of Annex A of Göbekli Tepe ( PPNA ).

literature

zoology
  • Alexander Wandeler, Peter Lüps: Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) - red fox. In: Michael Stubbe, Franz Krapp (Ed.): Handbook of Mammals in Europe. Volume 5: Predatory Mammals - Carnivora (Fissipedia). Part I: Canidae, Ursidae, Procyonidae, Mustelidae 1 . Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1993, pp. 139-193.
  • Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game. Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X .
  • David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 .
  • Maria Schnaitl, Sylvia Stürzer: Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and badger (Meles meles) in the Bavarian Forest National Park. Land use behavior and choice of habitat in a closed forest area. (= Bavarian Forest National Park. Issue 18). 2009, ISBN 978-3-930977-32-1 , pp. 104-105.
City foxes
  • Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: City foxes - a wild animal conquers the settlement area. Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006.
  • Stephen Harris, Phil Baker: Urban Foxes. Whittet Books, Suffolk 2001.
  • Trevor Williams, Andrew Wilson: Unearthing the urban fox. The Fox Project, Tonbridge 2000.
Narrative culture
  • Rudolf Schenda: Fox. In: The ABC of Animals. Fairy tales, myths and stories. CH Beck Verlag, Munich 1995, pp. 105-111.
  • Hans-Jörg Uther: Fox. In: Encyclopedia of Fairy Tales. Volume 5. Berlin 1987, pp. 447-478.
  • Fable of the lion's share
Illustrated books
  • Rebecca L. Grambo: The World of the Fox. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco 1995.
  • Günther Schumann: Wild foxes very familiar. Neumann - Neudamm, Melsungen 2007.
  • Hartmann Jenal: My foxes . Gollenstein Verlag 2009.
  • Lutz Artmann: The fox in the city . Oertel + Spörer Verlag, Reutlingen 2016, ISBN 978-3-88627-874-9 .
Picture and children's books
  • Toshiko Kanzawa: Moschiri the vixen. Gerstenberg Verlag, Hildesheim 1993.
  • Irina Korschunow: The Finding Fox. How the little fox got a mother. Deutscher Taschenbuch-Verlag, Munich 2001. (Pictures by R. Michl)
  • Desirée Jenal: Fredy the little fox and his friends. Self-published, Saarlouis 2009.
  • Cherie Mason: Wild Fox - A True Story. Down East Books, Maine 1993.
  • Claudia Schnieper; Felix Labhardt: On the trail of the fox. Children's book publisher, Lucerne 1988.

Web links

Commons : Rotfuchs (Category)  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Rotfuchs (side)  - album with pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Alexander Wandeler, Peter Lüps: Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus, 1758) - red fox. In: Michael Stubbe, Franz Krapp (Ed.): Handbook of Mammals in Europe. Volume 5: Predatory Mammals - Carnivora (Fissipedia). Part I: Canidae, Ursidae, Procyonidae, Mustelidae 1 . Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1993, p. 140.
  2. ↑ a b Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 20.
  3. ↑ Bruno Hespeler (editor): Before and after the hunter examination. BLV, Munich 2007, ISBN 978-3-8354-0085-6 , p. 176.
  4. ↑ Miroslav Bouchner: The Kosmos trail guide. Traces and tracks of native animals. Gondrom-Verlag, Bindlach 1996, p. 102 f.
  5. ↑ Martin Hemmington: Foxwatching. In the Shadow of the Fox. Whittet Books, Stonham 1997, ISBN 1-873580-31-2 , p. 22.
  6. ^ Trevor Williams, Andrew Wilson: Unearthing the urban fox. The Fox Project, Tonbridge 2000, p. 24.
  7. ↑ a b Angelika Lang: Tracks and tracks of our animals . BLV Naturführer, Munich 1991, ISBN 3-405-13819-1 , p. 116.
  8. ↑ Martin Hemmington: Describing the smell of the urine is almost impossible, but if I was to try, I suppose it smells very much like a freshly opened jar of Nescafé coffee (...). 1997, p. 25.
  9. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 32.
  10. ↑ Albert Gossauer: Structure and reactivity of biomolecules. Verlag Helvetica Chimica Acta, Zurich, 2006, ISBN 3-906390-29-2 , p. 228.
  11. ^ JW Jorgenson, M. Novotny, M. Carmack, GB Copland, SR Wilson, S. Katona, WK Whitten: Chemical Scent Constituents in the Urine of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes L.) During the Winter Season. In: Science. 199, 1978, pp. 796-709, doi: 10.1126 / science.199.4330.796 . PMID 17836296 .
  12. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 21.
  13. ^ A b c Carl D. Soulsbury, Philip J. Baker, Graziella Iossa, Stephen Harris: Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). . In: Stanley D. Gehre, Seth PD Riley, Brian L. Cypher (Eds.): Urban Carnivores. Ecology, Conflict, and Conservation. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2010, ISBN 978-0-8018-9389-6 , pp. 63 f.
  14. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, ISBN 3-258-07030-X , p. 39 f.
  15. ^ Sophia E. Kimmig et al .: Beyond the landscape: Resistance modeling infers physical and behavioral gene flow barriers to a mobile carnivore across a metropolitan area. In: Molecular Ecology. Volume 29, No. 3, 2020, pp. 466-484, doi: 10.1111 / mec.15345 .
    City fox and country fox: Genetic analyzes show different fox populations in and around Berlin. On: idw-online.de from March 5, 2020.
  16. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, ISBN 3-258-07030-X , pp. 14, 153.
  17. ↑ For data on the size of the walking area that are based on telemetry studies, various evaluation methods are used in the literature,
    • the minimum convex polygon method MCP, which includes all outer observation points including unused areas,
    • the 95% MPC used to exclude the unused areas, or the
    • Kernel method, which takes into account the density of observation frequencies. Percentages are also possible here, e.g. B. 50% kernel or 95% kernel (Schnaitl 2009, p. 14).
    In the literature, it is sometimes not clearly stated to which of these methods the hectare values for space use refer.
  18. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , p. 73.
  19. ^ A b c Carl D. Soulsbury, Philip J. Baker, Graziella Iossa, Stephen Harris: Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). In: Stanley D. Gehre, Seth PD Riley, Brian L. Cypher (Eds.): Urban Carnivores. Ecology, Conflict, and Conservation. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2010, ISBN 978-0-8018-9389-6 , pp. 65 f.
  20. ↑ City fox explosion. In: New Scientist . Volume 232, No. 3107, 2017, p. 6.
  21. ^ Maria Schnaitl, Sylvia Stürzer: Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and badger (Meles meles) in the Bavarian Forest National Park. Land use behavior and choice of habitat in a closed forest area. (= Bavarian Forest National Park. Issue 18). 2009, ISBN 978-3-930977-32-1 , pp. 104-105.
  22. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , p. 56 f.
  23. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, ISBN 3-258-07030-X , p. 53.
  24. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , pp. 7, 8, 13.
  25. ^ Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 64 f.
  26. ↑ Carl D. Soulsbury, Philip J. Baker, Graziella Iossa, Stephen Harris: Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). . In: Stanley D. Gehre, Seth PD Riley, Brian L. Cypher (Eds.): Urban Carnivores. Ecology, Conflict, and Conservation. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2010, ISBN 978-0-8018-9389-6 , p. 66.
  27. ↑ Stephen Harris, Phil Baker: Urban Foxes. 2nd Edition. Whittet Books, Suffolk 2001, ISBN 1-873580-51-7 , pp. 48 f.
  28. ↑ PJ Baker, SM Funk, MW Bruford, S. Harris: Polygynandry in a red fox population: implications for the evolution of group living in canids? . In: Behavioral Ecology. Volume 15, 2004, p. 776.
  29. ^ A b Maria Schnaitl, Sylvia Stürzer: Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and badger (Meles meles) in the Bavarian Forest National Park. Spatial use behavior and choice of habitat in a closed forest area (=  Bavarian Forest National Park . No. 18 ). Bavarian Forest National Park Administration, Grafenau 2009, ISBN 978-3-930977-32-1 , p. 47 ff .
  30. ↑ a b David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study . Knesebeck, Munich 1993, ISBN 978-3-926901-63-7 , pp. 104 f .
  31. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the space use of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758), in different anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg . Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , p. 20 , doi : 10.13140 / RG.2.1.4336.9200 ( rgdoi.net [accessed on January 23, 2020]).
  32. ^ Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 978-3-490-33812-9 , pp. 112 .
  33. ↑ a b c Stephen Harris, Phil Baker: Urban Foxes (=  British natural history series ). 2nd Edition. Whittet, Stowmarket 2001, ISBN 978-1-873580-51-6 , pp. 108 f .
  34. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 17.
  35. ↑ a b Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 106.
  36. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 53.
  37. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , p. 15.
  38. ↑ a b c Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 70 ff.
  39. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, p. 88.
  40. ↑ a b David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 158.
  41. ^ Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 114.
  42. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , pp. 10, 18f.
  43. ↑ a b c Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: City foxes - a wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, p. 81 ff.
  44. ↑ a b c d Stephen Harris, Phil Baker: Urban Foxes. 2nd Edition. Whittet Books, Suffolk 2001, ISBN 1-873580-51-7 , pp. 30 ff.
  45. ↑ Philip J. Baker, Stephan M. Funk, Michael W. Bruford, Stephen Harris: Polygynandry in a red fox population: implications for the evolution of group living in canids? In: Behavioral Ecology. Volume 15, 2004, pp. 766-778.
  46. ^ A b c Graziella Iossa, Carl D. Soulsbury, Philip J. Baker, Keith J. Edwards, Stephen Harris: Behavioral changes associated with a population density decline in the facultatively social red fox. In: Behavioral Ecology. Volume 20, 2009, pp. 385-395.
  47. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 154.
  48. ↑ a b Stephen Harris, Phil Baker: Urban Foxes. 2nd Edition. Whittet Books, Suffolk 2001, ISBN 1-873580-51-7 , p. 38.
  49. ↑ Jacek Goszczyńsk: Home ranges in red fox: territoriality diminishes with increasing area. . In: Acta Theriologica. Volume 47, Supplement 1, 2002, pp. 103-114.
  50. ↑ Thomas AM Kaphegyi: Studies on the social behavior of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes L.). Dissertation of the Forest Science Faculty of the Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg im Breisgau 2002, p. 76 f., 85.
  51. ↑ Carl D. Soulsbury, Philip J. Baker, Graziella Iossa, Stephen Harris: Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). . In: Stanley D. Gehre, Seth PD Riley, Brian L. Cypher (Eds.): Urban Carnivores. Ecology, Conflict, and Conservation. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2010, ISBN 978-0-8018-9389-6 , p. 68.
  52. ^ HM Whiteside, DA Dawson, CD Soulsbury, S. Harris: Mother Knows Best: Dominant Females Determine Offspring Dispersal in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). In: PLoS ONE. Volume 6, No. 7, 2011, p. E22145. doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0022145 .
  53. ↑ a b Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 40 ff.
  54. ↑ JP Gonzales-Varo, J. Lopez-Bao, J. Guitian: Functional diversity among seed dispersal kernels generated by carnivorous mammals. In: Journal of Animal Ecology. Volume 82, 2013, pp. 562-571.
  55. ↑ I. Cancio, A. Ganzalez-Roble, JM Bastida, AJ Manzaneda, T. Salido, PJ Rey: Habitat loss exacerbates regional extinction risk of the keystone semiarid shrub Ziziphus lotus through collapsing the seed dispersal service by foxes (Vulpes vulpes). In: Biodiversity and Conservation. Volume 25, No. 4, 2016, pp. 693-709.
  56. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 131.
  57. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, ISBN 3-258-07030-X , p. 97 ff.
  58. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , p. 46 ff.
  59. ^ Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 54.
  60. ↑ a b David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 88.
  61. ↑ a b c d e f Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 117 ff.
  62. ↑ January Olof Helldin, O. Liberg, G. Gloersen: Lynx (Lynx lynx) killing red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in boreal Sweden - frequency and population effects. In: Journal of Zoology. Volume 270, 2006, pp. 657-663.
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  65. ↑ David MacDonald, Cristina D. Buesching, Pavel Stopka, Sandra E. Baker: Encounters between two sympatric carnivores: Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and European badgers (Meles meles). In: Journal of Zoology. Volume 263, 2004, pp. 385-392.
  66. ↑ D. Müller-Using: Rotfüchse. In: Bernhard Grizmek: Encyclopedia of the animal kingdom. Volume 12: Mammals 3. Kindler-Verlag, 1972, p. 249.
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  71. ↑ K. Overskaug: Pine marten martes martes versus red fox vulpes vulpes in Norway; an inter-specific relationship? In: Lutra. Volume 43, No. 2, 2000, pp. 215-221.
  72. ^ S. Kurki, A. Nikula, P. Helle, H. Linden: Abundances of red fox and pine marten in relation to the composition of boreal forest landscapes. In: Journal of Animal Ecology. Volume 67, 1998, pp. 874-886.
  73. ↑ Hinrich Zoller: Comparative telemetry study of red fox (Vulpes vulpes Linnaeus, 1758) and raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides Gray, 1834) in the agricultural landscape of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Dissertation. University of Rostock, 2010, p. 82 f.
  74. ^ F. Drygala, H. Zoller: Spatial use and interaction of the invasive raccoon dog and the native red fox in Central Europe: competition or coexistence? In: European Journal of Wildlife Research. Volume 59, No. 5, 2013, pp. 683-691.
  75. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, ISBN 3-258-07030-X , p. 102.
  76. ↑ Stephen Harris, Phil Baker: Urban Foxes. 2nd Edition. Whittet Books, Suffolk 2001, ISBN 1-873580-51-7 , p. 76.
  77. ↑ After acoustic localization of a mouse, the fox jumps up to 4 m forward. Foxes jump even when they have the mouse in front of them. The fox then hops vertically in the air, hits the mouse with its feet and bites it dead (Labhardt 1990, p. 41 f.).
  78. ↑ Sandra Gloor, Fabio Bontadina, Daniel Hegglin: Stadtfüchse - A wild animal conquers the settlement area . Haupt-Verlag, Bern 2006, p. 118.
  79. ↑ Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, Kurt M. Bauer, Einhard Bezzel (arr.): Handbook of the birds of Central Europe. Volume 4: Falconiformes - Birds of Prey. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1989, ISBN 3-923527-00-4 , pp. 663, 669f.
  80. ↑ Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, Kurt M. Bauer, Einhard Bezzel (arr.): Handbook of the birds of Central Europe. Volume 4: Falconiformes - Birds of Prey. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1989, ISBN 3-923527-00-4 , p. 199.
  81. ↑ Urs N. Glutz von Blotzheim, Kurt M. Bauer (edit.): Handbook of the birds of Central Europe. Volume 9: Columbiformes - Piciformes: pigeons, cuckoos, owls, goat milkers, sailors, rackets, woodpeckers. Aula-Verlag, Wiesbaden 1994, ISBN 3-923527-00-4 , p. 351.
  82. ↑ Epidemiological Bulletin of the Robert Koch Institute No. 3/2018 (PDF) January 18, 2018.
  83. ↑ Epidemiological Bulletin of the Robert Koch Institute No. 3/2020 (PDF) January 16, 2020
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  85. ↑ Frank Galster and Andreas König in LWF-aktuell of the Bavarian State Institute for Forests and Forestry: Trichinenschau is more necessary than ever ( Memento from May 31, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 466 kB)
  86. ^ Felix Labhardt: The red fox. Natural history, ecology and behavior of this amazing game . Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg 1990, ISBN 3-490-33812-X , p. 128 ff.
  87. ↑ Konstantin Börner: Investigations into the use of space by the red fox Vulpes vulpes (L., 1758) in various anthropogenically influenced habitats in Berlin and Brandenburg. Dissertation Humboldt University Berlin. Mensch und Buch Verlag, Berlin 2014, ISBN 978-3-86387-500-8 , p. 96.
  88. ↑ Carl D. Soulsbury, Philip J. Baker, Graziella Iossa, Stephen Harris: Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes). . In: Stanley D. Gehre, Seth PD Riley, Brian L. Cypher (Eds.): Urban Carnivores. Ecology, Conflict, and Conservation. Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2010, ISBN 978-0-8018-9389-6 , p. 70.
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  91. ↑ Jan Zrzavý, Věra Řičánková: Phylogeny of Recent Canidae (Mammalia, Carnivora): Relative Reliability and Utility of Morphological and Molecular Datasets. In: Zoologica Scripta. Volume 33, No. 4, July 2004, pp. 311-333, doi: 10.1111 / j.0300-3256.2004.00152.x
  92. ↑ Winckelmann Pelz Report. No. 1814 of December 8, 2006, based on Daily Record and Scotland Mail sources of November 27, 2006 and the USA Fur Commission email service
  93. ↑ Christian Martin Koch: Collection of selected treatises for use by general practitioners. Volume 18, Dyck, 1799, p. 432.
  94. ↑ Hunting statistics for individual game species. In: German Hunting Association. Retrieved January 14, 2019 .
  95. ↑ Shooting of the red fox, all of Switzerland: 2009–2016. In: Federal hunting statistics. Retrieved January 14, 2019 .
  96. ↑ Hunting: The "Change of fur" project - 90 percent of the fur ends up in the garbage. In: Dlf Nova. July 6, 2018, accessed January 14, 2019 .
  97. ↑ Recycle instead of throwing away: family business from Sennwald sells fox pelts from the region. In: tagblatt.ch. January 4, 2019, accessed January 14, 2019 .
  98. ↑ Heribert Kalchreuter: The thing with the hunt . Kosmos, 2015, ISBN 978-3-440-15205-8 (without page number - chapter population density and mortality - example fox).
  99. ↑ C. Freuling, T. Selhorst, A. Kliemt, FJ Conraths, T. Müller: Germany is rabies-free! Successful animal disease control in the wild animal sector . In: Research Report . No. 1 . Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV), Germany 2008, p. 34–38 ( bmelv-forschung.de ( memento from April 26, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) [PDF]).
  100. ↑ Vulpes vulpes in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2011. Posted by: DW Macdonald, JC Reynolds, 2008. Accessed July 8 2012th
  101. ↑ Christoph Morgenroth, Michaela Winch: The fox and its influence on bird strikes. In: Vogel und Luftverkehr. 1/2008, pp. 35-44.
  102. ↑ Detailed bibliographies at:
    • Jochen Bellebaum: Predation as a threat to ground-breeding birds in Germany - an overview. In: Reports on bird protection. Volume 39, 2002, pp. 95-117.
    • Tobias Langgemach, Jochen Bellebaum: Predation and the protection of ground-breeding bird species in Germany. In: Vogelwelt. Volume 126, 2005, pp. 259-298.
  103. ↑ Examples:
    • Gerd Graumann, Jürgen Goretzki: Influence of predators and wild boar on ground breeders in the Western Pomerania Lagoon Area National Park with special consideration of the wildlife sanctuaries / hunting zones. In: Nature conservation work in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. Volume 45, No. 1, 2002, pp. 17-34.
    • Heinz Litzbarski: Predator management as a species protection strategy . In: Nature conservation and landscape maintenance in Brandenburg. Volume 1, 1998, pp. 92-97.
    • R. Siano, Franz Baierlein, Klaus-Michael Exo, SA Herzog: Survival time, causes of death and use of space of bred capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus L.), released in the Harz National Park. In: Vogelwarte. Volume 44, 2006, pp. 145-158.
  104. ↑ Paul Müller: Risks of a lack of control of fox populations for species and nature conservation . In: Ökologischer Jagdverein Bayern (Hrsg.): Help (for) predators !? (Results of a seminar on December 7, 1996 in Nuremberg) . 1997, ISBN 3-89014-141-2 , pp. 69-103 .
  105. ↑ According to this, in "good" vole years there is no high predation pressure due to the high density of mice, while foxes (and other predators) in "bad" mouse years increasingly turn to ground breeders (Rüdiger Schröpfer, Heinz Düttmann: Species protection with hunting and mice - the Osnabrück predation model. In: Artenschutzreport. Volume 26, 2010, pp. 1–7.)
  106. ↑ Examples:
    • HA Bruns, H. Hötker, J. Christiansen, B. Holderlein, W. Petersen-Andersen: Breeding populations and breeding success of meadow birds in the Beltringharder Koog (North Friesland) as a function of succession, grazing, water levels and predators. In: Corax. 18, special issue 2, 2001, pp. 67-80.
    • In a Dutch study on the effects of predation on meadow birds (W. Teunissen, H. Schekkermann, F. Willems: Predatie bij weidevogels. Op zoek naar de mogelijke effecten van predatie op de weidevogelstand. Expert opinion on behalf of Sovon ogelonderzoek Nederland, Alterra; www.sovon.nl; with an English summary) it was found that mammals (e.g. fox, ermine, polecat) mainly preyed on clutches, birds (e.g. buzzards , gray herons ) more likely to prey on chicks of meadow birds. In most cases, the fox presented itself as the main predator of the clutch. Overall, the predation pressure decreased as the landscape became more open. In the modeling of the study, the predation of chicks was the most effective factor for the meadow bird population, while the effect of clutch predation was lower or comparable to other factors (e.g. losses due to mowing ).
  107. ↑ M. Bolton, G. Tyler, K. Smith, R. Bamford: The impact of predator control on lapwing Vanellus vanellus breeding success on wet grassland nature reserves. In: Journal of Applied Ecology. 44 (3), 2007, pp. 534-544.
  108. ^ J. Bellebaum, C. Bock: Influence of ground predators and water levels on Lapwing Vanellus vanellus breeding success in two continental wetlands. In: Journal of Ornithology. 150 (1), 2009, pp. 221-230.
  109. ↑ Example of lapwing: State Office for Nature, Environment and Consumer Protection North Rhine-Westphalia: Protected Species in North Rhine-Westphalia - Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus (L.)). Accessed July 5, 2013.
  110. ↑ KE Littin, DJ Mellor, B. Warburton, CT Eason: Animal welfare and ethical issues relevant to the humane control of vertebrate pests. In: New Zealand Veterinary Journal. Volume 52, No. 1, 2004, pp. 1-10.
  111. ↑ KE Littin: Animal welfare and pest control: meeting Both conservation and animal welfare goals. In: Animal Welfare. Volume 19, 2010, pp. 171-176.
  112. ↑ PC Paquet, CT Darimont: Wildlife conservation and animal welfare: two sides of the same coin? In: Animal Welfare. Volume 19, 2010, pp. 177-190.
  113. ↑ DM Broom, RH Bradshaw: The welfare of deer, foxes, mink and hares subjected to hunting by humans: a review. Cambridge University Animal Welfare Information Center, Cambridge 2000.
  114. ^ N. Fox, S. Rivers, N. Blay, AG Greenwood, D. Wise: Welfare Aspects of Shooting Foxes. A study for the All Party Parliamentary Middle Way Group. c / o Lembit Öpik MP, House of Commons, London 2003, 48 pp
  115. ↑ N. Fox, N. Blay, AG Greenwood, D. Wise, E. Potapov: Wounding rates in shooting foxes (Vulpes vulpes). In: Animal Welfare. Volume 14, 2003.
  116. ^ The Fox Project, http://www.foxproject.org.uk/
  117. ↑ National Fox Welfare Society http://www.nfws.org.uk/
  118. ^ Susanne Blöcker: Studies on the Iconography of the Seven Deadly Sins in Dutch and German Painting and Graphics: from 1450 to 1560. Münster, p. 114f.
  119. ↑ David MacDonald: Among Foxes - A Behavioral Study. Knesebeck-Verlag, Munich 1993, ISBN 3-926901-63-2 , p. 44.
  120. ↑ cf. Roman de Renart
  121. ^ Nigel Goring Morris, Anna Belfer-Cohen: Different strokes for different folks: Near Eastern Neolithic mortuary practices in Perspective. In: Ian Hodder (Ed.): Religion at Work in a Neolithic Society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2014, p. 36.
  122. ↑ Lisa A. Maher, Jay T. Stock, Sarah Finney, James JN Heywood, Preston T. Miracle, Edward B. Banning: A unique human-fox burial from a pre-Natufian cemetery in the Levant (Jordan). In: PloS one. 6/1, 15815, 2011, p. 4.
  123. ↑ Lisa A. Maher, Jay T. Stock, Sarah Finney, James JN Heywood, Preston T. Miracle, Edward B. Banning: A unique human-fox burial from a pre-Natufian cemetery in the Levant (Jordan). In: PloS one. 6/1, 15815, 2011, p. 6.
  124. ↑ R. Yeshurun, G. Bar-Oz, M. Weinstein-Evron: The role of foxes in the Natufian economy: a view from Mount Carmel, Israel. In: Before Farming: the archeology and anthropology of hunter-gatherers. 3, 2009, pp. 1-15.
  125. ^ J. Peters, Klaus Schmidt: Animals in the symbolic world of Pre-Pottery Neolithic Göbekli Tepe, south-eastern Turkey: a preliminary assessment. In: Anthropozoologica. 39, 2004, pp. 179-218.