Latin grammar

The Latin grammar dealt with in a systematic form the characteristics of the Latin language . This can be assigned to the Italian branch of Indo-European ; their grammar shows many similarities with the other historically known languages ​​of this family. It is also the basis of the Romance languages that developed from it.

Latin, like ancient Greek , Sanskrit and other ancient Indo-European languages, is a typical inflected language with synthetic expression of grammatical information.

Compared with the reconstructed grammar of Urindo-European , processes can be recognized that are mostly viewed as simplifications. This is reflected, for example, in the uniform suffixes for the formation of tenses and cases ( syncretism ), the reduction to five verb and six noun classes or the reduction from eight cases of the original language to six in Latin (category reduction). The terms that have historically evolved to describe and discuss the classical languages, including Latin, are widely used today in both linguistics and common parlance even for non-Indo-European languages.

The system presented here relates to “classical” Latin, a standardized literary artificial language that was essentially only used by contemporary Roman authors in the first century BC and is now taught in Latin classes in schools .

Phonology

→ Main article : Latin pronunciation

Word formation

Word formation in Latin is primarily characterized by derivation , whereby both verbal roots (deverbative) and nominal roots (denominative) can be the starting point for derivations. There are a large number of word formation suffixes that can be used to form new nouns and adjectives. Verbs can also be derived from nouns.

As in German, the basic meaning of verbs and nouns can also be varied in Latin using a large number of prefixes.

By means of the suffix -sc be verbs Inchoativa formed.

In contrast to ancient Greek and Sanskrit - or German - Latin noun compounds are foreign to Latin - a trait that is continued in the Romance languages.

Parts of speech

The parts of speech or classes of speech in the Latin language can initially be divided into inflectable (changeable) and non-inflectable words at a higher level. The inflected words of the Latin language can be divided into declinable words or nouns ( nouns including proper names , pronouns , adjectives , number nouns ) and conjugable words ( verbs ). Like all ancient Indo-European languages, Latin also has a rich theory of forms, which is associated with a correspondingly large learning curve.

Non-inflectable Latin word classes are:

• Adverbs
• Prepositions (including postpositions )
• Conjunctions (including subjunctions)
• Interjections

Unlike German, and like most Slavic languages, Latin knows neither definite nor indefinite articles . (Articles also appeared in Middle Latin, see the article Middle Latin # Syntax .)

The inflection in Latin

The differentiation of grammatical functions or categories in the context of inflection (declination and conjugation) can be made in Latin in different ways:

• Suffocation
• Change of the word stem
• Reduplication (conjugation only)

In contrast to suffixes, prefixes in Latin are not grammatical morphemes, but are used solely to form words. Latin differs in this from some other Indo-European languages, in which prefixes can also function as grammatical educational morphemes (eg the augmentation in ancient Greek or the prefix ge when forming the past participle of strong verbs in German).

Suffixation is by far the most common form of flexion. It predominates in conjugation and is the almost exclusive means of declination. As usual in inflected languages, each suffix can always designate several grammatical categories at the same time (e.g. the suffix -arum : plural + genitive). Several discrete suffixes can appear in a row. The suffixes are added to the root or other suffixes.

The change in the word stem or even the root itself (so-called root flexion ) is a characteristic inherited from the Indo-European proto-language, which is also used extensively in German, for example (especially as an ablaut in strong verbs). The original Urindo-European ablaut is only partially preserved in Latin. One example is the change of the stem ending -o- of the second declension to -e in the vocative singular ( Brutus to Brute ), which is an e-ablaut inherited from the Indo-European original language (see vocative formation in the Indo-European languages ). Otherwise occasional changes in the stem ending (e.g. vetus - veteris (old) with the sound change from u to e ) are purely phonological phenomena and grammatically meaningless. In Latin, root flexion occurs primarily when the perfect stem is formed (see below). In addition, the conjugation of the copula esse in Latin offers a good example of the continuation of the Indo-European root flexion (see Urindo-European copula ).

Nouns

Categories of declension

The following grammatical categories are distinguished on the noun:

• Gender (grammatical gender): masculine, feminine, neuter
• Number: singular, plural
• Case (case): nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative, locative

When talking about the KNG congruence, two words match in case, number and gender.

See also : congruence (grammar)

Gender

Like most of the ancient Indo-European languages ​​and German, the Latin language knows three grammatical genders.

In the case of personal names, the grammatical follows the natural gender:

• Masculine: agricola (farmer, farmer), vir (man), dominus (gentleman), Marcus , Gaius , Gnaeus (masculine proper names)
• Feminina: virgo (virgin), femina (woman), domina (mistress), Maria , Lucretia , Hortensia (feminine proper names)

Latin neuter shows the peculiarity typical of Indo-European (and also preserved in German) that the nominative and accusative forms match in both the singular and the plural. In addition to all substantive neutrals, this also applies to the (existing) neuter forms of all adjectives, participles, pronouns and numeralia.

Number

As in German, a distinction is made between singular and plural numbers. In a few words, remnants of old dual forms can also be recognized, which are identified by the ending o , e.g. B. duo (two), ambō (both).

Case (cases)

Latin has five distinct cases: nominative , genitive , dative , accusative and ablative . In addition, there is the vocative , which, however, in pure Latin words only has its own form in a single noun class (2nd declension) in the singular masculine, otherwise it is always the same as the respective nominative. In the case of city names, some words (rus, domus, tempus, humus) and some frozen adverbs, residues of the locative also appear .

Often several cases have the same form.

Nominative

The subject of a sentence must be specified in the nominative .

In the nominative plural, Latin has retained the Indo-European nominative endings -s and -es . The forms of the pronoun were only adopted for a / o / e stems ( e.g. illi "those, nom. Pl. Mask." - domini "Herren", nom. Pl. Mask .; illae "those", nom. Pl. Fem. - dominae "Mistresses", Nom. Pl. Fem.).

Otherwise there is usually the ending -es in the plural , which merges with the preceding vowel ( e.g. portus , turres , plebes ); Neutra always have the ending -a (e.g .: maria , capita ).

Genitive

The genitive indicates possession or relationship to another word. In Latin it can be used both attributive and predicative .

The genitive has the endings -i (is orthographically implemented as ae in the a -stems , the classic pronunciation is ai ) or -is in the singular, -rum or -um in the plural (e.g. dominae  - dominarum , domini  - dominorum , rei  - rerum , portus  - portuum , turris  - turri-um , plebis  - plebium , capitis  - capitum ).

The original Indo-European genitive singular ending was -os , while Latin has the abusive form -es> -is ; Originally -as was also used in the a -stems  - however, this ending has only been retained in expressions such as pater familias . In the plural, Latin has the ending -um <-om . The a / o -stems have taken over the endings of the pronouns in the plural (for example: illorum "von those, Gen. Pl. Mask." - dominorum "der Herren", Gen. Pl. Mask.).

The genitive can appear in the following case functions:

construction	Latin example	translation
Genitivus subjectivus	cupid patris	the love of the father
Genitive objectivus	cupid patris	love for the father
Genitivus possessivus (genitive of possession)	domus patris	the father's house
	Domus patris est.	The house belongs to the father. (predictive use)
Genitivus qualitatis (genitive of property, quality)	puer novem annorum	a nine year old boy
	Amicus erat corporis parvi.	The friend was of short build. (predictive use)
Genitivus pretii (genitive of value or price indication)	aestimare parvi	consider it of little value
Genitivus partitivus (totius) (genitive of the part or the divided whole)	multum laboris	Much effort
Genitivus explicativus (genitive for a more detailed definition of a general term)	verbum libertatis	the word "freedom"
Genitive object (for verbs of remembrance and forgetting, of judicial action and for impersonal verbs of expression of feeling)	noli oblivisci mei	Do not forget me!
	aliquem stultitiae arguere	accuse someone of stupidity
	me taedet istius sermonis	this chatter disgusts me
Genitive depending on some adjectives (eager, knowledgeable, thoughtful, partaking, powerful, full and with their opposites)	cupidus contionis	quarrelsome
	ignarus linguae Latinae	without knowledge of Latin
	expers rationis	without reason

dative

The dative occurs as a direction or receiver in the dative object (indirect object). In the singular it is usually given by the ending -i (e.g. rei , portui , turri , plebi , capiti ), in the a / o stems by -ae (e.g. dominae ) or -o (e.g. B. domino ).

In the plural, the a / o stems contain -is , otherwise - (i) bus (e.g. dominis , rebus , portibus , turribus , plebibus , capitibus ). However, since, for example, dominis can be both the dative of dominus and that of domina , in these and similar cases the ending -abus is occasionally found for the a -trunks ( e.g. deis deabusque "the gods and goddesses"). → u -trunks originally had the ending -ubus , which has been preserved among others in arcubus , artubus , tribubus .

In the dative singular there is Latin -i <- * ei ; among the o tribes, Old Latin -oi became -o . The plural is Latin -bus <- * bhjos .

accusative

The accusative occurs as an object of a verb ( direct object ) or with an accusative demanding preposition. It is used as the case of the direction after most prepositions and also forms free-standing directions (e.g. Romam proficisci "to break into Rome").

The accusative usually has the ending -m ( e.g. dominam , dominum , rem , portum , turrim , plebem ); in the plural it has the ending -s with elongation (e.g. dominas, dominos, res, portus, turris, plebes ). In later times i -stems also have the accusative plural -es . For all neuter, it is always the same as the nominative in the singular and plural.

Latin has kept the Indo-European accusative endings -m and -s unchanged.

ablative

In the Latin ablative are by Kasussynkretismus several older case collapsed: ablative, instrumental, locative. The functions that the ablative fulfills in Latin are correspondingly diverse. To avoid confusion, more prepositions are used, especially to express the locative. The ablative occurs as an adverbial term alone or with a preposition requiring the ablative. It has the three basic functions of means of action, accompaniment and separation.

The original ablative denotes a movement in space or time away from the corresponding noun, e.g. E.g .: a Romā "from Rome (away)", ab urbe conditā "since the foundation of the city (Rome)". The ablative as instrumental describes the use of an object, e.g. B .: gladiō pugnare "to fight with the sword". The ablative as locative describes a place in space or in time, e.g. E.g .: eo loco “in this place”, eo tempore “at this time”. Verbs used in business dealings have the ablativus pretii : denario "around a denarius".

In the singular it ends in the elongated stem vowel, the consonant stems have -e ( e.g . : domina , domino , re , portu , turri , plebe , cápite ). In the plural, its forms are always identical to the forms of the respective dative.

In Old Latin, the common singular ending was -d , for example med "von mir", lupod "vom Wolf" etc .; however, the ending -e in the singular of the consonant declination was originally the old locative ending .

vocative

The vocative is a direct address to a person (salutation case). It does not depend on the predicate and is therefore not a necessary part of a sentence.

Formation: Since the vocative has no relation to other parts of a sentence, it originally does not show a case ending. In Latin, the vocative has the same form as the nominative in almost all declensions, with the exception of the singular vocative of nouns and adjectives with the ending -us of the o -declination, which in the vocative becomes -e (ablaut). If a noun ends in -ius , the vocative ends in -i . Furthermore, meus “mein” (with a masculine noun) becomes mi in the vocative .

Examples:

• Quid fecit, senatores ? - What did he do, senators?
• Et tu, mi fili Brute ? - You too, my son Brutus?
• Quo vadis, Marce ? - Where are you going, Marcus?
• Quid facis, mi fili ? - What are you doing, my son?

Exceptions: The vocative of deus (god) is classically replaced by dive (vocative of divus "divine"). Because this is how Roman - i.e. pagan - gods were referred to, the vocative of Deus (God in the Judeo-Christian sense) is not like this, but mostly like the nominative. The on -i ending vocative of words on -ius is also found in -eius , -aius and -aeus : Pompei , Gai , Gnaei .

The Greek words inflected after the a -declination on -as like Aeneas form the vocative on -a , those on -es like Anchises, dynastes and those on -e like Andromede form the vocative on -e : Aenea, Anchise, dynaste, Andromede . However, these words often have "normal" Latin subsidiary forms such as Andromeda to Andromede and Anchisa to Anchises . Hercules is called Hercules , Hercule or Hercle , Jesus Jesus .

locative

The locative indicates the place of an event. Except for a few place names and a few other words (e.g. Romae “in Rome”, Deli “on Delos”, domi “at home”) it is replaced by the ablative of the place.

Examples of city names:

Declination class, number, gender	Nominativus	Locativus
1. Declination, Singular, Feminine	Roma Sinopa et al. Sinope	Romae Sinopae
1. Declension, plural, feminine	Athenae	Athenis
2. Declination, Singular, Feminine	Corinthus et al. Corinthos	Corinthi
2. Declination, singular, neuter	Londinium	Londinii
2. Declension, plural, masculine	Puteoli Delphi	Puteolis Delphis
2. Declension, plural, neuter	Hierosolyma	Hierosolymis
3. Declination, Singular, Feminine	Carthage	Carthagine, also Carthagini
3. Declination, Singular, Feminine	Neapolis	Neapoli
3. Declension, plural, feminine	Gades et al. Gadis Andes	Gadibus Andibus

The old Latin locative was Romai and Deloi . It also existed in other parent classes. Remnants of the old locative are also preserved in adverbs frozen words like ibi (there).

Declinations (classes / tribes)

The nouns are divided into five so-called declinations according to the five main patterns of their inflection ( declination ). These are traditionally either numbered consecutively (1st, 2nd, 3rd declination, etc.) or named after the (original) stem ending, which is, however, merged with the earlier ending in classical Latin. Therefore, for example, the first declination is also referred to as a -declination or speaks of the "a-stems".

The 3rd declination class is an exception in more than one respect, in which earlier consonant stems and i -stems coincide, whereby it can generally be stated that the consonant stems of nouns become more and more common over time.

overview

declination	1. Declination	2. Declination	3. Declination			4. Declination	5. Declination
tribe	a declination	o-declination	Consonant declination	Mixed tribes	i tribes	u declination	e-declination
example	domina, -ae f. "The mistress"	dominus, -i m. "the gentleman"	mercator, -oris m. "the businessman"	navis, -is f. "the ship"	turris, -is f. "the tower"	portus, -us m. "the harbor"	res, rei f. "The thing"
Singular
Nominative	domin a	domin us *	mercātor	nāv is	turr is	port us	r ēs
Genitive	domin ae	domin ī	mercātōr is	nāv is	turr is	port ūs	r eī **
dative	domin ae	domin ō	mercātōr ī	nāv ī	turr ī	port uī	r eī **
accusative	domin on	domin around	mercātōr em	nāv em	turr in	port around	r em
ablative	domin ā	domin ō	mercātōr e	nāv e	turr ī	port ū	r ē
Plural
Nominative	domin ae	domin ī	mercātōr ēs	nāv ēs	turr ēs	port ūs	r ēs
Genitive	domin ārum	domin ōrum	mercātōr around	nāv ium	turr ium	port uum	r ērum
dative	domin īs	domin īs	Mercator ibus	NAV ibus	Turr ibus	port ibus	r ēbus
accusative	domin ās	domin ōs	mercātōr ēs	nāv ēs (nav īs )	turr īs	port ūs	r ēs
ablative	domin īs	domin īs	Mercator ibus	NAV ibus	Turr ibus	port ibus	r ēbus

** Masculina of -us still have a vocative on -e> domin e !

** For words that end in iēs , it is in the genitive and dative singular -ēī instead of -eī , e.g. B. nominative diēs and genitive and dative diēī .

The following deviations apply to regular neutrals:

declination	o-declination	consonantic	i-declination	u declination
Singular
Nominative / accusative	dōn um	os	mar e	corn ū
dative				corn ū
Plural
Nominative / accusative	dōn a	oss a	mar ia	corn et al

Nouns of the so-called mixed declination have the same forms as those of the i -declination, but in the accusative and ablative they have the same endings as those of the consonantic declension. The vast majority of nouns with the nominative singular ending -is belong to the mixed declension.

The declination patterns above apply to the vast majority of Latin nouns, but there are numerous special cases and exceptions. The most common irregularities arise from the following phenomena:

• special spelling ( e.g. rex "king" instead of * regs, lux "light" instead of * lucs )
• Ablaut (e.g .: hom o - hom i nis "human", cap u t - cap i tis "head")
• Failure d and t before s or after the consonant at the end of a word, such as laus - laudis "praise", sors - sortis "fate", cor - cordis "heart", lac - lactis "milk"
• Failure of n in the nominative for masculine and feminine ( e.g. sanguis - sanguinis "blood", ordo - ordinis "order")
• Rhotazism (conversion from s to r , e.g .: corpus - corporis "body", honos - honoris "honor", ius - iuris "right")
• Conversion of e / o and i / u ( e.g. miles - militis "soldier", cinis - cineris "ash", mare - maris "sea", robur - roboris "force")
• s in the nominative singular after m (due to failure of the p , e.g. hiems - hiemis "winter").

First declination (a declination)

The first declension includes feminines that end in -a in the nominative singular , for example domina "Herrin".

domina, ae f. "The mistress"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	domin a	domin ae
Genitive	domin ae	domin arum
dative	domin ae	domin īs
accusative	domin on	domin as
ablative	domin ā	domin īs

Particularities:

• Male people are always masculine. Example: agricola "farmer".
• Some Greek loanwords have the nominative ending -ās , for example Aeneas (the vocative is Aenea and the accusative is also Aenean ), -ēs, for example cometes , or -ē , for example Andromede .
• Archaic endings have been preserved in some words, such as -as in the genitive singular in pater familias “family father ” and -abus in the dative and ablative plural deabus “the goddesses”.

Second declination (o-declination)

The second declension contains masculine, feminine and neutral nouns, for example the masculine dominus "Herr", the feminine mālus "apple tree" and the neuter templum "temple".

dominus, i m. "the gentleman" number Singular Plural Nominative domin us domin i Genitive domin i domin orum dative domin o domin is accusative domin around domin os vocative domin e domin i ablative domin o domin is

templum, i n. "the temple" number Singular Plural Nominative templ at templ a Genitive templ i templ orum dative templ o templ is accusative templ at templ a ablative templ o templ is

In Classical Latin, not too much has been preserved from the o of the o -declination: first, -os and -om were changed to -us and -um , and second, the old Latin diphthong -oi was changed to -i . The vocative ending -e is the Indo-European ablaut for the stem vowel o .

The 2nd declension also includes nouns with the nominative singular ending in - (e) r , such as: puer "Junge" or ager "Land, Acker". They only deviate from the normal schema in the nominative and vocative singular. Some of these nouns can lose the -e- in their declination (it is an auxiliary vowel in this case). E.g . : ager, which in the Acc.Sg. only means agr-um :

puer, i m. "the boy" number Singular Plural Nominative puer puer i Genitive puer i puer orum dative puer o puer is accusative puer around puer os ablative puer o puer is

ager, i m. "the field" number Singular Plural Nominative ager agr i Genitive agr i agr orum dative agr o agr is accusative agr around agr os ablative agr o agr is

Particularities:

• Nouns that end in -ius , especially proper names such as Claudius , have -i instead of -ii in the genitive singular . The vocative ends in -i .
• The masculine locus "place" also forms the nominative and accusative plural loca , thus in the manner of a neuter.
• deus "God" has nominative and vocative plural di , dative and ablative plural dis , as genitive plural occasionally deûm , as well as several other forms in different cases.
• The ending genitive plural -um or with signs of contraction (signum contractionis) -ûm appears occasionally, for example triumvirum or triumvirûm instead of triumvirorum or templa deum or templa deûm instead of templa deorum "the temple of the gods".
• humus "earth", "soil", atomus "atom" and some other words are feminine; vulgus "people" and virus "poison" are neuter.

Third declension (consonantic, mixed and i-declination)

In this class the consonantic declination, the i-declination and a mixed type (mixed declination or mixed declination) of both are combined. The third declension is a very extensive declension. It includes nouns of all genera. In contrast to the first and second declension, it is almost impossible to derive the gender of a word from its nominative form, since the number of exceptions to the frequently read “rules” is considerable.

Another special feature is that the form of the nominative singular in a large number of words looks different from the stem of the other cases. Very often one cannot deduce the stem of the other cases from the nominative singular (and vice versa). The numerous rules stated as "helpful" for this only apply to small groups of words.

mercator, oris m. "the businessman" number Singular Plural Nominative mercator mercator it Genitive mercator is mercator around dative mercator i mercator ibus accusative mercator em mercator it ablative mercator e mercator ibus

merces, edis f. "the salary" number Singular Plural Nominative merces merced it Genitive merced is merced around dative merced i merced ibus accusative merced em merced it ablative merced e merced ibus

corpus, oris n. "the body" number Singular Plural Nominative corpus corpor a Genitive corpor is corpor around dative corpor i corpor ibus accusative corpus corpor a ablative corpor e corpor ibus

As always in the Indo-European languages, the nominative and accusative are identical in the neuter.

The i-declension only includes a few feminine nouns and a number of neutras, such as E.g .: mare  "sea". All these nouns are characterized by the genitive plural on -ium , the ablative singular on -i , the accusative plural on -is  (next to -es ), or the nominative / accusative plural on -ia for neutrals .

turris, is f. "the tower"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	turr is	turr it or turr is
Genitive	turr is	turr ium
dative	turr i	Turr ibus
accusative	turr in	turr it or turr is
ablative	turr i	Turr ibus

Wish list for the feminine of the i-declension:

febris, sitis, turris, puppis, vis, securis

vis is usually only used in the singular in the nominative, accusative and ablative (vis, vim, vi) .

mare, is n. "the sea"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	mare	mar ia
Genitive	mar is	mar ium
dative	mar i	mar ibus
accusative	mare	mar ia
ablative	mar i	mar ibus

A catchword for the neuter of the i-declination:

Area, d. h .: nouns ending in -ar , -e or -al . - Examples: exempl ar "example", mar e "sea", anim al "living being".

The words of the mixed class - such as: navis "ship" - have the same endings as the i-stems, but the ablative singular on -i and the accusative plural on -is are used increasingly less from the classical period.

navis, is f. "the ship"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	nav is	nav it
Genitive	nav is	nav ium
dative	nav i	nav ibus
accusative	nav em	nav it
ablative	nav e or nav i	nav ibus

Fourth declination (u-declination)

Most nouns of the fourth declension with the nominative singular -us are masculine, for example casus "Fall". Exceptions are, for example, the feminina domus ("house") and manus "hand".

casus, us m. "the case"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	cas us	cas us
Genitive	cas us	cas uum
dative	cas ui	cas ibus
accusative	cas around	cas us
ablative	cas u	cas ibus

Remarks:

• Sometimes there is also an old genitive in -uis (e.g. senatuis to senatus ) and a dative in -u (e.g. exercitu to exercitus ).

The neuter of the 4th declension are in the nominative and accusative singular on -u , for example genu "Knie". Otherwise they differ from masculine words in that the dative singular ends in -u . In addition - as with the other neutrals - nominative and accusative are identical and nominative and accusative plural end in - (u) a .

genu, us n. "the knee"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	gen u	gen et al
Genitive	gen us	gen Sandwich Islands
dative	gen u	gen ibus
accusative	gen u	gen et al
ablative	gen u	gen ibus

Annotation:

• In some grammar books from the 17th, 18th and early 19th centuries, the genitive is given with -u (instead of -us ), which is also used with the word cornu .
• In some grammar books from the 21st century the dative -ui is used instead of or next to -u .

Karl Gottlob Zumpt wrote: “Formerly, the neuter were written on u as indeclinabilia in the Singul. specified, but recent studies [...] oblige, especially in the genitive subject us to depart from this opinion. […] The dative ui is also cited by an old grammarian ( Martian. Capella lib. 3), but only cornu from Liv can be proven . 42, 58 [.] "

Particularities:

• The noun domus “house” has taken over the forms of the o-declension in some cases: genitive plural domorum , ablative singular domo , accusative plural domos . The locative is domi "at home".
• Some nouns have the ending -ubus in the dative and ablative plural , for example tribubus to tribus "district".

Fifth declination (e-declination)

Almost all fifth declension nouns are feminine, for example res "thing", "matter", "event".

The Indo-European nouns in diphthong belong to the e-declension.

res, rei f. "The thing"

number	Singular	Plural
Nominative	r it	r it
Genitive	r ei	r erum
dative	r ei	r ebus
accusative	r em	r it
ablative	r e	r ebus

Particularities:

• Masculine exceptions are the "day", "date" (also feminine) and meridies , meridiei "lunch". There are no neutras.
• this as feminine has the specific meaning “deadline”, “deadline”, thus certa the “on a certain date”.

Adjectives

In Latin, adjectives , like nouns, are differentiated in case, number and gender. They adapt all three properties to the noun to which they refer ( KNG congruence ).

A distinction is also made between so-called three-ended, two-ended and one-ended adjectives in the declination patterns of adjectives.

• The three-ended adjectives have different forms for masculine, feminine and neuter. These appear in the dictionary with the nominative singular of masculine, feminine and neuter, for example magnus, a, around "tall" or celer, eris, ere "quickly".
• In the case of the two-ended adjectives , masculine and feminine coincide, in the dictionary the nominative singular of masculine / feminine and neuter are given accordingly, an example is hilaris, e "cheerful".
• The single-ended adjectives have no distinction according to gender in the nominative singular , in the dictionary they appear with nominative and genitive singular, for example felix, icis "happy". Other case and number than the nominative singular can have different gender forms, so felix has masculine and feminine felicem in the accusative singular , but felix in the neuter .

a and o declination

The adjectives on -us (masculine), -a (feminine) and -um (neutral) correspond to the nouns of the a- and o-declensions and have three ends:

magnus, -a, -um "large"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	magn us	magn a	magn around	magn i	magn ae	magn a
Genitive	magn i	magn ae	magn i	magn orum	magn arum	magn orum
dative	magn o	magn ae	magn o	magn is
accusative	magn around	magn am	magn around	magn os	magn as	magn a
ablative	magn o	magn a	magn o	magn is
vocative	magn e	magn a	-	magn i	magn ae	-

Analogous to the nouns of the o-declension, there are also adjectives of the o-declension with the ending -er , for example niger, nigra, nigrum "black":

niger, -gra, -grum "black"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	Niger	nigr a	nigr around	nigr i	nigr ae	nigr a
Genitive	nigr i	nigr ae	nigr i	nigr orum	nigr arum	nigr orum
dative	nigr o	nigr ae	nigr o	nigr is
accusative	nigr around	nigr am	nigr around	nigr os	nigr as	nigr a
ablative	nigr o	nigr a	nigr o	nigr is

The vocative corresponds to the nominative. Some of the adjectives on -er keep (analogous to puer "Knabe") the ending in all case forms, for example liber, libera, liberum "frei" or miser, misera, miserum "unhappy".

Third declension adjectives

The basic declination pattern of the third declension adjectives is as follows:

number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	Masculine form	Feminine form	Neutral form	- it		- ia
Genitive	- is			- ium
dative	- i			- ibus
accusative	- em		= Neutral form nominative	- it ( is )		- ia
ablative	- i			- ibus

The vocative corresponds to the nominative. Accordingly, three-, two- and one-ended adjectives of the 3rd declension differ only in the nominative singular and the accusative singular of the neuter.

The nominative singular of some adjectives can have a special form that deviates from the stem of the other case forms, an example is the three-ended acer, acr is , acr e "sharp" (here the masculine deviates from the stem acr ) as well as many of the single-ended adjectives, zum Example felix , felicis "successful". Some adjectives inflect purely consonant, e.g. B. vetus, veter is "old" or dives, divit is "rich".

Thirty celeris, e "fast" number Singular Plural genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative celer celer is celer e celer it celer ia Genitive celer is celer ium dative celer i celer ibus accusative celer em celer e celer it ( is ) celer ia ablative celer i celer ibus

Two-ended hilaris, e "cheerful", "happy" number Singular Plural genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative hilar is hilar e hilar it hilar ia Genitive hilar is hilar ium dative hilar i hilar ibus accusative hilar em hilar e hilar it ( is ) hilar ia ablative hilar i hilar ibus

Unanimously felix, icis "happy" number Singular Plural genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative felix felic it felic ia Genitive felic is felic ium dative felic i felic ibus accusative felic em felix felic it ( is ) felic ia ablative felic i felic ibus

Increase ( comparison )

In addition to the basic level of adjectives (the positive) there are in Latin - as in German -:

• the comparative (the higher / comparison level) - both as a relative and as an absolute comparative - as well as
• the superlative (the highest level) - both as a relative and as an absolute superlative.

To form these forms, the following are added to the root:

• in the comparative -ior (m./f.), -ius (n.) and
• in the superlative -issimus, -a, -um .

comparative

In order to form the comparative, the comparative endings have to be added to the root of the adjective. For the masculine and feminine forms, -ior is added, for the neutral forms -ius . For example, the positive durus, -a, -um “hard” becomes the comparative durior, -ius “harder”. The comparative forms are declined similarly to the r-stems of the third declension.

durior, -ius "harder"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	dur ior		dur ius	dur iores		dur iora
Genitive	dur ioris			dur iorum
dative	dur iori			dur ioribus
accusative	dur iorem		durius	dur iores		dur iora
ablative	dur iore			dur ioribus

superlative

The superlative is the highest form of increase. In order to form the superlative, the superlative endings must be added to the root of the adjective: -issimus, -issima, -issimum. In their endings they correspond to the adjectives of the a and o declination and are also declined in the same way:

durissimus, -a, -um "hardest", "very hard"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	dur issimus	dur issima	dur issimum	dur issimi	dur issimae	dur issima
Genitive	dur issimi	dur issimae	dur issimi	dur issimorum	dur issimarum	dur issimorum
dative	dur issimo	dur issimae	dur issimo	dur issimis
accusative	dur issimum	dur issimam	dur issimum	dur issimos	dur issimas	dur issima
ablative	dur issimo	dur issima	dur issimo	dur issimis

Particularities:

• With adjectives ending in -er , the superlative is formed with -rimus , -rima , -rimum , for example zu miser the superlative miserrimus .
• Some adjectives ending in -lis form the superlative on -limus , -lima , -limum , for example the superlative facillimus for facilis .

Irregular forms of increase

Like German, Latin also knows irregular forms of increasing adjectives. These include forms such as:

positive	comparative	superlative	translation
bonus	melior	optimus	well, better, the best
malus	peior	pessimus	bad, worse, the worst
magnus	maior	maximus	big, bigger, the greatest
parvus	minor	minimus	small, smaller, the smallest
multum	plus	plurimum	much, more, most of it
multi	plures	plurimi	many, several, most

Pronouns

Pronouns are declinable words (nouns in the broadest sense) that take the place of nouns (pro nomine substantivo) . Latin distinguishes between the following types of pronouns: personal pronouns , possessive pronouns , reflexive pronouns , demonstrative pronouns , interrogative pronouns , relative pronouns

The declension of the many Latin pronouns shows some irregularities, especially in the nominative as well as in the genitive singular (which here often ends in -ius ) and dative singular (which here often ends in -i ).

Personal pronouns (1st and 2nd person)

The first and second person of the personal pronoun are as follows:

	1st person		2nd person
	I ...	we ...	you ...	you …
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Nominative	ego	nos	tū	vōs
Genitive	my	nostri / nostrum	tui	vestri / vestrum
dative	mihi	nōbīs	tibi	vōbīs
accusative	mē	nos	tē	vōs
vocative	——	——	tū	vōs
ablative	mē (cum)	nōbīs (cum)	tē (cum)	vōbīs (cum)

Personal / demonstrative pronouns

is , ea , id has the function of the third person of the personal pronoun when it is in a sentence without a reference word (translated as “he / she / it”). In this function, the pronoun occurs relatively rarely. It has the function of a demonstrative pronoun (translated as “der / die / das” or “this / this / this”) if it is placed in front of a reference word.

is, ea, id "the", "the one", "he"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	is	ea	id	egg	eae	ea
Genitive	eius			eorum	earum	eorum
dative	egg			ice
accusative	eum	eam	id	eos	eas	ea
ablative	eo	ea	eo	ice

Demonstrative pronouns

hic , haec , hoc has the function of describing the temporal and spatial proximity (in communication situations: to the speaker). One also speaks of Nahdeixis (see Deixis ).

hic, haec, hoc "this one (here)"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	hic	haec	hoc	Hi	hae	haec
Genitive	huius			horum	harum	horum
dative	huic			his
accusative	hunc	hanc	hoc	hos	has	haec
ablative	hoc	hac	hoc	his

illegal , illa , illud the opposite function of describing the temporal and spatial distance (distant deixis). In addition, illegal also refers to what has already been said or known ( illegal Seneca = “the” Seneca, namely the philosopher that everyone knows).

illegal, illa, illud "that (there)"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	ill e	ill a	ill ud	ill i	ill ae	ill a
Genitive	ill ius			ill orum	ill arum	ill orum
dative	ill i			ill is
accusative	ill um	ill am	ill ud	ill os	ill as	ill a
ablative	ill o	ill a	ill o	ill is

iste , ista , istud in communication situations refers to someone / something close to what is being addressed; sometimes it has a derogatory sense ("that one").

iste, ista, istud "this (there)"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	is e	is a	is ud	is i	is ae	is a
Genitive	is ius			is orum	is arum	is orum
dative	is i			is is
accusative	is over	is on	is ud	is os	is as	is a
ablative	is o	is a	is o	is is

ipse , ipsa , ipsum is also stronger than is , ea , id . They highlight a person.

ipse, ipsa, ipsum "yourself, personally"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	ips e	ips a	ips around	ips i	ips ae	ips a
Genitive	ips ius			ips orum	ips arum	ips orum
dative	ips i			ips is
accusative	ips around	ips am	ips around	ips os	ips as	ips a
ablative	ips o	ips a	ips o	ips is

idem , eadem , idem with the translation “same” has a retroactive effect on a person who appears again.

idem, eadem, idem "the same, the same"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	idem	eadem	idem	eidem (iidem)	eaedem	eadem
Genitive	eiusdem			eorundem	earundem	eorundem
dative	eidem			ice dem (iisdem)
accusative	eundem	andem	idem	eosdem	easdem	eadem
ablative	eodem	eadem	eodem	ice dem (iisdem)

reflexive pronouns

	-, oneself …
Nominative	-
Genitive	sui
dative	sibi
accusative	sē, sēsē
ablative	sē, sēsē

Interrogative pronouns

Noun usage:

	Who? m./f.	What? n.
	Singular
Nominative	quis	quid
Genitive	cuius	cuius
dative	cuī	cuī
accusative	quem	quid
ablative	quō	quō

relative pronoun

The adjectival interrogative pronoun qui , quae , quod also serves as a relative pronoun in Latin. It can also be at the beginning of a sentence and then refers to a noun in the preceding sentence.

qui, quae, quod "the one who"
number	Singular			Plural
genus	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.	Mask.	Fem.	Neut.
Nominative	qui	quae	quod	qui	quae	quae
Genitive	cuius			quorum	quarum	quorum
dative	cui			quibus
accusative	quem	quam	quod	quos	quas	quae
ablative	quo	qua	quo	quibus (quis)

Numerals

→ Main article : Latin numerals

Basic numbers and ordinal numbers

Base number Atomic number 1 I. unus, una, unum primus 2 II duo, duae, duo secundus 3 III tres, tria tertius 4th IIII (IV) quattuor quartus 5 V quinque quintus 6th VI sex sextus 7th VII septem séptimus 8th VIII octo octávus 9 VIIII (IX) novem nonus 10 X decem decimus

Base number Atomic number 11 XI undecim undecimus 12 XII duodecim duodecimus 13 XIII tredecim tertius decimus 14th XIV quattuordecim quartus decimus 15th XV quindecim quintus decimus 16 XVI sedecim sextus decimus 17th XVII septendecim septimus decimus 18th XVIII duodeviginti duodevicesimus 19th XIX undeviginti undevicesimus 20th XX viginti vicesimus

Base number Atomic number 30th XXX triginta tricesimus 40 XL quadraginta quadragesimus 50 L. quinquaginta quinquagesimus 60 LX sexaginta sexagesimus 70 LXX septuaginta septuagesimus 80 LXXX octoginta octogesimus 90 XC nonaginta nonagesimus 100 C. centum centesimus 500 D. quingenti quingentesimus 1000 M. mille millesimus

Particularities:

• Multi-digit numbers are composed by the tens number preceded by or with either et is connected, so viginti unus or unus et viginti for "21", or Vicesimus primus or unus et Vicesimus for "the 21HP".
• Numbers 8 or 9 in the last place are usually put together by subtraction: un de triginta for "29" or duo de triginta for "28".

Declination of numerals

The following numerals are inflected:

• unus, una, unum " ein, eine, ein " corresponding to the singular of the o-declension of the adjectives except for the dative and genitive.
• duo, duae, duo "two" and ambo, ambae, ambo "both" are inflected irregularly. Sometimes older dual endings , otherwise extinct in inflection, are used.
• Hundreds of ducenti, -ae, -a to nongenti, -ae, -a are regularly inflected after the plural a / o declension.
• mille "thousand" is a singular, undeclinable adjective. However, it has the regular, single-ended plural form milia or millia , which is inflected according to the 3rd declension plural neuter.
• The ordinal numbers are inflected like adjectives of the a / o declination (-us, -a, -um) .
• The number adjectives simplex, -icis "single", duplex, -icis "double", triplex, -icis "triple" and multiplex, -icis "multiple" are also inflected .
• The number nouns unio, -ionis "the one", binio, -ionis "the two" etc. are also inflected .

unus, una, unum "one, one, one (it)" number Singular genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative un us un a and around Genitive un ius dative un i accusative and around un am and around vocative un e un a and around ablative un o un a un o

duo, duae, duo "two" number Plural genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative you o you ae you o Genitive you orum (duûm) you arum you orum (duûm) dative you obus you abus you obus accusative you o (s) you as you o vocative you o you ae you o ablative you obus you abus you obus

tres, tria "three" number Plural genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative tr it (tr is ) tr ia Genitive tr ium dative tr ibus accusative tr it (tr is ) tr ia vocative tr it (tr is ) tr ia ablative tr ibus

mille "thousand" number Plural genus Mask. Fem. Neut. Nominative mil ia (mill ia ) Genitive mil ium (mill ium ) dative mil ibus (mill ibus ) accusative mil ia (mill ia ) vocative mil ia (mill ia ) ablative mil ibus (mill ibus )

Adverbs

An adverb can be formed in three different ways, depending on the adjective from which it is derived. If the adjective is one of the a- and o-declension, such as B .: durus "hart", the adverb is formed on "-e": dure . If the adjective is one of the third declension, for example: hilaris "cheerful", the adverb is formed from "- (i) ter": hilariter . And if the stem of the adjective is "-nt", such as B .: vehemens "wild" (genitive singular: vehementis ), then "-er" is used: vehemently . Exceptions are e.g. B. the adjectives facilis (adverb: facile ) and difficilis (adverb: difficulter ). However, these are noted in every common dictionary.

Adverbs cannot be inflected. They therefore do not change their shape.

increase

comparative

The comparative of adverbs, like the nominative singular neuter comparative of adjectives, is formed with the ending "-ius", which is added to the root of the word: dure "hard", durius "harder" or hilariter "happy", hilarius "happy" .

superlative

The superlative of the adverbs is formed with the ending “-e”, which is added to the superlative stem of the adjective: durissimus (“hardest”, adjective in the nominative singular masculine) becomes durissime (“hardest”, adverb). This is the same with the other adjective forms.

Irregular forms of increase

The adverbs also have irregular forms of intensification, such as:

positive	comparative	superlative	translation
level	melius	optime	good, better, the best
times	peius	pessime	bad worse worst
valde / magnopere	magis	maxim	very
multum	plus	plurim around	much, more, most
paulum	minus	minime	little, less, the least
saepe	saepius	saepissime	often

There is no adjective of saepe.

Verbs

Determination of verbs

Latin and German verbs come in finite ([with regard to person-number] certain) and infinite ([with regard to person-number] undefined) forms.

The finite verb forms can be conjugated ([with regard to tense, mode, person etc.] changed, inflected),
for example: voc-o , “ich ruf-e”; voca-s , "you call-st"; voca-t , "he ruf-t" etc.

They are used as predicates .

Verb morphology

The verbs in Latin change morphologically. They can be conjugated according to the following categories:

• Person: first, second and third person
• Number: singular and plural
• Diathesis : active and (medio) passive
• Tense : present tense , past tense , perfect , past perfect , future tense , perfect-Futur and some composite Times
• Mode : indicative , subjunctive , imperative

Latin verbs are synthetic in all active forms as well as in the present, past and future tense (i.e. the forms of the present stem). H. Formed without auxiliary verbs and only using grammatical educational morphemes. Only in the passive of the perfect, past perfect and perfect-future tense as well as in the so-called periphrastic tenses does an analytical formation take place, as in German, by means of a participle and the auxiliary verb esse (sein). In contrast to the general synthetic character of Latin (see below), there is an analytical tendency here. Unlike in German, the auxiliary verb “haben” (habere) is never used. Latin verbs consist of a verb stem (present, perfect or supine stem), possibly provided with a verbal prefix, a tense and mode sign, which indicates the tense and mode and which follows or replaces the stem-ending vowel, as well as - except in the infinitive forms - a personal extension that simultaneously shows person, number and diathesis.

The following table shows the structure of Latin verbs based on some selected forms of the verb amare (to love).

		meaning	tribe	Tense / mode signs	Person, number, diathesis
Present stem	1st person singular present indicative active	I am in love	on (a) -	-	-o (-a- + -o to o)
	2nd person singular present subjunctive active	you love / you may love	on (a) -	-e-	-s
	2nd person plural imperfect subjunctive active	you loved / you would love	ama-	-re-	-tis
	1st person plural future indicative passive	we will be loved	ama-	-bi-	-mur
Perfect stem	1st person singular perfect indicative active	I loved / I loved	amav-	-	-i
	2nd person singular perfect subjunctive active	you loved	amav-	-eri-	-s
	3rd person plural past perfect indicative active	they had loved	amav-	-era-	-nt

The table shows that the middle position between stem and personal ending is occupied by the tense and modus morpheme, while the last position is reserved for the suffix, which simultaneously indicates person, number and diathesis. In the present and perfect indicative, the tense sign is a null morpheme (the position is therefore not occupied). In some future and subjunctive forms, the stem vowel is replaced by a different vowel depending on the declension class.

Conjugation classes

According to the end of the stem, there are five conjugation classes in the present or basic stem (a-, e- and consonantic, ĭ- and i-conjugation).

If you look in a Latin dictionary, it looks something like this:

a: vocare, voco, vocavi, vocatum; call , call

e: videre, video, vidi, visa: see

i: audire, audio, audivi, auditum; Listen

consonantic: agere, ago, egi, actum; act , drive

cons. with -i- in the present stem: capere, cap i o, cepi, captum; grasp , take

The first form gives the infinitive present, the second the 1st person singular present indicative active, the third the 1st person singular indicative perfect active, the fourth the supinum.

Tense and mode signs as well as floating vowels that appear according to certain rules are different between the conjugation classes in scheme (1), for example:

duc- e -t (3rd person singular indicative future tense I active from ducere "to lead")

lauda- bi -t (the same as laudare "to praise")

There are also some irregular verbs, e.g. B .:

es-t (3rd person singular present indicative active of esse "to be")

su-nt (the same in the plural).

Finite verb forms

See also : List of Latin verb endings

They are marked according to person , number , mode , tense and diathesis . As in English, there are three persons, two numbers (singular and plural), three modes (indicative, subjunctive and imperative), eight tenses in the indicative ( present tense , past tense , future tense , perfect , past perfect , future tense II ), immediate future tense, past of the immediate future and two diatheses (active and passive). Tense and mode use differ from German; the translations given below are therefore only examples.

Educational schemes

The finite verb forms are formed according to three schemes:

Finite present stem forms: present tense, past tense and future tense I.

According to the scheme: present tense stem - tense or mode sign - personal ending - diathesis marking (active / passive), e.g. B .:

dele-Ø * -t (3rd person singular present indicative active of "destroy")

dele-ba-t (same in the imperfect indicative )

dele-ba-tur (same in the indicative past tense passive)

dele-a-tur (3rd person singular present subjunctive passive)

dele-re-t (3rd person singular subjunctive imperfect active)

dele-bi-t (3rd person singular indicative future I active)

dele-bi-tur (3rd person singular indicative future tense I passive)

*) Ø = null morpheme (ellipsis)

In the imperative, the special personal ending signals the mode: In the singular dele! (destroy!) and in the plural dele-te! (destroyed!). The negative imperative is usually paraphrased: either with the negative particle ne and the subjunctive perfect or by noli / nolite (“want / don't want”) plus the infinitive.

The future tense I is the only form in the Latin present stem that does not have a subjunctive. This is partly compensated for by the past participle Future I Active (PFA).

Finite active perfect stem forms: active forms of perfect, past perfect and future tense II

According to the scheme: perfect stem (regularly or irregularly derived from the basic stem) - tense / modus characters - personal ending, for example:

delev-it (3rd person singular indicative perfect active)

Delev-isse-t (the same in the subjunctive pluperfect )

delev-eri-t (same in the indicative future II)

Finite active analytical forms: immediate future and its past

According to the scheme: participle future active ( supine stem + -ur- + gender ending) and present or past tense form of esse "sein", z. B .:

delet-ur-us est (3rd person singular indicative immediate future tense active masculine) "he is about to destroy"

delet-ur-us erat (same thing in the past)

Finite passive analytical forms: perfect, past perfect and future II passive

According to the scheme: past participle passive ( supine stem + gender ending) and present, past or future tense of esse "sein", z. B .:

deletus est (3rd person singular indicative perfect passive masculine)

deletus erit (the same in the indicative future tense II)

deletus esset (the same in the subjunctive past perfect )

Future II is the only form in the Latin perfect stem that does not have a subjunctive.

Inflection according to the individual grammatical categories

Person and number

The two categories person and number are self-explanatory and essentially correspond to the usage in German. In the verb itself, Latin makes no distinction between formal and informal speech (“you” and “you”). People in higher positions were also addressed in the second person singular.

In the case of personal endings, a distinction must be made between present stem and perfect stem as well as active and passive:

		active		passive
		Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
Present stem	1st person	–Ō, –m	- mus	-Or, -r	–Mur
	2nd person	–S	–Tis	–Ris	-mini
	3rd person	–T	–Nt	-door	–Ntur
Perfect stem	1st person	–Ī	-Imus
	2nd person	–Istī	–Istis
	3rd person	–It	–Ērunt (-ēre)

Tense

Present, past tense and future tense are formed from the present tense stem, perfect, past perfect and future tense II from the perfect stem. In this distinction between the present and the perfect stem, an echo of the distinction between the perfective and the imperfectual aspect , which probably predominates on a fundamental level in the Indo-European proto-language , can be seen. In Latin, however, the focus is not on the aspect, but on the tense. So the perfect first and foremost denotes an action in the past and only secondarily a completed action.

The three tenses of the present stem roughly describe actions that are thought to be incomplete in the present (present tense), in the past (imperfect tense) or in the future (future tense). The perfect tense denotes an action that has already been completed in the present, the past perfect an action that was completed in the past before another action , the future tense II an action that will be completed at some point in the future.

The indicative present active is formed by adding the personal endings directly to the present stem. This category is thus characterized by a null morpheme.

The indicative past tense active is formed by the morphemes -ba- (1st and 2nd conjugation) or -êba- (3rd and 4th conjugation) plus personal endings (1st person singular -m instead of -ô !).

The indicative future active is made up of the morphemes -b (e, i, u) - (1st and 2nd conjugation) or -a, e- (3rd and 4th conjugation) plus personal endings (1st person singular -m instead of -ô !).

In the indicative perfect active, the personal endings of the perfect stem shown above appear directly next to them.

In the indicative past perfect active, the morpheme -erâ- occurs between the perfect stem and personal endings of the perfect.

In the indicative Future II Aktiv, the morphemes -erô / eri- occur between the perfect stem and personal endings of the perfect.

The following tables show the conjugation in the indicative in all six tenses in the active for all three persons and both numbers for the verbs amare (“love” - 1st conjugation), tenere (“hold” - 2nd conjugation), dicere (“say "- 3rd conjugation) and audire (" to hear "- 4th conjugation):

	Present active indicative
	amare		tenēre		dicere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	amo	amamus	teneo	tenemus	dico	dicimus	audio	audimus
2nd person	amas	amatis	tenes	tenetis	dicis	dicitis	audis	auditis
3rd person	amat	amant	tenet	tenent	dicit	dicunt	audit	audiunt

	Imperfect active indicative
	amare		tenēre		dicere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	amabam	amabamus	tenebam	tenebamus	dicebam	dicebamus	audiebam	audiebamus
2nd person	amabas	amabatis	tenebas	tenebatis	dicebas	dicebatis	audiebas	audiebatis
3rd person	amabat	amabant	tenebat	tenebant	dicebat	dicebant	audiebat	audiebant

	Future active indicative
	amare		tenēre		dicere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	amabo	amabimus	tenebo	tenebimus	dicam	dicemus	audiam	audiemus
2nd person	amabis	amabitis	tenebis	tenebitis	dices	dicetis	audies	audietis
3rd person	amabit	amabunt	tenebit	colorful	dicet	dicent	audiet	audient

	Perfectly active indicative
	amare		tenēre		dicere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	amavi	amavimus	tenui	tenuimus	dixi	diximus	audivi	audivimus
2nd person	amavisti	amavistis	tenuisti	tenuistis	dixisti	dixistis	audivisti	audivistis
3rd person	amavit	amaverunt	tenuit	tenuerunt	dixit	dixerunt	audivit	audiverunt

	Past perfect active indicative
	amare		tenēre		dicere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	amaveram	amaveramus	tenueram	tenueramus	dixeram	dixeramus	audiveram	audiveramus
2nd person	amaveras	amaveratis	tenueras	tenueratis	dixeras	dixeratis	audiveras	audiveratis
3rd person	amaverat	amaverant	tenuerat	tenuerant	dixerat	dixerant	audiverat	audiverant

	Future tense II active indicative
	amare		tenēre		dicere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	amavero	amaverimus	tenuero	tenuerimus	dixero	dixerimus	audivero	audiverimus
2nd person	amaveris	amaveritis	tenueris	tenueritis	dixeris	dixeritis	audiveris	audiveritis
3rd person	amaverite	amaverint	tenuerite	tenuerint	dixerit	dixerint	audiverit	audiverint

Formation of the perfect stem

Latin knows several ways of forming perfect stems. The most common form (especially 1st and 4th conjugation) is the v-perfect, in which the perfect stem is formed from the present stem by a morpheme -v- attached to it:

• amare (love), amavi (I loved)

In the u-perfect (the standard, but with significantly more exceptions, in the 2nd or e-conjugation), the derivation from the present tense is made using the morpheme -u- :

• monere (admonish), monui (I admonished)

In the s-perfect, the derivation from the present stem is done using the morpheme -s- :

• scribere (write), scripsi (I wrote)

With the stretch perfect, the perfect stem is formed by stretching the stem vowel:

• venire (come), vêni (I came)

A related form is the ablaut perfect:

• facere (do, do), fêci (I did)

Finally, some reduplication forms have also been preserved in Latin, in which the perfect stem is formed by reduplicating the first syllable. This perfect formation, which is still the rule in ancient Greek, is probably a relic from the Indo-European proto-language.

• currere (run), cucurri (I ran)

Some Latin present tense stems contain an n-infix, which is an old present tense morpheme that is no longer productive in Latin. This disappears when converted into the perfect stem:

• vincere (win), vîci (I won) (stretch perfect )

The perfect of esse (to be) is fui, fuisti… .

The perfect perfect of ferre (to wear) is tuli, tulisti… (participle latum ). This looks as if it came from the obviously related tollere (to cancel), which itself has the irregular perfect forms sustuli, sustulisti (participle sublatum ).

Also irregular is incipere (to begin), which is compounded with a prefix in the present stem, but does not form * incepi, but coepi, coepisti… in the perfect stem .

mode

In Latin as well as in German, there are three modes: indicative , subjunctive and imperative . The indicative describes actions that are thought to have actually taken place.

The imperative is the form of command that in Latin can be formed not only from the 2nd person singular and plural, but also from the two 3rd persons (although not in the present tense). The forms are in the active:

• 2nd person Sing .: - (e)
• 2nd / 3rd Pers. Sing .: -tô
• 2nd person Pl .: - (i) te , - (i) tôte
• 3rd person Pl .: (u) ntô

The passive forms are:

• 2nd person Sing .: - (e) right
• 2nd / 3rd Pers. Sing .: - (i) tor
• 2nd person Pl .: (i) mini
• 3rd person Pl .: (u) ntor

The passive forms are i. d. Usually only used for landfill (see below).

With the subjunctive or subjunctive, a distinction must be made between the use in main clauses and in subordinate clauses. If the present subjunctive is used in the main clause, it means above all

• a desire ( opt )
• an intended action / request ( adhortative )
• an order ( jussiv )

In addition, the subjunctive is used in the present tense or in one of the three past tense forms to denote actions in subordinate clauses, as is also the case in German.

Latin forms subjunctive forms from the following tenses:

• Present subjunctive
• Imperfect subjunctive
• Subjunctive perfect
• Subjunctive past perfect

The mode sign of the present subjunctive is a -e- for the 1st conjugation , which occurs between the verb stem and the personal ending instead of the stem ending -a- . The 2nd to 4th conjugation use the mode character -a- .

	Present active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portem	portēmus	terream	terreāmus	petam	petāmus	audiam	audiāmus
2nd person	portēs	portētis	terreās	terreātis	petās	petātis	audiās	audiātis
3rd person	portet	portent	terreat	terreant	petat	petant	audiat	audiant

The modal character of the imperfect subjunctive is -re / rê- . It occurs between the unchanged present stem and the personal ending of the present stem.

	Past tense active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portārem	portārēmus	terrērem	terrērēmus	peterem	peterēmus	audīrem	audīrēmus
2nd person	portārēs	portārētis	terrērēs	terrērētis	peterēs	peterētis	audīrēs	audīrētis
3rd person	portāret	portārent	terrēret	terrērent	peteret	peterent	audīret	audīrent

The mode sign of the subjunctive perfect is -eri / erî- . It occurs between perfect stem and personal endings of the perfect.

	Perfect active subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portāverim	portāverīmus	terruerim	terruerīmus	petīverim	petīverīmus	audīverim	audīverīmus
2nd person	portāverīs	portāverītis	terruerīs	terruerītis	petīverīs	petīverītis	audīverīs	audīverītis
3rd person	portāverit	portāverint	terruerit	terruerint	petīverit	petīverint	audīverit	audīverint

The subjunctive past perfect active uses the modal signs -isse / issê- , which occur between the perfect stem and personal endings of the perfect.

	Past perfect subjunctive active
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portāvissem	portāvissēmus	terruissem	terruissēmus	petīvissem	petīvissēmus	audīvissem	audīvissēmus
2nd person	portāvissēs	portāvissētis	terruissēs	terruissētis	petīvissēs	petīvissētis	audīvissēs	audīvissētis
3rd person	portāvisset	portāvissent	terruisset	terruissent	petīvisset	petīvissent	audīvisset	audīvissent

Diathesis

In diathesis , also known as the genus verbi, Latin differentiates between active and passive, the functions of which essentially correspond to those in German. An originally existing medium is still perceptible in some verbs ( lavari - to wash) and the dumpsters . These verbs have almost exclusively passive forms, but active, mostly reflexive meanings, for example mirari - to be surprised, uti - to make use of, potiri - to take hold. There are still a few semideponents in which the verbal stems are assigned differently to the diatheses, i.e. H. they have either an active present tense stem and a passive perfect stem (more common case) or a passive present tense stem and an active perfect stem (less common case).

The passive tense is formed in the present, past and future tense by adding the passive personal endings to the tense or mode signs. In these tenses, as for example in the North Germanic languages ​​and unlike in German, there is a synthetic formation of the passive. The following table shows the present passive in the indicative for all four declension classes. The synthetic liabilities of the other tenses and modes are formed in the same way, which is why they are not shown here.

	Present passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	porter	portamur	terreor	terrēmur	petor	petimur	audior	audīmur
2nd person	portāris	portāminī	terrēris	terrēminī	peteris	petiminī	audīris	audīminī
3rd person	portātur	portantur	terrētur	terrentur	petitur	petuntur	audītur	audiuntur

This article or section needs to be revised:

• "Objects of action", "object (s) in the masculine"
  Here's object meant in linguistic or general linguistic sense? Interpretation: The word should have been used here in the general language sense, which makes the text irritating.
• “In the masculine”
  This requires further explanation.
  In the case of “I have been beaten” and “you have been beaten” (perfect passive in German) the subject is me or you without consumption, i.e. not masculine. Is a male natural gender (male speaker or male addressee) assumed in these cases?
  Please help to improve it , and then remove this flag.

The passive voice is analytically formed in the perfect, past perfect and future II by combining the past participle passive (PPP) with the inflected forms of the auxiliary verb esse . Unlike in German, and as it is today, for example in Italian, the participle is declined according to number and gender - if, for example, the objects of the action are several women, the PPP receives the ending -ae . The following tables assume an object or objects in the masculine word.

Perfect passive indicative:

	Perfect passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portātus sum	portātī sumus	territus sum	territī sumus	petītus sum	petītī sumus	audītus sum	audītī sumus
2nd person	portātus it	portātī estis	territory it	territī estis	petītus it	petītī estis	audītus it	audītī estis
3rd person	portātus est	portātī sunt	territus est	territī sunt	petītus est	petītī sunt	audītus est	audītī sunt

The perfect passive subjunctive is formed using the subjunctive of the auxiliary verb:

	Perfect passive subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portātus sim	portātī sīmus	territory sim	territī sīmus	petītus sim	petītī sīmus	audītus sim	audītī sīmus
2nd person	portātus sīs	portātī sītis	territus sīs	territī sītis	petītus sīs	petītī sītis	audītus sīs	audītī sītis
3rd person	portātus sit	portātī sint	territus sit	territī sint	petītus sit	petītī sint	audītus sit	audītī sint

In the passive past perfect tense, the auxiliary verb is used in the past tense (indicative or subjunctive):

	Past perfect Passive Indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portātus eram	portātī erāmus	territory eram	territī erāmus	petītus eram	petītī erāmus	audītus eram	audītī erāmus
2nd person	portātus erās	portātī erātis	territus erās	territī erātis	petītus erās	petītī erātis	audītus erās	audītī erātis
3rd person	portātus erat	portātī erant	territus erat	territī erant	petītus erat	petītī erant	audītus erat	audītī erant

	Past perfect passive subjunctive
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portātus essem	portātī essēmus	territory of essem	territī essēmus	petītus essem	petītī essēmus	audītus essem	audītī essēmus
2nd person	portātus essēs	portātī essētis	territus essēs	territī essētis	petītus essēs	petītī essētis	audītus essēs	audītī essētis
3rd person	portātus eats	portātī essent	territory eats	territī essent	petītus eats	petītī essent	audītus eats	audītī essent

The future tense II passive is formed using the auxiliary verb in the future tense. There is no subjunctive here.

	Future tense II passive indicative
	portāre		terrēre		petere		audīre
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st person	portātus erō	portātī erimus	territus erō	territī erimus	petītus erō	petītī erimus	audītus erō	audītī erimus
2nd person	portātus eris	portātī eritis	territus eris	territī eritis	petītus eris	petītī eritis	audītus eris	audītī eritis
3rd person	portātus erit	portātī erunted	territory of erit	territī erunt	petītus erit	petītī erunted	audītus erit	audītī erunt

Coniugatio periphrastica

In rare contexts, the verb forms formed according to the scheme are not sufficient to clarify the meaning; A secondary filling of this functional point is necessary, especially where the futuristic subjunctive would have to be used; here then circumscribing forms (the so-called coniugatio periphrastica ) appear. In Latin grammar, all verb complexes that have esse as a finite component and a participle as an infinite component are referred to as periphrastic / circumscribing conjugation or coniugatio periphrastica ; in the narrower sense, only the future participles associated with the conjugation forms of the verb esse (sum, eras, fuit, erimus, fueritis, fuerant ...) are regarded as forms of the coniugatio periphrastica .

The latter forms express:

• Imminent : Te visitaturus sum  - "I am about to visit you",
• an intention (intention), a will (see optative and voluntary ): Te visurus eram  - "I wanted to see you, intended to see you, was willing to see you" or also
• a condition in the function of a conditional: Si amici futuri sumus  - "If we want to be friends"

Infinite verb forms

In Latin these are the infinitive , the participle , the gerund , the gerundive and the supinum .

The infinitive occurs as an infinitive of simultaneity (infinitive present), prematurity (infinitive perfect) and post-temporality (infinitive future tense), in the active and in the passive, e.g. For example : delere "to destroy", deleri "to be destroyed", delevisse "to have destroyed", deletum esse "to have been destroyed", deleturum esse "to destroy in the future", deletum iri "to be destroyed in the future".

In the present tense the infinitive has the following forms:

Active:

• -are for the 1st conjugation
• -ēre for the 2nd conjugation
• -ĕre for the 3rd conjugation
• -ire for the 4th conjugation

Passive:

• -ari for the 1st conjugation
• -ēri for the 2nd conjugation
• -i for the 3rd conjugation
• -iri for the 4th conjugation

In the perfect active, the infinitive is -isse , whereby of course the perfect stem must be used: amavisse (to have loved). The infinitive of the perfect passive is analytically formed with the participle perfect passive (PPP) and esse (to be): amatus esse (to have been loved).

The participle (a verbal adjective ) is available in the variants simultaneity / active ( PPA ) (signal -nt-), prematurity / passive ( PPP ) (signal mostly -t- or -s-) and lateness / active ( PFA ) (signal almost without exception -ur- to the so-called supine strain ), for example: delens (from * delent-s ) "destructive", deletus "destroyed", deleturus "destructive in the future".

The gerund , a verbal noun, is traditionally the noun infinitive that can be used in the nominative or accusative like a noun ( vincere placet “we like winning”, laudare amamus “we love to praise”). For the other cases, and after prepositions also for the accusative, it creates its own forms on "-nd-"; z. B .: in delendo "while destroying", ad delendum / delendi causa "in order to destroy". (In school grammar it is customary to declare "laudare, laudandi, laudando, ad laudandum, laudando"; whether this is objectively justified or only the own forms should be called "Gerund" can be left open.)

The gerundive (also a verbal adjective , also referred to as the past participle passive) in German has the equivalent of "zu ... -nd"; it is formed with the ending “-ndus”, “-a”, “-um” and inflected after the a / o declination. Used as a predicate noun or attribute , it expresses a necessity, a recommendation or a prohibition and then corresponds to the German construction “zu” + first participle. With predictive use it can also (and more often) replace the gerund, for example: in Carthagine delenda (with gerundive) instead of more rarely in Carthaginem delendo (with gerund) "at the destruction of Carthage".

The supinum (also a verbal noun ) has no equivalent in German. It is formed like the participle perfect passive - but after the u-declination - and has the ending "-um" (supinum I) rsp. "-U" (Supinum II) and represents frozen cases with a final meaning; z. B .: deletum venio “I come to destroy”, horribile dictu “terrible to say”.

Abbreviated verb forms, elongated verb forms and archaisms

The following short forms, long forms or archaisms often appear:

• In the perfect tense, there is no infix -ve / vi- before an ending with an “r” or “s”, for example: lauda (vi) sti “you have praised”, lauda (ve) runt “they have praised”, lauda ( vi) sse "to have vowed" etc. etc. etc.
• The present passive infinitive also ends in -rier (instead of -ri ).
• The form of the 2nd person singular appears in the passive as -re (instead of -ris ), e.g. B .: laudare “you will be praised” (→ in the indicative present passive identical to the infinitive present active laudare “praise”).
• With the imperatives dic !, duc !, fac !, fer !, ai !, es! "Say (e)!", "Lead (e)!", "Do (e)!", "Wear (e)!", "Claim!", "Be!" Is apokope (erosion of the stem vowel e) .
• Passive form of the imperative future tense of the 2nd and 3rd person singular is also -mino (instead of -tor ) in the older language .

Irregular verbs

Latin knows a number of irregular verbs (1st Pers. Sing. Pres. Act. Ind., Infinitive, 1st Pers. Sing. Perf. Act., If available: PPP):

• sum, esse, fuī, futūrum (to be)
• possum, posse, potuī (can)
• eō, īre, īvī / iī, ītum (to go)
• volō, velle, voluī (want)
• nōlō, nōlle, nōluī (not wanting)
• mālō, mālle, māluī (prefer)
• ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum (to wear)
• fīō, fierī, factus sum (to become)
• edō, ēsse or edere, ēdī, ēsum (to eat)

Auxiliary verb esse

eat "be"
number		Singular			Plural
person		1st person	2nd person	3rd person	1st person	2nd person	3rd person
Present	indicative	sum	it	est	sumus	estis	sunt
	conjunctive	si m	si s	si t	si mis	si tis	si nt
Past tense	indicative	era m	what s	what t	what mus	era tis	era nt
	conjunctive	eat m	eat s	eat t	eat mus	eat tis	eat nt
Perfect	indicative	fu i	fu isti	fu it	fu imus	fu istis	fu erunt
	conjunctive	for i m	for s	for i t	füri mus	füri tis	fori nt
past continuous	indicative	for a m	for a s	for a t	füra mus	füra tis	for a nt
	conjunctive	fuisse m	fuisse s	fuisse t	fuisse mus	fuisse tis	fuisse nt
Future tense		he o	he is	he it	he imus	he itis	he unt
Future tense II		for o	for is	for it	for imus	for itis	for int
Imperative I			it			este
Imperative II			esto			estote	sunto

Sentence-valued constructions

The Accusativus cum Infinitivo (= AcI)

→ Main article : Accusativus cum infinitivo

The Latin AcI is an infinitive construction that is mostly dependent on a verb of perception, knowledge or speaking (verba sentiendi et dicendi) or on a certain expression. It takes the position of the object and is thus also translated with an object sentence in the form of a that sentence. When translating, the accusative in the name becomes the subject and the infinitive becomes the full verb of the object sentence, which is introduced by the conjunction “that”. To determine the tense of the main verb, the tense of the infinitive is needed:

• Infinitive (present tense) -> simultaneity with the main verb in the main clause (see example 1)
• Infinitive perfect -> prematurity to the main verb in the main clause (see example 2)
• Infinitive future tense -> Nachzeitigkeit to the main verb in the main clause (see example 3)

Ex. 1: Num putas me scribere tantum posse? Do you think I can only write?

Ex. 2: Ego quoque Lucullo ingenium egregium fuisse accepi. I have also learned that Lucull's bravery is excellent.

Example 3: Spero eum mox cum militibus Romam venturum. I hope that he will soon come to Rome with the soldiers.

Nominativus cum Infinitivo (= NcI)

→ Main article : Nominativus cum infinitivo

The Latin NcI is an infinitive construction that is mostly dependent on a verb in the 3rd person singular passive. The NcI takes the position of the subject and is thus also translated with a subject sentence in the form of a that-sentence. The main verb of the main clause is translated as passive and neuter, followed by the subject clause with the introductory conjunction “that”. The nominative of the NcI becomes the subject and the infinitive becomes the main verb of the subject clause. For the tense of the verb, the same rules apply as for AcI:

• Infinitive (present tense) -> simultaneity to the main verb in the main clause
• Infinitive perfect -> prematurity to the main verb in the main clause
• Infinitive future tense -> Nachzeitigkeit to the main verb in the main clause

If one strives for a more free translation of the NcI, one can “activate” the main clause and translate the NcI “like the AcI” with an object clause.

Example: Hercules filius Jovis fuisse dicitur.

Literal translation: It is said that Hercules was a son of Jupiter.

free translation: It is said that Hercules was a son of Jupiter.

The Participium conjunctum (PC)

→ Main article : Participium coniunctum

The pc is a participle construction embedded in a main clause. It extends from a noun or a pronoun that takes on the function of a noun to a participle. Nouns or pronouns are in the KNG congruence to the participle. The rest of the pc stands between the pro-noun and participle.

The translation of the PC

There are two ways to translate the PC:

• by a relative clause
• through an adverbial sentence

By a relative clause

Step by step instructions:

• Translate main clause
• Determine the tense of the relative clause (see below)
• Form a relative clause

The tense of the relative clause can be determined using the tense of the participle:

• Present active participle → simultaneity to the main verb of the main clause (see example 1)
• Past participle Passive → prematurity to the main verb of the main clause (see example 2)
• Past participle active → Nachzeitigkeit to the main verb of the main clause (see example 3)

Example 1: Barbari feri Rhenum et Mosellam oppugnantes oppida Romana circumveniunt. The savage barbarians who attack the Rhine and Moselle surround the Roman cities.

Example 2: Alii principes civitatis adventu exercitus Romani territi ex vicis et oppidis ad Caesarem venerunt, ut de suis rebus cum eo agerent. Other leading men of a state frightened by the arrival of the Roman army came to Caesar from the villages and towns to negotiate their affairs with him.

Example 3: Servus dominam villam intraturam salutat. The slave greets the mistress who wants to enter the house.

Through an adverbial sentence

Step by step instructions:

• Translate main clause
• Determine the sense of direction of the PC (temporal, causal, concessional, conditional) Tip: Sometimes several options are possible. You take the one that fits best.
• Determine the tense of the adverbial sentence (see below)
• Form adverbial clauses

The tense of the adverbial clause can be determined using the tense of the participle:

• Present active participle → simultaneity to the main verb of the main clause (see example 1)
• Past participle Passive → prematurity to the main verb of the main clause (see example 2)
• Past participle active → Nachzeitigkeit to the main verb of the main clause (see example 3)

Example: 1: Barbari feri Rhenum et Mosellam oppugnantes oppida Romana circumveniunt. When the wild barbarians attack the Rhine and Moselle, they surround the Roman cities.

Example 2: Alii principes civitatis adventu exercitus Romani territi ex vicis et oppidis ad Caesarem venerunt, ut de suis rebus cum eo agerent. After other leading men of a state had frightened the arrival of the Roman army, they came to Caesar from the villages and towns to negotiate their things with him.

Example 3: Germani, cum nuper contra Romanos pugnarent, me consulturi venerunt. When the Teutons recently fought against the Romans, they came to question me.

The ablativus absolutus (abl. Para.)

→ Main article : Ablativus absolutus

The ablativus absolutus is a special form of the PC. The participle and the reference word are in the ablative. The post-temporality cannot, however, be used, only prematurity and simultaneity.

Example 1: Simultaneity: Te regente nemo inopia laborat.

Example 2: Prematurity: Qua re audita celeriter ad theatrum ibam.

The translation of the oj Section.

The translation of the ablativus absolutus corresponds exactly to that of the participium conjunctum:

Example 1: Te regente nemo inopia laborat. When you rule, no one is in need.

Example 2: Qua re audita celeriter ad theatrum ibam. After hearing this thing, I quickly went to the theater.

The short forms

There are short expressions in Latin that can only be expressed with the ablative absolutus. These are not regular, do not follow the translation principle of the PC or the OJ. Section. and must therefore be learned by heart:

Creonte auctore = at the instigation of Creton

Creonte invito = against the will of Crete

Creonte duce = under the guidance of the creton

Of course, the name "Kreton" can also be replaced by others.

syntax

Nominative accusative language; congruence

Like the other old and most recent Indo-European languages ​​(including German), Latin is a nominative-accusative language , and here it must be distinguished from the ergative languages . The sentence subject is in the basic case, the nominative, the direct object is in the accusative, the predicate is congruent with the subject. In passive constructions, on the other hand, the logical object is in the nominative and the predicate is congruent with this.

Another feature inherited from the Indo-European original language is the congruence between adjective attribute and reference word. The former must match the latter in terms of case, number and gender ( KNG congruence ):

• puer pulcher (a beautiful boy) (nominative singular masculine)
• puella pulchra (a beautiful girl) (nominative singular feminine)
• pueris pulchris (the beautiful boy) (dative plural)
• puellarum pulchrarum (the beautiful girl) (genitive plural)

Synthetic language structure

Latin has a highly synthetic type of language ; That is, grammatical functions or relationships between words and clauses are often expressed by endings rather than particles or functional words. Latin realizes this type more strongly than most modern European languages. The expression of Latin appears very compact or dense due to this characteristic of the language. This quality can be considered one of the major difficulties in learning the Latin language. The following example sentences illustrate the difference between synthetic and analytical language structures in Latin and German:

• Cedamus amori.
• Let's give in to love.

In order to express the mode of the adhortative , German needs a modal auxiliary verb, which must also be accompanied by a reflexive pronoun (“let us”), while Latin expresses the mode with an affix (-a-) . The article forms a separate grammatical word in German, while the information about certainty / indeterminacy remains implicit in Latin.

• Augusto regente pax erat in toto imperio Romano.
• When / because Augustus reigned, peace reigned throughout the Roman Empire.

Augusto regente is a so-called ablativus absolutus (abl. Abs.), Which in German (analytical) is represented by a temporal or causal, possibly also adversative subordinate clause. As you can see, in Latin it is sufficient to put the phrase composed of the noun and the present participle in the ablative in order to convey the same information as the subordinate clause in German. A sentence-introducing particle like in German is not necessary in Latin.

• Imperatorem venisse audit.
• He hears that the general has come.

This is an accusativus cum infinitivo (AcI), the German subordinate clause is expressed by imperatorem (accusative) and the verb venire (to come) in the infinitive. Here, too, Latin shows a significantly denser syntax than German (three words instead of six). The AcI can in principle also be formed in German, but not as an expression of prematurity, as is the case here. It can also be seen here that a personal pronoun must be used for the subject in German, but not in Latin.

Since the subject is marked by the verb in Latin, it can be omitted if the context makes it clear who or what is meant. This trait is preserved in Romance languages ​​(but not in French). Personal pronouns are therefore used less often in Latin than in German. In particular, the personal pronouns of the third person are only used as subjects if they are to be emphasized - they therefore also have a more demonstrative character than in German.

Word order

The word order is relatively free in Latin, since the relationships between the words are clearly identified by affixes and possibly particles, so that no further clarification through a fixed word order is required, as is particularly the case in languages ​​of the isolating language type , but often also in German the case is. Example:

• Canis hominem murders.
• Hominem canis murders.

Both sentences are grammatically correct and have to be translated as "(a / the) dog bites (a / the) man".

Despite the free word order, Latin shows a clear tendency towards the word order subject-object-verb (SOV), as can be found in many languages. At least in non-metric poetry, this word order is usually only deviated from when - for example by the initial position of an object - the meaning of a certain part of the sentence is to be emphasized. Example ( Virgil ):

• Omnia vincit amor, et nos cedamus amori.
• Love defeats EVERYTHING ( omnia - direct object), so we too want to give in to love.

In metrical poetry, on the other hand, the word order usually follows the constraints of meter rather than grammatical conventions - which can make understanding the text very difficult.

Latin tends to have a more specific definition follow the noun to be defined, i.e. H. Adjective attributes follow i. d. Usually the reference word, relative clauses also follow the reference word. In the case of genitive constructions, however, this tendency is less clear. Like German, Latin knows both prepositions and postpositions , with the former predominating.

literature

• Hans Baumgarten: Compendium Grammaticum: short systematic grammar for Latin lessons. 2., verb. Edition Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 3-525-71399-1 .
• Karl Bayer, Josef Lindauer: Latin grammar based on the Latin school grammar by Landgraf-Leitschuh. 2nd edition (reprint). Buchner, Munich 2011, ISBN 978-3-7661-5635-8 .
• Otmar Bilz: Langenscheidt basic knowledge of Latin grammar. Langenscheidt, Berlin a. a. 2009, ISBN 978-3-468-20252-0 .
• Fritz Haeger / Kurt Schmidt: Compendium Linguae Latinae. Auxiliary book for reading Latin . Ernst Klett, Stuttgart 6th edition 1983, ISBN 3-12-626000-4 , [Haeger-Schmidt].
• Leo Stock: Langenscheidt learning and exercise grammar Latin. 20th edition Langenscheidt, Berlin a. a. 2011, ISBN 978-3-468-34922-5 .
• Friedrich Stolz , Joseph Hermann Schmalz : Latin grammar: phonetics and forms, syntax and stylistics. In: Handbook of Classical Studies 2nd Dept., 2nd part. 5th edition Beck, Munich 1928, 3rd edition 1900http: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3Dlateinischegram00stolgoog~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D3.%20Aufl.%201900~PUR%3D .
• Revised version: Manu Leumann u. a .: Latin grammar. Based on the work of Friedrich Stolz and Joseph Hermann Schmalz . Handbook of Classical Studies 2nd Dept., 2nd part. 3 vols. Beck, Munich 1963ff.
  • Vol. 1: Manu Leumann: Latin phonetics and forms. 2nd edition 1977, ISBN 3-406-01426-7 , digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3Dig4F_lvsZUYC~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~ double-sided%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D .
  • Vol. 2: Anton Szantyr , Johann Baptist Hofmann : Latin Syntax and Stylistics. With the general part of Latin grammar. 2nd reprint of the 1965 published, 1972 verb. 1st edition 1997, ISBN 3-406-01347-3 .
  • Vol. 3: Fritz Radt, Abel Westerbrink: Job register and directory of non-Latin words. 1979, ISBN 3-406-06072-2 .
• Linda Strehl: Langenscheidts Kurzgrammatik Latin , complete revision, Verlag Langenscheidt, Berlin 2001, ISBN 3-468-35202-6 .
• Leo Stock (conception), revised by Linda Strehl: Langenscheidts verb tables irregular and regular verbs correctly conjugated , Verlag Langenscheidt, Berlin 2003, ISBN 3-468-34201-2 .

Web links

Wikibooks: Latin Grammar  - Learning and Teaching Materials

• Latin wax tablet grammar - sentence theory for reading lessons
• Heinrich Przybyla: Guide to Latin typesetting theory (PDF file; 260 kB)
• Online Latin dictionary on frag-caesar.de - definition of Latin words with translation and inflection table
• Legible Latin - program based on William Whitaker's Words for the grammatical determination of Latin words (English)
• List of links to Latin grammar
• Page to AcI
• Page to the NcI
• Page to the PC
• Page to OJ Section.

Individual evidence

1. ↑ In Middle Latin there are some noun compounds such as virlupus (man wolf, werewolf, lycanthrope) and Deushomo (god man). Please refer:
   • Peter Stotz: Handbook on the Latin language of the Middle Ages. Second volume. Change of meaning and word formation. Verlag CH Beck, Munich 2004, p. 454 ( at books.google ). Quote: “Only very weakly - and apparently only in loan formations - is represented in German. so common Zssg'typus front door 'of the house door' ”. Deus-homo (from Greek θεάνθρωπος) and virlupus (from Anglo-Saxon werewulf ) are cited as examples .
   • Peter Stotz: Handbook on the Latin language of the Middle Ages. Fifth volume. Bibliography, overview of sources and index. Verlag CH Beck, Munich 2000, p. 1041 ( at books.google ). Quote: " virlupus, -i , 'werewolf'".
2. ↑ Otto Schulz: Detailed Latin grammar for the upper classes of learned schools. Halle 1825, p. 108 ( at books.google ).
3. ↑ Otto Schulz: Detailed Latin grammar for the upper classes of learned schools. Halle 1825, p. 51f. ( at books.google ).
4. ↑ Otto Schulz: Detailed Latin grammar for the upper classes of learned schools. Halle 1825, pp. 106f., 114 ( pp. 106 and 114 at books.google).
5. ^ KL Struve: About Latin Declination and Conjugation. A grammatical study. Königsberg 1823, p. 35f. ( at books.google ).
6. ↑ Imman. Joh. Gerhard Scheller's concise Latin language teaching or grammar for the Churbaier schools. Munich 1782, p. 38 ( at books.google ).
7. ↑ Christophorus Cellarius: Easier Latin Grammatica or Kurtze, but adequate instruction on the Latin language, for the sake of more benefit among young people, Teutsch tipped off […]. Merseburg 1704, p. 22 ( at books.google ).
8. ^ Grammaticae Institutionis in Lingua latina. Pars great. Regensburg (lat.Ratispona, in the locative Ratisponae) 1684 (CIↃ IↃ LXXX IV), pp. D4 ff., In the section Typus quartae Declinationis ( the book at books.google ).
9. ↑ Prima latinae Grammaticae Pars […]. Frankfurt am Main (Latin: Francofortum ad Moenum, in the locative Francoforti ad Moenum) 1566, p. B4 f., In the Colloquium section . XIIII. ( the book at books.google ).
10. ↑ Johann Balthasar von Antesperg: The Kayserliche Deutsche Grammatick, or the art of speaking the German language correctly, and writing without mistakes, in four parts […]. Second and improved edition including a register. Vienna 1749, p. 52.
11. ↑ James Tatham: A Grammar, in which the Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and Prosody of the Latin Language are minutely detailed, and rendered easy to the juvenile Capacity. Philadelphia 1822, p. 10 ( at books.google ).
12. ^ Wilhelm Freund : Dictionary of the Latin Language. First volume. A-C. Leipzig 1834, S. LXVII – LXXXVIII (Roman 67–88) ("III. About the genit. Singular of the words cornu, gelu, genu etc.")
13. ^ Karl Ernst Georges: Comprehensive Latin-German concise dictionary. Hannover 1913 (reprint: Darmstadt 1998), Volume 1, Sp. 1698–1700, keyword cornū ( at zeno.org ). Quote: “cornū, ūs u. (rarely) ū, n. "
14. ↑ Raffaela Maidhof, Maria A. Söllner: PONS pocket grammar school Latin. 5th – 10th Class. All the important rules in pocket size. PONS GmbH, Stuttgart 2014, p. 10 ( at books.google ).
15. ↑ Linda Strehl: Langenscheidt short grammar Latin. Complete rework. 2001, p. 13.
16. ↑ CG Zumpt: Latin Grammar. Tenth edition Berlin 1850, p. 76f. ( at books.google ).
17. ↑ CG Zumpt: Latin Grammar. Ninth edition. Berlin 1844, pp. 171–178.
18. ^ Ludwig Ramshorn: Latin grammar. First of two parts, second edition. Leipzig 1830, p. 131 ff.