Dzongkha
| Dzongkha | ||
|---|---|---|
|
Spoken in |
 Bhutan , India , Nepal 
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| speaker | 237,000 | |
| Linguistic classification |
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| Official status | ||
| Official language in |
Bhutan
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| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639 -1 |
dz |
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| ISO 639 -2 |
dzo |
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| ISO 639-3 | ||
Dzongkha ( Tibetan spelling: ཇོང་ ཁ , also Bhutanese language, Jonkha, Bhotia, Zongkhar, Drukke ) is the official language in Bhutan and is also spoken in India , primarily in the Indian state of Sikkim , which borders Bhutan . 226,000 speakers live in Bhutan (Bhutan has about 672,000 inhabitants according to the 2005 census). In total, Dzongkha has around 237,000 speakers worldwide.
Dzongkha is the mother tongue of the majority of the population of West Bhutan. In addition to Dzongkha, at least 18 other languages are spoken in Bhutan; but there is no absolute majority language. Most of these languages belong to the Trans-Himalayan language family, which is the second largest language family in the world measured by the number of speakers. Dzongkha is spoken as a lingua franca across the country. Dzongkha literally means the ཁ་ kha "language", which is spoken in the རྫོང་ dzong "citadel".
Dzongkha evolved from an older form of Tibetan and belongs to the Tibetan Burman subgroup of the trans-Himalayan language family . The language is written in Tibetan script .
history
Dzongkha has been the language of the royal court, the military elite, the educated class and the government since at least the 12th century. Dzongkha has officially been the national language of Bhutan since 1961. Dzongkha is spoken as a lingua franca throughout the country.
For centuries, classical Tibetan or Chöke ཆོས་ སྐད་ served as the standard language in Bhutan and as an educational language in the monasteries . Official language policy is a relatively new phenomenon in Bhutan. In the past, such decisions were more practical: when the first state schools were opened, Hindi was the language of instruction, as textbooks in Hindi were available from nearby India . Of course, Chöke remained the language of instruction in the monasteries. Later, when more state schools opened their doors, English and Chöke were taught in addition to Hindi . The first formal language policy guideline was formulated in 1961 when Dzongkha officially became Bhutan's national language. As a result, more and more text books in English were specially developed for Bhutanese schools to replace Hindi books. The term “Dzongkha” still actually meant Chöke. Since the Dzongkha speakers considered these two languages to be one and the same language, the first attempts at vernacularization were understood as an attempt to modernize the national language. Until 1971, however, the dzongkha that was taught in schools remained Chöke. Since then, attempts have been made to approximate the written language to the spoken language. In 1971, the Dzongkha Division of the Education Department was supposed to develop teaching materials in Dzongkha. At first, English stubbornly persisted, but today most subjects are still taught in English, but few are taught in Dzongkha. In 1986, a committee was set up to draft guidelines for promoting Dzongkha and advice on spelling. Later this committee and the Dzongkha Division of the Department of Education were merged, and they wrote many excellent textbooks. This newly formed commission coordinates linguistic research on behalf of the royal government and theoretically has the authority to introduce neologisms and change spelling. At the request of the commission, Roman Dzongkha was developed, a system for the phonological Romanization of the Dzongkha. This system was accepted as the standard system in 1991.
Phonetics and Phonology
In Dzongkha, the spelling and actual pronunciation often do not match. This is because the script is very conservative while the pronunciation has changed.
Roman Dzongkha
George van Driem created a system for the phonological romanization of Dzongkha on behalf of the Bhutanese government. This system was introduced as the Roman Dzongkha in 1991 as the official standard. Roman Dzongkha reproduces the standard dialect of Dzongkha as it is spoken in ཝང་ Wang and ཐེད་ Thê. It is important that Roman Dzongkha is not a transliteration , i.e. does not reproduce the spelling, but shows the accurate pronunciation. So there can be big differences between Roman Dzongkha and a transliteration of Dzongkha.
Consonants
Consonant inventory of the Dzongkha:
| bilabial |
labio- dental |
dental | alveolar |
post- alveolar |
retroflex | palatal | velar | uvular |
phase- ryngal |
glottal | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | stl. | sth. | ||
| Plosives | nlab. | pp h | dd h | ʈ ʈ h | kk h | ||||||||||||||||||
| lab. | p w p w h | t w t w h | ʈ w ʈ w h | k w k w h | |||||||||||||||||||
| Nasals | n | ɲ | ŋ | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Vibrants | r | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Taps / flaps | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Fricatives | s | ɕ | H | ||||||||||||||||||||
| lateral fricatives | ɬ | ||||||||||||||||||||||
| Approximants | j | w | |||||||||||||||||||||
| lateral approximants | l | ||||||||||||||||||||||
Dzongkha also has the affricates ts, tsʰ, tɕ and tɕ
Syllables that begin with a voiced or a detuned consonant are low-pitched, while syllables that begin with an aspirated or unvoiced consonant are high-pitched. After nasals , half vowels and [l], both are basically possible and the tone is marked in Roman Dzongkha.
The dental consonants in Dzongkha are really dental and are not articulated further behind the teeth as in German .
Vowels
Vowel inventory of the Dzongkha:
| front | almost in front |
central | almost in the back |
back | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ung. | ger. | ung. | ger. | ung. | ger. | ung. | ger. | ung. | ger. | |
| closed | i iː | yː | u uː | |||||||
| almost closed | ||||||||||
| half closed | e eː | o oː | ||||||||
| medium | ||||||||||
| half open | ɛː | œː | ɔ | |||||||
| almost open | ||||||||||
| open | aː | ɑ | ||||||||
In Roman Dzongkha these vowels are represented with the characters a, â, e, ê, i, î, o, ô, u, û, ä, ö, ü. The circumflex indicates the length of the vowel in Roman Dzongkha. Ä, ö and ü are always long.
- The vowel ü can vary between [y] and [ʏ]
- The short vowel d varies in pronunciation between [e] and [ɛ]
- The pronunciation of the vowel ä lies between [ɛ:] and [æ:]
- The pronunciation of the vowel o can sometimes approach [ɔ]
- Dzongkha ö rarely approaches the vowel [ø]
- The short vowel a is pronounced as [ɑ] and is very similar in pronunciation to [ᴧ]. The long vowel â is pronounced as [aː]
Sound system
Dzongkha is a tonal language that distinguishes between two register tones: high and low. In Roman Dzongkha the tweeter is marked with an apostrophe 'at the beginning of a syllable. The bass remains unmarked. In Roman Dzongkha, a tone is not marked if it is predictable.
Example:
- Treble ལྔ 'nga «five»
- Bass ང་ nga «I».
Mazaudon and Michailovsky (1989) did phonetic research with native speakers of the Dzongka from སྐྱབས་ ཆ་ Capcha and ཐིམ་ ཕུག་ Thimphu and showed that a significant number of Dzongkha words also have the contour tones rising and falling. These contour tones do not seem to occur in all dialects of the Dzongkha.
Syllable structure and phonotactics
The historical syllable structure of Dzongkha is much more complex than the modern syllable structure. The maximum structure can be seen at བརྒྱད་ (brgyad) gä 'eight'.
In principle, all consonants of Dzongkha can be used as the initial syllable, whereas only / n, m, ŋ, p, k, ɕ, l, r / can be used as the final syllable.
grammar
Nominal categories
Certainty
Dzongkha has a definite article དེ་ di and an indefinite article གཅིག་ ci. Both articles come after the reference word. གཅིག་ ci also stands for the number one.
number
Dzongkha differentiates between singular and plural , but the plural does not work as it does in German: The plural marker in Dzongkha is not mandatory, even if a plural is to be specified. The Dzongkha plural suffix is used more to indicate that there are many. To form the plural, the plural suffix ཚུ་ tshu is added to the noun. If there is also the definite article, the plural suffix is inserted between the noun and the article.
case
Dzongkha knows five cases: genitive , locative , ablative , dative and ergative
Genitive
The genitive indicates possession or a part-whole relationship. The genitive is formed with a suffix that is spelled differently depending on the stem ending:
- གྱི་ -gi after words on མ་, ན་, ར་ and ལ་,
- གི་ -gi after words on ག་ and ང་,
- ཀྱི་ -gi after words on བ་, ད་ and ས་
Some words that end in a vowel get the genitive ending འི་ -i, others get the ending གི་ gi.
The genitive forms of the personal pronouns are irregular :
- ངའི་ ngê 'my'
- ང་ བཅས་ ཀྱི་ ngaci 'our'
locative
The locative indicates the place or destination of an object. To form the locative, the suffix ནང་ na is added to the noun. There is also the locative suffix ཁར་ kha, which only occurs with a limited set of nouns.
Example: ང་ བཅས་ ཀྱི་ ཁྱིམ་ ནང་ ngaci chi-na 'in our house'
ablative
The ablative is used to indicate the place of origin. The ablative is formed with the suffix ལས་ le.
dative
The dative is used to indicate the goal of an action. If an activity is “for” or “to” something or someone, the goal is marked with the dative. Often we would express it in German using the accusative. The dative can also be used to indicate location or direction.
To form the dative case, add the suffix ལུ་ lu to the noun.
Dative of possession : The verbs ཡོད་ yö and འདུག་ dû “to be” can be used with the dative to indicate possession.
Example:
ང་ ལུ་ དཔེ་ ཆ་ གཅིག་ ཡོད །
ngâ-lu pecha-ci yö
I- [dat] book-a
I have a book
Ergative
In Dzongkha the ergative is used to represent the agentivic character of the subject, in contrast to the classical ergative - in transitive and intransitive sentences. The ergative is also used to indicate the tool with which an action is carried out. The reason for an action or a condition is also given with the ergative.
To form the ergative, the suffix གྱིས་ ~ ཀྱིས་ ~ གིས་ -gi is added.
- གྱིས་ -gi after words on མ་, ན་, ར་ and ལ་,
- ཀྱིས་ -gi after words on ག་ and ང་,
- གིས་ -gi after words on བ་, ད་ and ས་
Example:
མོ་ གིས་ ང་ ལུ་ དགའ་ །
'mô-gi ngâ-lu ga
You- [erg] I- [dat] love
She loves Me.
genus
Dzongkha does not have a pleasure system.
Verbal categories
To be the verb"
In Dzongkha there are five different ways of rendering the verb “to be”. The choice is not arbitrary, but depends on the epistemic status. The five forms are ཨིན་ 'ing, ཨིན་ པས་' ime, ཡོད་ yö, འདུག་ dû and སྨོ་ mo ~ 'mô.
The verbs ཨིན་ 'ing and ཨིན་ པས་' ime are the equative forms of the verb “to be”. They are used to indicate the identity or inherent characteristics of a person or thing. They often act as a copula between two nouns, but they can also be used to give known facts about the location or quality of a subject. In short, ཨིན་ 'ing and ཨིན་ པས་' ime identify the subject of the sentence.
The distinction between ཨིན་ 'ing and ཨིན་ པས་' ime is very important in Dzongkha and has to do with the speaker's epistemic situation.
The form ཨིན་ 'ing indicates known background knowledge that is part of the worldview. To form a question with the verb ཨིན་ 'ing, the suffix ན་ na is added to the verb. Here the speaker assumes that the addressee knows the answer to the question.
The negation of ཨིན་ 'ing is མེན་ mä. The particle ན་ na is also used to form a negative question.
Example:
ཁྱོད་ སློབ་ གྲྭཔ་ ཨིན་ ན །
chö 'lopdrap' ina
You be a student- [Q]
Are you a student?
The form ཨིན་ པས་ 'ime indicates newly acquired knowledge. Usually you need 'ime in relation to the third person.
To form a question with the verb ཨིན་ པས་ 'ime, the question suffix ག་ ga is added to the verb. Here the speaker is not sure whether the addressee has old or new knowledge on his question.
The negation of ཨིན་ པས་ 'ime is པས་ membe. The particle ག་ ga is also used to form a negative question.
Example:
ཁྱོད་ ཀྱིས་ བལྟ་ བ་ ཅིན་ ཁོ་ མི་ ཕྱུག པོ་ ཨིན་ པས་ ག །
chö-gi ta-wacin kho 'mi pchup' ime-ga
You- [erg] see-whether he man be rich- [Q]
Do you think he is a rich man?
ཡོད་ yö and འདུག་ dû reflect the existential, local and attributive meaning of the verb “to be”. ཡོད་ yö and འདུག་ dû are used locally to indicate the whereabouts of the subject, existential to indicate the presence of an object, and attributive to ascribe a property to an object. There is the same difference between ཡོད་ yö and འདུག་ dû as between ཨིན་ 'ing and ཨིན་ པས་' ime: With ཡོད་ yö one indicates background knowledge that has been known for a long time and is part of one's own worldview. In the first person, ཡོད་ yö is always used. The suffix ga is added to form a question. The negation of ཡོད་ yö is མེད་ mê.
Example:
ངིའ ི་ ཨམ་ ཚུ་ ནཱ་ ཁྱིམ་ ནང་ ཡོད །
ngê 'amtshu nâ chi-na yö
my wife being house-in here
My wife is here in the house.
With འདུག་ dû one indicates newly acquired knowledge. In the second person, འདུག་ dû is always used. The suffix ga is added to form a question. If it is not a yes-no question, གོ་ -go is used instead. The negation of འདུག་ dû is མིན་ འདུག་ mindu or minu.
Example:
བྱི་ ལི་ དེ་ སྒྲོམ་ ནང་ འདུག །
bj'ili di drôm-na dû.
Cat be the box-in
The cat is in the box.
The verb སྨོ་ mo ~ 'mô is a form of the verb "to be", which denotes the nexus. Another logical argument is added to the sentence. The nature of this verb can roughly be translated as "it is the case that". སྨོ་ 'mô is also used as a confirmation question in the French sense of "N'est-ce pas?" used. The form 'mô with a high tone is used as a confirmation question, otherwise mo with a low tone and a short vowel. If སྨོ་ 'mô directly follows a verb, the verb stem is inflected.
Examples:
ཁྱོད་ ག་ ཏེ་ འགྱོ་ ནི་ སྨོ །
chö g'âti jo-ni mo
You where to go- [inf] be
Where are you going? (cf. Où est-ce que tu vas?)
སློབ་དཔོན་ ཀྱིས་ ཧེ་ མ་ ལས་ རང་ ང་ བཅས་ ལུ་ འཁྲོམ་ ཁ་ ལུ་ མ་ སོང་ ཟེར་ གསུངས་ ཡི་ སྨོ །
'löbö-gi hema-le-ra ngace-lu thromkha-lu ma-song z'e sung-yi,' mô?
Teacher- [erg] before-from- [str] we-to-market-not-go that say [hon] - [pt] or_not?
Teacher repeatedly told us not to go to the market, right?
Tense
present
Stable-state-present tense
The stable-state present indicates ongoing, inherent, or objective circumstances. Therefore, only stative verbs in the stable-state present can be used, never verbs that describe an action.
The stable-state present tense consists of just the verb stem. To form the negation of this, the prefix མི་ mi- is inserted before the last syllable of the verb. This means that in polysyllabic verbs this prefix is an infix .
Example:
ཁོ་ གིས་ མོ་ ལུ་ དགའ །
khô-gi mô-lu ga
er [erg] them- [dat] love
He loves her.
Present tense form
The present tense form expresses an activity in the present tense that happens at the moment of the speech act. The present tense form is formed by adding the ending པའི་ སྒང་ -bigang ~ -migang or བའི་ སྒང་ -wigang to the verb stem. The gradient stem created in this way is used with the auxiliary verb ཨིན་ 'ing or ཨིན་ པས་' ime. The form པའི་ སྒང་ -bigang ~ -migang comes after verbs on -p, on a nasal or on hard stems. After soft trunks, steht སྒང་ -wigang stands.
Example:
ད་ ལྟོ་ ཆོས་ སྐྱིད་ ཡི་ གུ་ འབྲི་ བའི་ སྒང་ ཨིན་ པས །
d'ato Chöki yig'u dr'i-wigang 'ime
now write Chöki letter- [con] be
Choki is now writing a letter.
past
Tested past
The attested past indicates an event in the past that the speaker - or, in the case of a question, the listener - consciously experienced.
The tense of the attested past is formed by adding the suffix ཡི་ ‑yi or ཅི་ -ci to the stem of the verb. If the stem in Roman Dzongkha ends with a vowel or ng, ཡི་ ‑yi is added. If, on the other hand, the stem ends in p, n or m, ཅི་ -ci is added.
Example:
ང་ དུས་ ཚོད་ ཁར་ ལྷོད་ ཅི །
nga d'ütshökha Hö-ci
I arrive on time- [pt]
I arrived on time.
The negation of the attested past is formed by adding the prefix མ་ ma- “did not” to the last syllable of the verb stem. The endings ཡི་ ‑yi or ཅི་ -ci are omitted. The marker མ་ ma- “did not” is in itself time-specific and differs from the present negation prefix མི་ mi- “not”.
inferred past
The tense of the derived past indicates an event in the past that the speaker - or, in the case of a question, the listener - did not consciously experience. The speaker deduces from the resulting situation what must have happened. The derived past is formed by adding the suffix ནུག་ -nu to the verb stem.
Example:
ཨོག་ ཁང་ ནང་ སུག་ མ་ བཞག་ ནུག །
'okha-na suma zhâ-nu
Stall-in rice-straw put- [ip]
The rice straw was brought into the stable.
future
Future tense
The future tense indicates a planned or intended activity. This construction can also be used to indicate well-known circumstances.
To form the future tense , the infinitive is used and connected with the auxiliary verb ཨིན་ 'ing, ཨིན་ པས་' ime, མེན་ mä or མེན་ པས་ membe.
Example:
ང་ བཅས་ ཕུན་ ཚོགས་ གླིང་ ཚུན་ ཚོད་ འགྱོ་ ནི་ ཨིན །
ngace Phüntsho'ling-tshöntshö jo-ni 'ing
we'll be Phüntsho'ling-to go- [inf]
We will go to Phüntsho'ling.
Autoal future tense
The autolalic future tense is a special future tense that expresses the intentions of the 1SG subject. You only need this form if you are thinking about what you want to do for yourself. This form is not spoken unless you are speaking to yourself. It also appears in stories when describing the first person's thoughts. The autolalic future tense is marked with the ending གེ་ ནོ་ -geno.
Example:
ལྟ་ མ་ ང་ ཟ་ གེ་ ནོ །
tama nga z'a-geno
later I eat- [af]
I will eat later.
Future perfect
With the future perfect tense one expresses that one expects that one event in the future will end until another event in the future occurs. It is formed with the auxiliary verb རྙོ་ nyo.
Actual times
Factual present tense
With the factual present one indicates a fact that is the case in the present. It is formed by adding the auxiliary verb ཨིན་ 'ing or ཨིན་ པས་' ime to the inflected verb stem.
Example:
ཁོ་ ཨེར་ མ་ དར་ ཚིལ་ ཟཝ་ ཨིན །
kho 'êma-d'âtshi z'au' ing
to eat 'êma-d'âtshi [aux]
He eats êma-d'âtshi.
Factual past tense
The factual past tense is used to make a statement about a fact in the past or a fact that has its origin in the past.
To form the factual past tense, the auxiliary verb ཨིན་ 'ing ~ ཨིན་ བས་' ime is attached to the reduplicated inflected stem. Only the second stem in the reduplicated verb is an inflected stem.
Example:
ལཱ་ དེ་ གདང་ ཞག་ ལས་ འབད་ འབདཝ་ ཨིན །
lâ-di dangja-le be-beu 'ing
Work-the days_before-do-do-do [aux]
We have been doing this work since yesterday.
Gnomish present tense
The Gnomish present tense is used to indicate habitual or inherent situations. It is formed by adding the suffix པའི་ -bi ~ -mi or བའི་ -wi to the unflexed stem of the verb. བའི་ -wi comes after soft stems, པའི་ -bi ~ -mi otherwise.
To form a question in the Gnomish present, the question particle artikel ga is appended.
Example:
བྱི་ ལི་ དེ་ གིས་ བྱི་ ཙི་ དེ་ ཚུ་ གཟུང་ པའི་
bj'ili-di-gi bj'itsi-di-tshu zung-bi
Cat-die- [erg] mouse-die- [pl] catch-gn
The cat catches mice.
Knowledge through observation
This tense is used to indicate an activity or phenomenon that occurred during a reference point that the speaker has just observed, or a feeling that the speaker has just experienced. This tense is specifically used to convey knowledge through observation.
To express that one has obtained information through observation, one appends the ending མས་ -me to the inflected stem of the verb.
The negation is formed with the prefix མི་ mi-.
Example:
ཁོ་ ཨེར་ མ་ དར་ ཚིལ་ ཟཝ་ མས །
kho 'êma-d'âtsi z'au-me
he 'êma-d'âtsi eat- [ep]
He eats' êma-d'âtsi.
aspect
Perfect aspect
The perfect aspect indicates an activity in the past that has been completed or an event in the past the result of which has been achieved. In Dzongkha one can indicate the perfective aspect in different ways. For most intransitive verbs, the perfect aspect is formed by adding the auxiliary verb སོ་ so after the verb stem and before the tense ending.
Example:
ཤི་ སོ་ ནུག །
shi-so-nu
die- [pf] - [ip]
He died / He is dead.
A subclass of intransitive verbs (especially, but not only, verbs that express feelings) form the perfective aspect with the auxiliary verb, also written.
Example:
ང་ ཁ་ སྐོམ་ ཆི་ ཡི །
nga khâkom-che-yi
I am thirsty- [pf] - [pt]
I'm thirsty.
Transitive verbs and a small group of intransitive verbs form the perfective aspect with the auxiliary verb རྡ་ da.
Example:
ཕོར པ་ གྲུམ་ སོ་ ནུག །
Phôp dr'um-so-nu
Break cup- [pf] - [ip]
The cup is broken.
དཀར་ ཡོལ་ ཕོར པ་ དཀྲུམས་ རྡ་ ནུག །
kâyö phôp dream-da-nu
Breaking porcelain cups- [pf] - [ip]
Somebody broke the porcelain mug
mode
Potentials
The verb “to come” is used as an auxiliary verb to indicate potentiality. The speaker expresses that he thinks something is possible, but not certain. This auxiliary verb can be used for potentiality in the future as well as in the past or in the present tense.
Potentiality in the future tense
In order to express potentiality in the future, one connects the auxiliary verb with the unflexed stem of the verb.
Example:
ཁཝ་ རྐྱབ་ འོང༌ །
khau cap-ong
Make snow- [pot]
It could snow.
Compare the periphrastic construction with the infinitive, which expresses that the speaker is sure that it will snow:
ཁཝ་ རྐྱབ་ ནི་ ཨིན་ པས །
khau cap-ni'ime
To fall snow- [inf] to be
It will snow.
Potentiality in the past or in the present tense
In order to indicate potentiality in the past or the present tense, one connects the auxiliary verb with the inflected verbal stem.
Example:
ཨིན མ་ འོང༌ །
'im-ong
be- [pot]
It could be / It is possible.
ནཱ་ ལྷོད་ ལྷོད པ་ འོང༌ །
nâ hö-höp-ong
arrive-arrive- [pot]
It could already have arrived.
If the verb འོང་ ནི་ ong-ni “to come” is to be used with the auxiliary verb འོང་ ong, then the verb stem changes to the suppletive form འཐོན་ thöng.
Adhortative
With the adhortative one expresses a request, encouragement or admonition. The adhortative is formed by adding the ending གེ་ -ge to the unflected verb stem. The negation is formed with the auxiliary verb བཤོལ་ shö, which is attached to the inflected stem, and the ending གེ་ -ge.
Example:
ལ་ ཡག་ ལུ་ འགྱོ ཝ་ བཤོལ་ གེ །
Laya-lu jou-shö-ge
Laya-to-refrain- [adh]
Let's not go to Laya.
Optional
The optative is used to express a wish. To form the optative, the auxiliary verb བཅུག་ cu is added to the unflected verb stem. The negation of the optative is formed by negating the auxiliary verb བཅུག་ cu with the prefix མ་.
Example:
ཁོང་ གིས་ ཁྱོད་ བཟུང་ མ་ བཅུག །
khong-gi chö zung-ma-cu
you- [erg] you catch-not- [opt]
May they not catch you!
imperative
The imperative is used to give orders or to make a request. The imperative of a verb is simply the unflexed stem. The negative imperative is formed with the prefix མ་ ma- in front of the stem.
Examples:
ཡར་ ལོང༌ །
yâ long
get up
Stand up!
འགྲང་ སྐད་ མ་ རྐྱབ་ སྨས །
drangke ma-cap 'mä
do not burp [fe]
Hey don't burp!
Promotion type
Progressive
The progressive indicates an activity of which the subject knows from its own observations that it is currently taking place in the present tense. The progressive is formed by adding the ending དོ་ -do to the verb stem of verbs that denote an activity.
There are two ways to negate the progressive in the present tense:
- With the prefix མི་ mi-
- The negative form of the verb “sein” མེན་ mä is used as an auxiliary verb with the inflected verb stem
Perseverative
The verb སྡོད་ dö “to stay, to sit” is used as an auxiliary verb to express “to continue doing something, not to stop doing something”. So there is a perseverative type of action .
Example:
ཨ་ ལུ་ དེ་ རྩེད མོ་ རྩེ་ ནི་ དེ་ རང་ སླབ་ སྡོད པ་ མས །
'alu-di tsêmtse-ni-di-ra' lap-döp-me
Child-play- [inf] -das- [str] say-continue_making- [ep]
The child keeps saying that he [wants] to play.
Terminative
The auxiliary verb ཚར་ tshâ indicates the terminative type of action, i. that is, it expresses that an action has ended.
Example:
བླ་ མ་ གྱིས་ ཆོས་ བཤད་ ཚར་ ཡི །
'lama-gi chôshê-tsha-yi
Lama- [erg] preaching-finished- [pt]
The lama has finished preaching.
modality
Can
There are two different expressions in Dzongkha for two different aspects of the German verb "kann":
- To be able to do something
To express that one is physically able to do something, one uses the verb ཚུགས་ tshu “to be able to”.
Example:
འཆར་གཞི་ དེ་ ད་ རིས་ བཟོ་ མ་ ཚུགས་ པས །
châzhi-di d'ari zo ma-tshu-be
plan-who did not-can-do today- [ak]
[They] were unable to finish the plan today.
- Know how
To express that one knows how to perform an action, one needs the verb ཤེས་ shê "to know how".
Example:
འཇམ་ དབྱངས་ ཀྱིས་ ཡང་ རྟའི་ འགུར་ ཞོན་ ཤེས་ པས །
Jamyang-gi-e ta-i-gu zh'ön-she-be
Jamyang- [erg] -also horse- [gen] -to ride-know_how- [ak]
Jamyang also knows how to ride a horse.
Allowed to
The verb ཆོག་ cho “may” is used to express permission to do something.
Example:
ཏམ་ ཁུ་ འཐུང་ མི་ ཆོག །
tangkhu thung mi-cho
Smoking not allowed
Smoking is prohibited.
Have the opportunity
To express that one has the opportunity to do something, a construction of the infinitive on auf ni and the verb “to be” is used.
Example:
ང་ བཅས་ ཞབས་ ཁྲ་ རྐྱབ་ ནི་ མེད །
ngace zh'apthra cap-ni mê
we perform dance- [inf] not_be
We won't get to dance
བཏུབ་ ནི་ tupni
The verb བཏུབ་ ནི་ tupni can express various things:
- permission
The verb བཏུབ་ ནི་ tupni is used to express that something is allowed or in order.
Example:
དེ་ སྦེ་ འབད་ བཏུབ །
d'ebe be-tup
in_this_ way to be in order
It's okay to do it that way.
- Will of the subject
The verb བཏུབ་ ནི་ tupni can also be used to express what the subject wants or would or will do.
Example:
ད་ ལཱ་ ཡང་ འབད་ མི་ བཏུབ་ འོང༌ །
d'a lâ-e be-mi-tup-ong
now work-also do-not-be-in-order- [pot]
Now, [he] probably won't do the job either.
Have to
To express compulsion that one has to do something, the verb དགོ་ gô “must” is used. The negation is མི་ དགོ་ minggo and མི་ དགོ་ པས་ minggobe “not necessary”, “not wanting”.
Example:
ང་ བཅས་ ཁྱིམ་ འཚོལ་ དགོ་ པས །
ngace chim tshö-go-be
we-have to look for a house- [ak]
We have to find a house
probability
The verb འདྲ་ བས་ expresses probability.
Example:
ཁྱོད་ དཔལ་འབྱོར་གྱི་ བུ་ ཨིན མ་ འདྲབས་ སྦོ །
chö Pänjo-gi b'u 'im-drä bô
you Pänjo- [gen] son- [prb] [ctr]
So, you must be Panjo's son.
Evidentiality
To express that one has information from hearsay, one needs the sentence-final particle ལོ་ lo.
Example:
གཞུང་ གིས་ རང་ ཁྲིམས་ དེ་ བཙུག པ་ མས་ ལོ །
zhung-gi-ra thrim-di tsup-me lo
Government- [erg] - [str] law-introduce- [ep] [he]
We heard that the government was introducing this law.
Infinite verb forms
Participles
Present participle
The present participle marks an activity that is simultaneous with the activity indicated by the main verb. To form the present participle, the ending དང་ -da is added as a suffix to the inflected verb stem.
Example:
ང་ འགྱོ ཝ་ དང་ ཁོང་ ལགཔ་ གཡུག་ དོ་ བས །
nga jou-da khong lap 'yü-dee
I go- [pg] they wave hand- [pr-ak]
They waved as I left.
Durative present participle
The present durative participle indicates a long-lasting activity that is simultaneous with the activity indicated by the main verb. To form it, the suffix ས་ རང་ -sara is added to the reduplicated stem of the verb. In the reduplicated verb, the first of the two stems is inflected.
Example:
ཨ་ ལུ་ དེ་ སྔུ ཝ་ སྔུ་ ས་ རང་ སྡོད པ་ མས །
'alu-di' ngû-'ngu-sara döp-me
Child-crying-crying- [dpg] weiter_machen- [ep]
The child [sits here and] cries all the time.
Past participle and perfect gerund
The present participle gerund has several uses:
- As a gerund that modifies a sub-clause: When as a gerund it modifies a sub-clause, the past participle expresses an event that precedes the event of the main verb in time.
- As a predicative adjective: If it is used as a predicative adjective, it works like in German
- As a gerund that modifies the main verb: When the gerund modifies the main verb, it expresses the beginning of a state or activity that begins at the time indicated by the main verb.
The past participle is formed by adding the endings སྟེ་ ~ ཏེ་ ~ དེ་ -di to the verb stem. The ending is written ཏེ་ -di when the verb ends in orthographic ན་, ར་, ལ་ or ས་; དེ་ -di if it ends in ད་ and སྟེ་ -di otherwise.
Examples:
ང་ དབང་ འདུས་ ལུ་ སོང་ སྟེ་ དཀའ་ངལ་ ཐོབ་ ཅི །
nga 'Wangdi-lu song-di kange thop-ci
I got 'Wangdi-after going- [pp] problem- [pt]
After going to 'Wangdi, I got a problem.
ཚོང་ཁང་ སྒོ་ བསྡམ་ སྟེ་ ཨིན་ པས །
tshongkha go dam-di 'ime
Close the door- [pp] be
The shops were closed.
ལཱ་ དང་ འཁྲིལ་ ཏེ་ གླ་ སྤྲོད་ ནི་ ཨིན །
lâ-da thrî-di 'la trö-ni' ing
Work-with depend- [pp] pay wages- [inf] [aux]
Wages are paid according to [the quality] of the work.
The suffix སྟེ་ ~ ཏེ་ ~ དེ་ -di is also attached to verbs in the indicative or imperative in order to indicate a sequence of activities, the linear sequence of elements reflecting the chronological order of the activities. Seen in this way, these endings function as a concatenative gerund that coordinates predicates. This suffix can also be used in a construction that gives a cause or a reason. Such a construction consists of a sub-clause with an inflected verb stem, marked with an ablative suffix and followed by the phrase བརྟེན་ ཏེ་ tendi.
Prompt perfect gerund
The prompt perfect gerund specifies a previous action that just happened and that acts as a temporal adverb in the sense of "as soon as". It modifies the verb of the main clause. To form it, the ending ཅིག་ -ci is added to the inflected verb stem.
Regular perfect gerund
The perfect gerund ending ཤིང་ ན་ -shina converts a verb to a temporal adverb that modifies the verb of the main clause.
To form the regular perfect gerund, the suffix ཤིང་ ན་ -shina is added to the inflected verb stem.
Example:
ཚར་ གསུམ་ རང་ སླབ་ ཤིང་ ན་ ད་ རུང་ མ་ གོ་ ག །
tshâ sum-ra 'lap-shina d'oro ma-g'o-ga
Three times- [str] say- [pfg] nor did_not-hear- [Q]
After telling [you] three times, still haven't heard [what I said]?
infinitive
The infinitive is used as a verbal noun. As such, it can be with the definite or indefinite article or with post positions. It works like a normal noun in a syntagm. The infinitive can also be used for circumscribing constructions.
The infinitive is formed by adding the ending ནི་ -ni to the verb stem.
Example:
ང་ བོད་ འཆམ་ ལྷབ་ ནི་ དེ་ གནམ་ མེད་ ས་ མེད་ ལཱ་ ཁག་ འདུག །
nga b'öcham lhap-ni-di 'namesame lâkha dû
I learn bhutan mask dance- [inf] -which can be very difficult
It is very difficult for me to learn the Bhutanese mask dance
circumscribing constructions with the infinitive
The combination of an infinitive with the forms of the verb “sein” ཡོད་ yö, འདུག་ dû, མེད་ mê or མིན་ འདུག་ minu indicates a present activity or an present event.
The infinitive can be combined with the auxiliary verbs ཨིན་ 'ing, ཨིན་ པས་' ime, མེན་ mä, and མེན་ པས་ membe to talk about a planned or intended event or activity in the future. However, the combination can also indicate established circumstances.
Example:
ཨམ་ ཚུ་ དེ་ ཚུ་ ག་ ཏེ་ འགྱོ་ ནི་ ཨིན་ ན །
'amtshu-di-tshu g'âti jo-ni' ina
Frau-die-pl where to go- [inf] be [Q]
Where are the women going?
The combination of an infinitive with the form འབད་ དོ་ བས་ bedee results in the meaning «to be on to do something».
Example:
ཆུ་ ཁོལ་ ནི་ འབད་ དོ་ བས །
chu khö-ni be-dee
Boil water- [inf] make- [pr-ak]
The water is about to boil.
The infinitive can also be combined with the negation of the verb འོང་ ong «to come», which results in the meaning of "not should".
Example:
དུག་ འགུར་ ལགཔ་ འདོགས་ ནི་ མི་ འོང༌ །
d'û-gu lapdô-ni mi-ong
Poison-on-touch- [inf] not-should-should
You shouldn't touch poison with your hands
Supinum
A supinum construction expresses an intention or purpose. The supinum is formed by adding the ending པར་ -ba ~ -ma or བར་ -wa to the unflexed verb stem. པར་ -ba ~ -ma stands after hard stems, བར་ -wa after soft stems.
Suffix of acquired knowledge
The suffix of acquired knowledge is used to express that the information expressed in the sentence is newly acquired knowledge. If this suffix is not used, it can be assumed that the information has been known for some time.
The suffix of the acquired knowledge is པས་ -be ~ བས་ -we and is attached to the unflexed verb stem. པས་ -be is used after words in a consonant in Roman Dzongkha and after hard stems, བས་ -we after soft stems.
Example:
ཁོ་ གིས་ མོ་ ལུ་ དགའ་ བས
khô-gi mô-lu ga-e
er [erg] sie- [dat] love- [ak]
He loves her
Inflected verb stems
There are four ways to form the inflected stem of a verb:
- Verbs ending in -ng, -n and -m in Roman Dzongkha: the last consonant becomes -m. In verbs ending in -n or -ng, the vowel in front of the -m is lengthened
- Verbs ending in -p in Roman Dzongkha: no change
- Verbs on a vowel in Roman Dzongkha:
- Either ཝ་ -u (soft stems)
- Or པ་ -p appended (hard stems)
The subordinator མི་ mi
The ending མི་ -mi, which is added directly to the verb stem, turns a verb into a noun constituent that can be used independently as head or as an attribute.
adjectives and adverbs
comparative
The use of the comparative in Dzongkha corresponds to the use of the comparative in German: it is used to make a comparison. The comparative is formed by adding the postposition བ་ -wa «as» after the modified noun, but before the definite article དེ་ di.
Example:
ངའི་ ཕོ་ རྒནམ་ དེ་ ཁྱོད་ ཀྱི་ ཕོ་ རྒནམ་ བ་ རྒས །
ngê-phôgem-di chö-gi phôgem-wa gê
my-older_brother-thou- [gen] older_brother-than being old
My older brother is older than your older brother
superlative
The use of the superlative in Dzongkha corresponds to the use of the superlative in German. The superlative is formed with the postposition ཤོས་ -sho.
Example:
ཕྱུག པོ་ ་ ཤོས་ ཁོ་ ཨིན །
pchup-sho kho 'ing
rich-most he be
He is the richest.
Adverbializers
The stem of the verb འབད་ be “make” / “do” can be added as a suffix to phrases or parts of speech to form adverbs .
Subordinate sentences
There are several ways to form a subordinate sentence in Dzongkha. If a verb stem is inflected, the sentence is nominalized to mean “the fact that”. The inflected verb stem then becomes a complement of the verb of the main clause. The nominalized inflected verb stem can also have endings or postpositions.
Example:
ཁོ་ འོང་ ནི་ ཨིན མ་ ང་ གིས་ བརྗེད་ སོ་ ནུག །
kho ong-ni 'im' ngâ-gi jê-so-nu
he come- [inf] [aux] I- [erg] forget- [pf] - [ip]
I forgot he was coming.
In order to be able to reproduce questions with an “ob” or an interrogative pronoun in Dzongkha, one needs the interrogative particle ག་ ga or ན་ na.
In general, subordinate clauses that are the complement of a verba sentiendi et dicendi are governed by the subordinator ཟེར་ z'e “that”.
Direct and indirect speech
If the subordinator ཟེར་ z'e “that” is used with verba dicendi, indirect speech is expressed.
Example:
ཁོ་ ལཱ་ འབདཝ་ ཨིན་ ཟེར་ སླབ་ ཨིན་ པས །
kho lâ beu 'ing z'e' lap 'ime
he do work [aux] that say [aux]
He says he's working.
The subordinator ཟེར་ z'e “that” is also used to introduce direct speech. Sometimes it is only thanks to the context that one can distinguish whether indirect or direct speech is meant. Often, however, a different construction is used for direct speech than for indirect speech.
Example:
བཀའ་ དྲིན་ ཆེ་ ཟེར་ སླབ་ ཤིག །
kadr'iche z'e 'lap-sh
thank you for saying- [u]
Say thank you'!
Conjunctions
The conditional conjunction "if" / "if"
To form a conditional, the conjunction པ་ ཅིན་ -bacin, བ་ ཅིན་ -wacin or མ་ ཅིན་ -macin “if” / “if” is added to the verb at the end of the sentence. The ending བ་ ཅིན་ -wacin comes after verbs with a soft stem, མ་ ཅིན་ -macin after certain verbs on -m or -ng and པ་ ཅིན་ -bacin everywhere else. The verb stem remains uninflected. The conjunction པ་ ཅིན་ -bacin ˜ བ་ ཅིན་ -wacin can be shortened to ན་ -n and is then attached directly to the verb. The prefix མ་ ma- is used for negation.
Example:
ང་ ཁྱོད་ ཨིན་ པ་ ཅིན་ ང་ གིས་ སྣུམ་ འཁོར་ དེ་ ག་ ལུ་ ཡང་ བར་ བར་ མི་ བྱིན །
Nga chö 'im-bacin' ngâ-gi 'numkho-di g'â-lu-e' nya-wa mi-bj'in
I be you-if I- [erg] the vehicle-who-to-lend- [sup] not-give
If I were you I wouldn't lend this car to anyone.
The concessional conjunction "though"
The conjunction རུང་ -ru “though” is added to the verb at the end of the concessionary clause. The prefix མ་ ma- is used for negation.
Example:
ང་ ནངས་ པ་ ཆུ་ཚོད་ དྲུག་ ལུ་ མ་ འོང་ རུང་ བཏུབ་ ག །
Nga nâba chutshö-dr'û-lu ma-ong-ru tup-ga
tomorrow I am-six-at-no-come-although in_order_be- [Q]
Will it be okay even if I don't come at six tomorrow?
The adversative conjunction "aber"
In Dzongkha there are different ways of expressing the German adverse conjunction “aber”, depending on what kind of contrast is to be expressed.
མེན་ པར་ memba
The conjunction མེན་ པར་ memba “but, dear” is used to represent a specific contrast between two options: “not that, but that”.
མེན་ པར་ memba “but, dear” is added to the inflected stem of the verb at the end of the first proposition. The verb is negated.
དི་ འབདཝ་ དང་ d'i beuda
The conjunction དི་ འབདཝ་ དང་ d'i beuda “but” indicates a categorical contrast
དེ་ འབད་ བར་ d'i bewa
The conjunction དེ་ འབད་ བར་ d'i bewa “but” indicates a less categorical contrast
The alternative conjunction "or"
The different functions of the conjunction “or” are also represented in Dzongkha using different words.
ཡང་ ཅིན་ yangcin
ཡང་ ཅིན་ yangcin reproduces some of the most common functions of the German “oder”.
སྨོ་ mo
If you want to give two alternatives, the verb སྨོ་ mo is placed after both alternatives.
ཡ་ ya
When it comes to a choice between two things expressed by a noun or a demonstrative, the conjunction ཡ་ ya is used.
དེ་ མེན་ d'imä ~ d'imen or དེ་ མེན་ རུང་ d'imeru
If two alternatives are presented and the second is realized, if the first does not, then either the expression དེ་ མེན་ d'imä ~ d'imen “otherwise” or དེ་ མེན་ རུང་ d'imeru ”or otherwise »Used.
The causative conjunction "because"
The conjunction ག་ ཅི་ ཨིན མ་ ཟེར་བ་ ཅིན་ g'aci'im-z'ewacin “because” is used to indicate the reason or cause of a proposition in the preceding statement.
Example:
ཁོ་ ལུ་ ཆ་ བཞག་ ནི་ མི་ འོང་ ག་ ཅི་ ཨིན མ་ ཟེར་བ་ ཅིན་ ཁོ་ ཤོབ་ རྐྱབ་ ཨིན །
khô-lu chazhâ-ni mi-ong g'aci'im-z'ewacin kho shopcap 'ing
he [dat] should not leave [inf] because he is lying [aux]
He should not be relied on as he is a liar.
The two less common conjunctions ག་ ཅི་ སྨོ་ ཟེར་བ་ ཅིན་ g'acimo-z'ewacin and ག་ ཅི་ འབད་ ཟེར་བ་ ཅིན་ g'acibe-z'ewacin also express a causative relationship out.
Forms of courtesy
Like Tibetan, Dzongkha has a special dictionary for formal situations. The form of politeness is used when addressing high-ranking people who need to be respected, and also when referring to such people. Usually the honorifics are completely different words. Both pronouns and nouns as well as verbs are affected.
Here are some examples:
Verbs
| default | Form of courtesy | German |
|---|---|---|
| སླབ་ 'lap | གསུང་ sung and ཞུ་ zh'u | speak, say |
| ཟ་ z'a | བཞེས་ zhê | eat |
| འཐུང་ thung | བཞེས་ zhê | drink |
| འོང་ ong | བྱོན་ j'ön | come |
| རྐྱབ་ cap | གནང་ 'nang | To run |
noun
| default | Form of courtesy | German |
|---|---|---|
| གཟུགས་ zû | སྐུ་ གཟུགས་ kuzu | body |
| ལགཔ་ lap | ཕྱག་ châ | hand |
| མིག་ ཏོ་ 'mito | སྤྱན་ cen | eye |
| ཁ་ kha | ཞལ་ zh'ä | mouth |
| མགུ་ ཏོ་ guto | དབུ་ 'û | head |
The particle ལགས་ lâ at the end of a sentence is also a sign of politeness
Example:
ང་ ལུ་ དངུལ་ ཀྲམ་ གཅིག་ བརྒྱ་ དེ་ ཅིག་ ལྷང་ གནང་ ལགས །
ngâ-lu 'ngütram cikja-deci lhang-'nang lâ
I- [dat] 'ngütram offer-give-one hundred-as-much [pol]
Please give me a hundred 'ngütram.
Numeralia
In Dzongkha there is a number system based on 10 ( decimal system ) and one based on 20 ( vigesimal system ).
Here are the numbers from 1 to 10 in the decimal system:
| ༡ | གཅིག་ | cî, ci | one |
| ༢ | གཉིས་ | 'nyî | two |
| ༣ | གསུམ་ | sum | three |
| ༤ | བཞི་ | zhi | four |
| ༥ | ལྔ་ | 'nga | five |
| ༦ | དྲུག་ | d'rû | six |
| ༧ | བདུན་ | thin | seven |
| ༨ | བརྒྱད་ | gä | eight |
| ༩ | དགུ་ | gu | nine |
| ༡༠ | བཅུ་ ཐམ་ | cuthâm | ten |
font
The Dzongkha alphabet is identical to the Tibetan script and is called the 'Ucen དབུ་ ཅན་ script. This script was developed on the basis of the Gupta or Brahmi script , which was used for Sanskrit in the middle of the seventh century . In addition to the 'Ucen script, there is the formal handwriting མགྱོགས་ ཚུགས མ་ jôtshum and the cursive handwriting མགྱོགས་ ཡིག་ jôyi.
literature
- Downs, Cheryl Lynn (2011). Issues in Dzongkha Phonology: An Optimality Theoretic Approach (PDF). San Diego State University.
- Namgyel, Singye (2003). The Language Web of Bhutan. Thimphu. ISBN 99936-10-37-7
- van Driem, George; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab) (2017). The Grammar of Dzongkha (PDF).
- van Driem, George; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab) (1998). Dzongkha. In: Languages of the Greater Himalayan Region. Leiden: Research School CNWS, School of Asian, African and Amerindian Studies. ISBN 90-5789-002-X .
Web links
- Dzongkha Development Authority. (No longer available online.) Ministry of Education, Bhutan, October 14, 2004, archived from the original December 4, 2008 ; accessed on February 19, 2017 (English).
- Search Himalayan Languages Dictionaries. Online dictionary. National Digital Library of Bhutan, accessed February 19, 2017 .
- Dzongkha - Ethnologue
Individual evidence
- ↑ Dzongkha. In: Ethnologue - Languages of the World. Retrieved June 3, 2018 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: Dzongkha . Leiden 1998, ISBN 90-5789-002-X , p. 3 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: Dzongkha . Leiden 1998, ISBN 90-5789-002-X , p. 3 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): Dzongkha . Leiden 1998, ISBN 90-5789-002-X , p. 3-12 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 18 .
- ↑ Cheryl Downs: Issues in Dzongkha Phonology: an optimality theoretic approach . San Diego 2011, p. 12 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 38-99 .
- ↑ Cheryl Downs: Issues in Dzongkha Phonology: an optimality approach . San Diego 2011, p. 20 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 43 - 54 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 38-39 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 38 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 99-100 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 84 .
- ↑ Cheryl Downs: Issues in Dzongkha Phonology: an optimality theoretic approach . S. 16 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): Dzongkha . Leiden 1998, ISBN 90-5789-002-X , p. 94 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 110 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 111 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 111-112 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 112 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 112, 126-127 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 178-181 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 113-135, 137-140 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 181 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 213-215 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 255-258 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 258-266 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 338 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 354-355 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 355-356 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 196 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 204 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 205 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 215 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 266-280 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 346-352 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongka . 2017, p. 223-224 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 224-225 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 406 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 187-189 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 280 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 280-281 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 230-231 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 232 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 233 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 234 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 235 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 238 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 397 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 286-294 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 328 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 226 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 182 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 196-197 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 399 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 135 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 136 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 307 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 388-393 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 393-395 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 294-298 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 298-300 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 300-303 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 303-305 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 305-307 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 413-419 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô (collab): The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 140, 148-149 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 21 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 22 .
- ↑ George van Driem; Karma Tshering of Gaselô: The Grammar of Dzongkha . 2017, p. 29 .