Foal fur

Black colored foal fur

The heavy dickledrigen skins adult horses , known as Ross hides were always almost exclusively to horse leather processed. The skins of young foals are mainly used for fur processing . Most of them come from semi-wild herds in the former Soviet Union and South America.

Foal skins are currently hardly used for fur purposes and only traded to a limited extent. On the one hand, this is due to a change in fur fashion. On the other hand, in terms of quantity, a return of the fashion to foal pelts is not to be expected in the future either, since the pelts are a by-product of the constantly reduced foal meat production in the past . In addition, there is now a changed social attitude from the horse as an agricultural animal to the mount for urban dwellers (compare horse meat ).

Old trade names that are no longer in use today and are no longer permitted are Fohlon, Fohlette or Gaulette.

hide

The characteristic feature of the equidae is the so-called “horse mirror” at the height of the hip hump above the hind legs. It can also be clearly seen on the flesh side of the skins of freshly killed animals with its darker color, → Cordovan leather. It is up to 2 1/2 mm thicker and firmer than the rest of the skin; the color difference disappears during dressing (tanning). In this part of the body, the hairline changes, this apparently serves to improve the drainage of water in animals living in an unprotected environment. The mirror has the smallest dimension in the newborn foal, in comparison to that in another odd ungulate, the zebra, it is much larger. A specialist for fur sellers also calls the two foal mirrors " Dieche nreflexe". Another characteristic is the mane base that is usually still recognizable at the back of the head.

The easily confused veal and cowhides have no mirrors, their characteristic is the swirl of hair on the neck. Calf-like skins of young cattle were referred to; after an agreement on honest fur names had been agreed within the framework of the RAL regulations , this designation became inadmissible (foal calf would be correct).

Foal fur is praised for its durable leather and its effective protection against the cold. Fine-haired, thin-leather, moiré foal skins and the skins of smaller, adult animals with beautiful moiré are particularly suitable for fur processing. The latter are made usable for fur purposes by grinding the leather thin.

The hair of horse skins is longer and coarser than that of foal skins, shiny, more or less strongly moiré. The undercoat is only weakly developed. The colors are white, black, donkey gray, mostly brown; red-brown or black-white piebald. Flat-haired skins are more prone to hair loss ("mild hair").

Durability coefficient:

Foal fur 60–70%

Horse skin 20-30%

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  Older top hat from "top hat foal"

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  Legwarmer from pony skin with blue fox trimmings, colored (2011)

Foal skins are the skins of animals that are up to about two months old. For the fur processing, the skins of younger, mostly a few days old foals are preferred. Premature births, which are rare in horses, as well as skins from animals slaughtered immediately after birth are traded as Galjak foals (or Goljak; also cylinder foals ), they usually have a nice moiré. If, on the other hand, the moiré is little or not yet developed, it is called, depending on the character, Galjak foals "without" or "with pattern". Unpatterned foal skins have hardly any value.

The skins are fine-haired and thin in the leather. The older the animal, the longer and coarser the hair and the heavier the fur. However, the leather can be made thinner and therefore lighter by folding and grinding ( split foals ). The fur length of the foals is between 60 and 100 cm.

The colouration of the foal skins is mainly monochrome:

gray, reddish gray, gray-brown (pale brown) to dark red-brown, black. Partly pied.

The underside is much lighter, sometimes whitish yellow.

Come from (foal)

White Foalskin and Foal Tail (White Horse Ranch Museum, Nebraska )

1. Europe

Kazan (Volga): short-haired, beautiful moiré, thin leather; predominantly large in the body. - The best variety, often naturally dark.

Central Russia: Short-haired, mostly well moiré, less pleasing sheen, thin leather, almost like Kazan.

Western Russia: Long-haired, partly good moiré, still pleasing shine; medium-sized.

Baltic region (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia): Similar to those from western Russia; still well moiré, not very shiny, some larger, like Central Russian varieties.

Southern Russia, Ukraine: Similar to the Western Russian varieties, but smaller, like the Bessarabers. The best from the Volhynia region of Ukraine.

Bessarabia: Similar, but not so silky; medium-sized.

Poland: Like the West Russian varieties; less shiny, medium-sized, the best in the Lublin area .

Denmark: About half the number of pelts is moiré, large pelts.

2. Asia

Siberia: Long-haired, less shiny, thick-leather, small. There are mainly smaller varieties.

Turkestan, Mongolia, China (especially the north): Not very shiny, very light-weight, very small.

Tajikistan : This is where the Lokaier horse breed comes from. The most common coat colors are brown, mold, and fox. The fur of browns and foxes often has a golden sheen

Provenances of the Russian standard:

Kazan, Central Russian, Vitebsky, Homeler, Siberian steppes, Siberian grain, Central Asiatic, Mongolian, South-Eastern .

Russian assortment:

Sklizok and Galjak foals , the extra-flat ones (divided into several varieties).

Urostok (grass eater), of fully grown flesh, much larger in body, smoky and without moiré and with weak markings (mirror).

Pertschatoschny (gloves), also Mechowoj (fur), large skins, long-haired, not drawn.

3. South America

From here around 20,000 to 25,000 skins were delivered annually from meat production, in the natural colors (reddish brown, donkey gray (therefore also "donkey foals"), etc.), which were dyed in fashionable colors or printed with patterns. Although the largest deliveries came from South America in 1988, there were hardly any “lots” on the market at that time, due to the trend away from flat fur types; It was said that the skins are likely to be used in leather processing.

"Paletot and trouser blanket from a Russian foal" (approx. 1901)		Foal automobile jacket for women and automobile foal fur for men (ca.1900)

History, trade

• Foal coat from 1929 in the Rotterdam Museum
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Foal skins didn't have a very long history in fur fashion. In 1623 a master furrier from Friedeberg was reprimanded for having taken over the dishonorable work of the flayer at the behest of his rulership and peeling the skin off a fallen horse. Such dishonest work could easily lead to expulsion from the guild and thus practically amounted to a professional ban.

Brass reported in 1911 that, despite its long cultural history, the horse could only be counted among the fur animals in recent years. At that time he still said that of the very different breeds only one could be considered for the fur trade, the Kyrgyz horse. Brockhaus wrote in 1841: “ The common Kyrgyz wear horse skins.” The Kyrgyz foals were slaughtered because they wanted to get the mare's milk instead of the foals. In addition to the direct use of milk, the intoxicating drink Kumys and a tasty cheese were made from the milk . Since the Persian broad-tailed fashion came up around the same time , the flat, broad-tailed foal skins fit very well into the fashion scene of that time, and they made sharp competition for the fine lambskins . The tobacco merchant Jury Fränkel (1899-1971) remembered that around 1910 on the train ride to the fur fair in the cold Siberian Irbit, travelers had a so-called Dochá with them, a driving fur , usually a foal coat , which was lined with Australian opossum .

At the beginning of 1920, Alexander Tuma had the opportunity to talk to the head of the then world-famous company Chapal Freres in Mantreuil near Paris. M. Chapal showed him the first successful attempts to refine foals thin and soft leather. At first they were unstained to automotive furs processed since about 1906 they began to color glossy black, and then bring them as "Pony Skin" on the market. In 1909 or earlier, the first refined Russian foal skins from Chapal Freres from Paris came to the Leipzig tobacco market. They were colored black and had a red leather. As early as 1908, the American company Albrecht Furs advertised that its driver's coats were guaranteed to be made from Russian foal skins dyed in France. No fur would be more popular and correspond better to current fashion. The fur wouldn't last, but with careful handling and occasional repairs, it would last for a few years. The price of the car coat was based on the quality of the fur, it ranged from 135 to 175 dollars.

The production of foal skins in 1911 was around 10 million, at a price of around 6 to 8 marks.

After 1902, Larisch wrote that of the many different types of fur, the moiré, flat skin is most valued for women’s items, the darker colors for men’s clothing. " Foxes " were considered to be the least color.

During the war years of the First World War , after the fur coat entered fashion, the foal's skin was able to achieve a considerable position in the fur trade thanks to its good suitability for this article . In 1929, the tobacco merchant Kurt Nestler explained the then general permanent price increases for fur based on foals: “When foals were made available for fur purposes in the 1990s, 2 German marks were paid in Germany for a raw fur. Since then, and especially after the war, the prices for foals have risen constantly. Today the raw foal skin costs up to 50 marks. ” Almost the entire world trade in foal skins was carried out via Germany until the 1920s, mainly with skins from Russia.

In 1925 the first fur foal skins from South America came onto world markets. The main season for slaughtering was December (as with guanaco ). Foals increasingly became an integral part of fur fashion until the beginning of World War II. As a result of the decline in horse breeding, the delivery of foals and horse skins has now fallen dramatically, not only from South America.

Ross tails

In 1977 the Carl Rückmar company from Frankfurt's Niddastraße , at the time the largest European trade center for tobacco products, described itself as the largest foal fur manipulator in the world with an annual turnover of 5 to 10 million marks, half of which were made up. 40 percent of the offer was sold naturally, 60 percent colored. The warehouse is said to have contained 25 to 30 thousand skins. The wholesale price for a common jacket was 750 DM, a foal coat, depending on quality and processing, 800 to 1700 DM. The price was stable compared to other types of fur that had increased in value.

In 1932 horse hides were refined for fur purposes for the first time. Leipzig finishing companies succeeded in getting the leather out of the finishing so thin that the coat processed as horse hide did not become too heavy. The dresser cut the hides along the backs because he was unable to work such a large area . Just one year later, the disadvantage was resolved and some specialist companies were able to trim the entire surface and very thinly. For the fur production, the skins were processed either natural, brown or black colored. In the beginning only flat goods were used in order not to let the coats become too heavy, until experience taught that the thick-haired and not too short-haired well moirated skins were the best substitute for foal skins . Not only did they look better and were easier to work with, but they were also expected to be more durable in terms of hair abrasion. The scarcity of materials due to import restrictions for foreign pelts were the main reason for the tobacco industry to promote the use of horse hides at that time.

Concerning the situation at the time, the clothing manufacturer Carl Heinz Rückmar stated that wholesalers put foal fur at 80 to 200 marks, depending on color and quality. The attack is decreasing from year to year. In the 1930s, 200 to 300 thousand skins were produced worldwide, while the largest producer in Argentina only produced 50 thousand. The reason is the increasing mechanization of agriculture. Europe is practically no longer of any importance as a producer, the remaining small amount comes from the Soviet Union and the Mongolian People's Republic.

The raw hides are almost exclusively used in the hides trade, mostly protected from rotting by salts, and more rarely by drying, which is more prone to damage. From here, the hides for the leather industry and the suitable qualities are fed to the tobacco shop if required.

Foal skins are sold unsalted, either air-dried or dried in a special room with preservatives or, especially for Central European goods, salted and then dried.

Hans Werner from Gera wrote about fur finishing in 1914:

The fact that it contrives the modern furriers, after acquiring the necessary knowledge and skills, the colorful stan falling foal lots while maintaining the natural ellen, white and supple leather in her hair alone high-gloss black to hide , has the elegant Fohlenjackett well as the jacket advertised many friends. A post of foals refined in Leipzig forms, almost always unsorted, a range of items in the scope of its original lot, is never hard-leather and, in a very pleasant contrast to some French black foals, certainly does not show off when clothing is made of it, whatever wind, air, rain and has to stop the sun. The drawing of the foal fur is similar to that of the broadtail or good moiréastrachan. The preservation of the fine lines and hair swirls is only possible if the leather, as the bottom of the hair roots, is preserved from any manufacturing strain, i.e. if it is left natural.

From a price edict for fur skins of Friedrich August von Sachsen from the year 1801: Horse, donkey, deer and all wild skins, except for named deer and hare skins, fox skins and frog skins, the piece with 1 thaler (the "named" ones cost 9 groschen each) .

German foal skins were either salted or dried. Since salted pelts do not have such a large number of “balders” and result in a softer leather, pelts made this durable were preferred. The following is stated about the qualities: The quality assessment is based on the condition of the hair in terms of smoke, shine and moiré. It must be taken into account that 80 percent of the goods come from maskers and are therefore of lower value than the skins of slaughtered animals, in particular they are less shiny. There is no extra sorting according to the degree of damage, these skins are only rated correspondingly lower. The classification takes place in

• I: Flat, flawless skins with good moiré.
• Ib: Semi-smoke, flawless skins with moiré or flat, flawless goods without moiré.
• Ic: Smoke, flawless skins and Galjak foals.

The same quality criteria applied to horse hides as to foal skins.

• I: Flat, with gloss and moiré.
• II: Half-smoke and slightly damaged pelts.

After the dressing, the now natural-colored foal skin range was created by sorting the skins according to their color suitability, taking into account the respective sales opportunities and the respective fashion taste (1951):

• Natural: Uniform, single-colored skins are sorted out from the larger batches, which match each other in color, smoke and moiré.
• Plain color : Next, light, single-colored, gray and brown skins are sorted out for coloring foal or fawn brown, and white and brown for coloring horse skins.
• Black: The remaining skins suitable for fur purposes are dyed black. They represent by far the largest item.
• Shot: Everything that is bald, badly damaged, raw-burned (hard areas in the leather) and tinny or badly torn is considered a shot.

The qualitative differentiation of the foal skins was as follows:

• Tips: skins of any size with pronounced flaming moiré and silky hair.
• I: Like lace skins, but with coarser moiré or a bit smoky or flatter, not quite as fiery in the hair.
• II. Like the I. variety, but less moiré and less gloss.
• IV. Flow moiré or smooth or dull skins or slightly damaged, without shine, excessive smoke.
• Weft: Heavily bald or burned, heavily sewn or rotten in the leather, stained or crooked-pointed hides.

For horse skins:

• I: All sizes and colors, flat moiré with a silky sheen.
• II. Like lace skins, but with less moiré, semi-smoke or with less sheen.
• Shot: Heavily burned, heavily sewn or rotten or burned hides in the leather.

The goods were then sorted and bundled again into so-called furrier assortments, each with six to eight skins according to quality, size and color. Depending on the respective fashion, one or two bunches were usually sufficient for one coat.

The Frankfurt tobacco retailer Richard König said in 1952 about the Chinese foal skins that their coat structure was very good. However, the leather side had to be checked very carefully because the Chinese also sold damaged skins, which they handled very skilfully. These hidden defects came to light during the preparation process .

Horse skins are traded individually, not in assortments.

In 1988 there were no figures available about the annual production of foal skins and horse hides, the deliveries were already steadily declining.

processing

Split foals were a popular item until after World War II. The thick leather of small horse hides was made thinner, lighter and more supple by splitting off a layer of leather and sanding it; the term “foal” was therefore actually incorrect. The animals were sheared for this and, after the hair had grown back so far that the hair appeared evenly again, slaughtered. An old textbook for fur finishers writes that the skins of old English racehorses were used for this.

The sloping split leather was also used.

For leather processing , the rear core parts of the horse hides, the so-called shields , are specially prepared and colored so that they can be sold as mirror goods (Cordovan leather). The grain side of the leather intended for lacquering is blanched and prepared by other manipulations, especially made supple. The leather parts are then stretched in a frame and processed with a shimmering fabric. They are then processed in shoe and saddlery workshops. Insoles are made from the shield and the back core piece that adjoins the front , these are the two most powerful parts in leather. The small piece with the tail at the back is called a scratch .

Example of placing two foal skins on top of each other with two pairs of mirrors, with simultaneous repositioning of the sides of the fur to spread the fur below (for a coat)

Division for a jacket body with 5 pairs of mirrors

When processing fur , the division of the (horse) mirror is a particular challenge for the furrier.

Usually 5 to 7 skins are required for a foal coat. These must be placed on top of and next to each other so that the mirrors are arranged in a harmonious way. The ideal distribution, in which the vertebral points meet exactly, is only possible with at least 6 or 7 heads. If the fashion requires a large lower width, the skins must also be widened at the bottom (see sketch). For this you need at least 8 to 9 smaller skins.

In 1965, the fur consumption for a sheet of fur (so-called coat “body” ) sufficient for a foal coat was given from Argentine foals with six skins, from Mongolian foals with seven to eight, and different for Russian ones. A board with a length of 112 centimeters and an average width of 150 centimeters and an additional sleeve section was used as the basis. This corresponds roughly to a fur material for a slightly exhibited coat of clothing size 46 from 2014. The maximum and minimum fur numbers can result from the different sizes of the sexes of the animals, the age groups and their origin. Depending on the type of fur, the three factors have different effects.

The leather of the foal skins is unusually sensitive to heat, ironing the shaped seams during processing must be handled with extreme care.

Horse skins are dyed or processed undyed. One piece is usually enough for a coat. Thick, long-haired hides are sheared, dyed and made into winter shoes and other things.

Foal skins are suitable for processing into coats and jackets, also colored (possibly after bleaching beforehand) or natural. Since the moiré pattern increases the value of the skins, this was partly ironed in artificially by pressing. As of 2008, there were mainly offers in the shoe and carpet sector.

While the smallest remnants are processed with almost all types of fur, this is hardly conceivable with the not so expensive foal fur, which is less attractive in terms of fur pattern and hair density - unless the remaining pieces are considerably large. That is probably why a specialist book from 1950 said, In most cases, the skins are heavily cut today. Because the heads are put together in Leipzig to form panels or whole coats . In the first years of the GDR, individual furriers specialized in fur scraps; they made coats from the heads of rabbit fur and calfskin , from beef and horse hides, but also from the claws of sheep, lamb and kidskins . However, in the prime time of the foal fashion, prefabricated Rosskopf , Rossklauen - or Rossstirn panels (so - called semi - finished products , mostly 45 x 110 cm) were in the trade. The amount of pieces, however, was not considerable.

Numbers and facts

• In 1925 the tobacco wholesaler Jonni Wende offered: foals, depending on the drawing; natural, brown or black colored, all 20 to 70 Reichsmarks each.
• 1926 quote: "Relatively the best are black hare skins , which have even been imitated by black-colored foals under the name" Black Hare "."
• Before 1944 , the best foal skins, natural or dyed, cost:

smoke a smooth 35 RM; half-smoke smooth 55, - RM

flat smooth 70, - RM; Goljaks straight 30 RM

flat moiré 55, - RM; half-smoke moiré RM 85

flat moiré RM105; Goljak Moiré 50, - RM.

annotation

1. ↑ The specified comparative values ​​( coefficients ) are the result of comparative tests by furriers and tobacco shops with regard to the degree of apparent wear and tear. The numbers are ambiguous; in addition to the subjective observations of durability in practice, there are also influences from fur trimming and finishing as well as numerous other factors in each individual case . More precise information could only be determined on a scientific basis.
   
   The division was made in steps of 10 percent each. The most durable types of fur according to practical experience were set to 100 percent.

See also

Commons : Foalskins and Horsskins  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Commons : Foalskin and Horsskin Apparel  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Commons : Processing of foal skins and horse skins  - collection of images, videos and audio files

• Coat colors of horses
• Genetics of horse colors
• Horse leather
• fur
• Other types of fur
• Furrier

Individual evidence

1. ^ C & A Brenninkmeyer (eds.): Furs . September 1986, p. 41.
2. ↑ ^{a b} Dr. Fritz Schmidt: The book of the fur animals and fur , 1970, FC Mayer Verlag, Munich, pp. 374-375
3. ↑ Dr. Paul Schöps; Dr. H. Brauckhoff, Stuttgart; K. Häse, Leipzig, Richard König , Frankfurt / Main; W. Straube-Daiber, Stuttgart: The durability coefficients of fur skins in Das Pelzgewerbe , Volume XV, New Series, 1964, No. 2, Hermelin Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Frankfurt / Main, Leipzig, Vienna, pp. 56–58
4. ↑ ^{a b c} Dr. Paul Schöps in collaboration with Kurt Häse: Foals and Roßhäute , Das Pelzgewerbe, Volume VII / New Series, No. 5, Hermelin-Verlag, Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin / Leipzig 1956, pp. 185–189
5. ↑ Dr. Paul Schöps in collaboration with Leopold Hermsdorf, Leipzig; Dr. Horst Münnich, Gotha; Dr. Fritz Schmidt, Überlingen: The fur production of the Soviet Union . In The Fur Industry , XX. Volume 9/10, Hermelin-Verlag Leipzig and Berlin, 1950. p. 12
6. ^ ^{A b} Max Bachrach: Fur. A Practical Treatise. , Verlag Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1936. pp. 507-511 (Eng.)
7. ^ ^{A b} Christian Franke / Johanna Kroll: Jury Fränkel's Rauchwaren-Handbuch 1988/89 , 10th revised and supplemented new edition, Rifra-Verlag Murrhardt, pp. 307–309
8. ^ Fritz Wiggert: Origin and development of the old Silesian furrier trade with special consideration of the furrier guilds in Breslau and Neumarkt . Breslauer Kürschnerinnung (Ed.), 1926, p. 59. Primary source: Breslauer Stadt-Archiv, Lose Akten, ZP I, 49 (1623), book cover and table of contents .
9. ^ FA Brockhaus : General Encyclopedia of Sciences and Arts. Published by JS Ed and IG Gruber, Leipzig 1841. Third Section OZ, keyword "Fur"
10. ↑ Dr. Max Mehner, edited by E. Unger: Materials science for fur and leather suppliers . Alfred Hahns Verlag, Leipzig 1910, p. 27
11. ^ Jury Fränkel: One-way street - report of a life , first part. Rifra Verlag, Murrhardt, 1971, p. 33.
12. ↑ Alexander Tuma: The History of Furrier , Verlag Alexander Tuma, Vienna, 1976, p. 237
13. ^ Friedrich Jäkel: The Brühl from 1900 to World War II . In: “All about fur” No. 3, March 1966, Rhenania-Verlag, Koblenz, p. 200
14. ↑ catalog Albrecht Furs 1908-9 . Albrecht Furs Saint Paul, Minnesota, p. 19.
15. ^ Emil Brass : From the realm of fur , 1911, publishing house of the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin, pp. 694–695
16. ^ Paul Larisch and Joseph Schmid: Das Kürschner-Handwerk , Part II, Larisch and Schmid publishing house, Paris, after 1902 (Part 1, 1902)
17. ^ Fritz Hempe: Handbook for furriers . Verlag Kürschner-Zeitung Alexander Duncker, Leipzig 1932, p. 78
18. ↑ Kurt Nestler: Tobacco and fur trade , Dr. Max Jänecke Verlagbuchhandlung, Leipzig, 1929, p. 92
19. ↑ "O. Li. “: The calfskin fur, an important article of the Leipzig tobacco industry. In: Der Rauchwarenmarkt No. 48, Leipzig, June 20, 1934, p. 3.
20. ^ Philipp Manes : The German fur industry and its associations 1900-1940, attempt at a story . Berlin 1941 Volume 4. Copy of the original manuscript, p. 313 ( → table of contents ).
21. ↑ signed Fhe .: Roßhaut - a German fur skin. In: Kürschner-Zeitung Heft 33, Verlag Alexander Duncker, Leipzig 1937, p. 795
22. ↑ VWD - Le dernier cri - facts from firmen (branch service), April 21, 1977
23. ^ H. Werner: Die Kürschnerkunst , Verlag Bernh. Friedr. Voigt, Leipzig 1914, p. 76
24. ^ ^{A b} Siegfried Beyer: On the assessment of fur skins . In: The fur industry , Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin / Leipzig 1951, issue 1/2, pp. 4–5, 9, 15
25. ↑ Richard König: An interesting lecture (report on the trade in Chinese, Mongolian, Manchurian and Japanese tobacco products). In: Die Pelzwirtschaft No. 47, 1952, p. 50.
26. ↑ W. Künzel: From raw fur to smoking goods - forays through the smoking goods refinement , Alexander Duncker Verlagbuchhandlung , Leipzig, undated (around 1935?), P. 108
27. ↑ Alexander Tuma: Pelz-Lexikon der Felz- und Rauhwarenkunde , Verlag Alexander Tuma, Vienna 1951, XIII. Volume Fachliteratur - Kaninfell , pp. 42–43 and XXI. Volume Rauhwarenhandel - Zyperkatze , p. 180.
28. ↑ Dr. Erna Mohr, Hamburg: From horsehides and zebra skins in Das Pelzgewerbe , 1964, Volume XV, Issue 4, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Frankfurt / Main, Leipzig, Vienna, pp. 168–168
29. ^ Vocational training committee of the central association of the furrier trade (publisher): Der Kürschner , JP Bachem publishing house in Cologne, 1953, pp. 76-88
30. ↑ Paul Schöps among others: The material requirement for fur clothing . In: Das Pelzgewerbe Vol. XVI / New Series 1965 No. 1, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin et al., Pp. 7-12. Note: The information for a body was only made to make the types of fur easier to compare. In fact, bodies were only made for small (up to about muskrat size ) and common types of fur, and also for pieces of fur . The following dimensions for a coat body were taken as a basis: body = height 112 cm, width below 160 cm, width above 140 cm, sleeves = 60 × 140 cm.
31. ↑ Walter Pense: Head Shop . In: Handbuch der Gerbereichemie und Lederfabrikation , in the part: The types of leather and their production , the chapter: Smoking goods . 1955. Springer-Verlag, Vienna, p. 533.
32. ^ Ernst Kreft: Modern working methods in the furrier trade , specialist publisher Schiele & Schön, Berlin, 1950, p. 38
33. ↑ L. Jänsch, Christine Speer: Again a new beginning . In: 575 years of furriers' guild in Leipzig . Furriers' Guild in Leipzig (eds.), 1998, p. 52
34. ↑ Jonni Wende company brochure, Rauchwaren en wholesale, Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Leipzig, New York, August 1925, p. 5
35. ^ "Ln": The different rabbits . In: Kürschner-Zeitung No. 19 of July 1, 1928, Verlag Alexander Duncker, Leipzig, p. 672.
36. ^ Friedrich Malm, August Dietzsch: The art of the furrier. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig 1951, p. 32.