Marmot

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

As marble fur is fur of marmots called. This article deals with the marmot skin in connection with the tobacco trade and processing into fur. In addition to the fur, the fat and meat were also used in the past .

Steppe
marble left fur with jaguar print
Marble coat, undyed, omitted processing (made around 1985?)

Marmots are distributed across Europe , North America and Asia ; they differ in typical characteristics depending on their habitat. Most of the skins on the market come from the steppe marble.

The Himalayan marmot and the long-tailed marmot are protected under the Washington Convention, Appendix III and EC Regulation 1332/05 Appendix C, first listing since October 13, 1977.

history

In 2006, Russian archaeologists and German archaeologists found the ice mummy of a Scythian warrior from the Pacific culture (5th – 3rd century) during excavations in the Altaj (Mongolia ). The "blond prince" from the mountains was kept warm by a splendid fur coat made of mishide , sable skin and marble. The skins were colored blue and red with Indian indigo and Kermes, probably imported from Persia . Even in modern times, the best Mongolian marble skin qualities came from the Altaj.

Even Marco Polo mentioned in the 13th century, the marmot hunting by the Mongols . Marmots are said to have come to Germany from Poland as early as the early Middle Ages. However, it was not until the end of the 19th century that it became a mass product in the tobacco industry for a long time.

The German natural scientist Georg Wilhelm Steller traveled to the Kamchatka Peninsula with the "Great Russian Expedition" to explore Siberia from 1741 to 1744. In his “Description of the Land of Kamchatka” he writes “ that the 'tapar firs or marmots' occur on the small island of Lopatka at the southern tip of Kamchatka and on the Tigil River in the interior of the peninsula, but that the inhabitants do not make any particular effort to catch them ; they value the meat more than the bad fur . "

An American scientist, Waldemar Jochelson , observed Tarbaganer marbles in the Yakut province around 1921 , " a Turkish cavalry people who had advanced far to the northeast from the Altai in the Lena river area " (see also above). " The fact that this tribe preferred for making fur marmot skins, Jochelson leads back to the fact that they already knew in earlier, far southern residential area, this fur carrier and appreciated. "

In 1794 Krünitz mentions the use of the marble skin in Berlin, "only for cap trimmings", around the same time by another author: as "trimmings on the large caps that are worn in some areas by wealthy country folk to the state". In 1814 Schedels Waaren-Lexikon wrote “ Switzerland supplies the hides for the tobacco shop and the fat for the pharmacies .” In 1911 Brass says, “ Roast marmot is particularly popular in Switzerland .” The fat, “ in called 'Mankeischmalz' in the Alpine countries ”, was also considered a remedy, especially against tuberculosis ( Fritz Schmidt , 1970).

“The Canadian marble - Arctomys empetra - inhabits the Hudson lands and Canada. He is very similar to the Bobak and, like the latter, a cave animal with somewhat harder, colored hair. This mostly flat, blackish variety is offered as a so-called “marble jelly” at Easter in Leipzig. These goods can of course never be considered for packaging where furrier skins are available in the millions. "

- H. Werner (1914)

The processing of marmot skins was not of great importance in the Alpine region either:

"The fur does not come into world trade, but is processed locally into satchels, hunting bags, hats, etc."

- Emil Brass (1911)

The processing of around 2500 skins per year in Switzerland, on the other hand, jumped to around 14,000 skins during the Second World War - mostly used for the production of coats - because skins could no longer be imported.

The European-American marble (animals)

Alpine Marble Skin (Tyrol)

The distribution of the Alpine marmot once stretched from the Pyrenees to the Eastern Carpathians. Today it only occurs in the higher elevations of the Alps and some parts of the Carpathian Mountains.

The coat is rather stocky with a coat length of about 53 to 73 cm. The short, densely hairy tail is only a quarter of the body length. The ears are short and round.

Coat structure : The somewhat coarse, very matt hair is medium-long, wavy and dense. Autumn pelts are a little darker and silky than the somewhat lighter and coarser spring pelts. The back is dark. The awn is 27 to 32 mm long, the guide hairs up to 43 mm. The diameter of the awn is 0.12 to 0.14 mm. With back hair, the awn sits at the end, with stomach hair in the middle of the hair. The wool hair is 25 mm long.

The fur is rough and dense and is of little importance for the fur trade, especially since it is always summer fur”, in winter it is practically impossible to catch. This also explains in general why marbles from many mountain areas are hardly used.

Muff made of mink-dyed marble fur ("mink marble"), approx. After 1900

The woodchuck , also known as the American marmot and other names, lives in North America from latitude 35 to 55 degrees north, in Alaska, Labrador and British Columbia.

The northern provenances of the woodchuck, which were listed in the auction lists of the Hudson's Bay Company under the name Wheenusk from the Cree Indians, havesome significance” for the fur trade “ . Brownish color with a yellowish reddish to gray shimmering tinge. The population is very strong, but the fur is little used because the hair is quite coarse. Indians once used it as lining for their clothing and to decorate their traditional costumes. "

Ulu or Ulo, "women knife of the Eskimos"

The Eskimos in southern Alaska and on the Aléuts wear an outer jacket made of marble skins. They pull it off beforehand using a crescent-shaped woman's knife, called a Ulo, then clean and scrape it so that it can be freed from carrion. They also prep it with urine. "

The raw hides are delivered open, not pulled off round. The deliveries to the fur markets are insignificant. Mostly it was summer skins that came into the trade from the Alpine Marble until the first half of the 20th century, as the local conditions made winter hunting too arduous and unprofitable. Half of the skins were also devalued by bullet holes.

The species also living in North America, the ice-gray marmot and the yellow-bellied marmot, are not used by the fur industry, as is the long-tailed marmot that lives in Afghanistan .

The (Asian) steppe marmot

The fur of the steppe marmot is sold as a marble , occasionally still as a Bobak or Bobuk . His home is the steppes in the European part of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan, Transbaikaliens; the forest steppes of Western Siberia, the mountain steppes of the Eastern and Central Tian Shans, Altai and Mongolia, northeast China. The greatest distribution is in Central Asia. He was naturalized in the Caucasus.

The coat color is dark brown in autumn, partly blue-gray. White animals are very rare. The skins from eastern Mongolia are more reddish in color.

The moulting takes place as with most hibernating animals only once, in the spring. If they come to light, the hair bleaches heavily. The hair change begins in the cross section and then gradually continues over the back, shoulders and limbs. With the Asian weasel a distinction is therefore made according to the fishing season (time of attack):

a) “Blues”, the blue autumn goods (October – December, time when the fur is ripe) is supple in the hair and leather, but often flat-haired, silky. The color is dark, partly blue-gray (including the Mongolian marbles) with a dark bluish awning tip. Higher quality than the yellow skins.
b) "Yellows", the yellow spring product, it has thinner hair and is dry in the leather. The hair is harder and dry (fat-free), somewhat brittle, matt to shiny, yellowish to red-yellowish.
Although the dressing degreases the skins, blue varieties appear softer in the hair than yellow ones.

With a fur length of about 40 cm, the size corresponds to that of the rabbit, plus the tail with a little over 10 cm.

Coat and hair structure : The guard hairs are 25 to 55 mm long, thick and smooth; the thin woolly hairs are curved and only about half as long as the awns, but 10 times more dense. On the belly side, the hair density is 2 to 3 times less than on the back. The individual hairs are light in the middle, the tip is whitish in the woolly hair, dark in the awning hair.

In the tobacco industry, only the pelts that do not have swirls of hair are considered to be of full value.

The durability coefficient is given as 70 to 80%. When the fur animals are divided into the fineness classes silky, fine, medium-fine, coarse and hard, the marble hair is classified as coarser.

Fur trade in Nizhny Novgorod around 1900

The skins come from four main regions : 1. the Altai and the Sayan Mountains ; 2. Northern Mongolia ; 3. Northwest China and 4. Xinjiang . There are also some scattered occurrences, namely Tibet , western Manchuria and the following:

Automobile driver's coat made of marble skin. In an American sales prospectus from 1910 referred to as “Russian mink (marble)”.

The trade distinguishes between the following qualities in particular:

  • Tarbagan (Tarbogan, mountain marble) from the Altai , Semipalatinsk , Central Siberia, Eastern Siberia.
    • The pelts are particularly large (60 to 70 cm) and full of hair (smoke), the gray-yellow undercoat is long and very dense. The long, very strong awns are yellowish in color and have a good shine, the tips of the hair are dark brown. Similar skins come from Eastern Siberia and Kamchatka .
    • The Turkish name Tarbagan is likely named after the city of Tarbacan , although it is used to refer to various other origins.
  • Orenburg (Tschikalowa, Tschkalawa) from the Kyrgyz steppe.
    • The skins are smaller and narrower than other types, semi-smoky, quite fine, yellowish. They are delivered particularly wide. They were considered the most sought-after qualities.
    • The name is derived from the former main trading place, the town of Orenburg on the Ural River , from where the skins came onto the market from June and were mostly bought by German buyers. "The rest comes to the fair in Nizhny , where the skins are usually not as good in quality as the first shipments." The best varieties come from the Orsk region on the Ural knee. The skins can be recognized by their elongated shape. The raw material contained around ten percent “shot” and a small proportion of mandrel marbles, of which two skins were calculated for a large one. The main collection point for the Orenburg marbles was Moscow.
  • Beisky (from the northern slopes of the Altai to Petropavlovsk and Tomsk , less common to the east to Yeniseisk ), the main part of the attack.
    • Big skins, quite short-haired. Dull to shiny hair. "Blue Beiskys" are tinted a little blue-gray.
    • Beisky to the town of Biysk near Tomsk on the upper reaches of the Ob , through which they were mainly traded. The original trade route went via Chailas and Wernehnae-Udinsk (= Verkhne-Udinsk or Ulan-Ude [?]) With the Siberian railway to Kalgan (today Zhangjiakou ). The raw hides came from the outskirts of Mongolia via Urga (which is why they used to be called Urgamurmel next to Beisky, today Ulan Bator ) to Kjachta .
    • In 1909 a serious epidemic broke out among the Mongolian marbles, which for almost ten years led to high fur prices due to the shortage of materials that had arisen. The marmot also spread to humans: Everything that came into contact with animals or skins fell victim to the disease. It claimed about 100,000 lives.
Invoice from the Bremen furrier Hugo Köppe from 1935 for a marble coat for 275 marks

“The main hunting season for these animals is not spring, as is the case with the Orenburg people, but autumn and the first fresh consignments hit the market in Moscow in December. The main crowd then to Irbit at the fair. In total, around 2½ million skins come onto the market every year, which are always around 10 percent cheaper than Orenburg. Usually the same are traded in such a way that 60 percent blue and 40 percent yellow have to be taken together, but this percentage changes frequently. "

- Emil Brass

“Manchurian marbles are often mixed with marbles from Inner Mongolia via China. In the past, the so-called Beisky marbles could be distinguished from the Manchurian marbles by their external presentation, since the Beisky marbles were packed broken in the middle, while the Manchurian marbles were laid openly in the bale over the whole area. Nowadays the Manchurian marbles are sometimes packed broken to make them look similar to the Beisky. But while the Beisky marbles have fairly dry leather, the Manchurian marbles are bold, slightly larger and shorter and flatter in the hair. "

- Aladar Cologne
  • Russian (Saratov)
    • Are a little shorter-haired than Beisky, less top hair.
    • In the " Russian Standard ", the larger Tarbagan marbles are traded as a separate type of fur of a special origin. A distinction is made between "Tarbaganer" and "Marble" as follows:
      • Tarbagans: Altai, Semipalatine, Central Asia, Fergan, Yakutsk
      • Marbles: Mongols, Manchurians, Petropavlovsk, Orenburg, Beisky, Russian
    • The incidence of raw-burned pelts (due to putrefaction hard in the leather) and rejects is very high in Central Asian varieties, since the skins are sold with carrion, in contrast to the Altayers and semi-palatine kernels, which are delivered without carrion (1998).

A distinction is made according to sizes:

  • Krupny = large (fully developed)
  • Feces (t) el = medium-sized
  • Mendel, Mindel: small (Jungfelle)

Mongolia and China . Depending on where they come from, the skins are silky or stocky or very flat, straw-like with little covering of awn, often with vertebrae. Xinjiang marbles have very long hair and are dark in color; but often crude, poor in quality.

Three ecological groups are distinguished from the Mongolian marmot:

  1. In terms of size and quality, the 'Altaj' marmots deliver the best skins from dark to black. The fur is characterized by density, softness and abundantly developed undercoat.
  2. The fur of the somewhat smaller marmots of the ' Changaj ' has dark back hair and long awns, but less dense undercoat.
  3. The 'eastern' marmot is the smallest form with a reddish colored coat, which does not come close to the other two types in terms of quality.

The raw skins are also cut open, but they are almost always put together to form plates (Marmotskin plates) before they are resold to the intermediate trade or the furriers.

  • The Frankfurt tobacco retailer Richard König called the Kansummurmel in 1952 . They are straw-like, coarse and qualitatively cannot be compared with the well-covered tobacco and beisky.

Brass reports on a Japanese marmot that lives in the Hondos mountains , from “ whose skins are in the bathing resorts and tourist spots, such as. B. Nijkko and Mynoshita, processed into slippers and all sorts of small souvenirs, are offered. They are of no importance for the fur trade. "

In 1970, Fritz Schmidt saw in his standard work “The Book of Fur and Fur Animals” the care of the genus carried out in the former Soviet Union as an example of how “ the needs of the economy for a certain type of fur can be met without affecting the stocks affected fur animals experience a stronger and increasing decimation. Everything that was useful for this project and promoted it, hegemonic supervision, elastic control of the catch depending on the size of the stocks, new or resettlement of previously inhabited places etc. was taken up and applied - and without a doubt and obviously with quite good success . “It can be assumed that this kind of protection no longer takes place with the end of the previous socialist system. However, the groundhog does not seem to be threatened by the trend towards breeding minking in particular and by turning away from cheaper imitations of other types of fur, at least through fur hunting.

Mink fur.
Part of a mink-colored, grotesque marble tablet. You can see the dark groats (fur backs) that do not correspond to the natural fur.
2008, around 35 years old
Advertisement in a specialist furrier newspaper, 1903

Refinement, processing

Marble jacket with printed jaguar pattern (ca.1980)

The durability of good marble qualities is very good compared to other skins of the squirrel-like family .

The beautiful shine only really comes out after dyeing. As early as 1814, Schedels Warren Lexicon said: “The skins are generally dyed black and make a good fur coat.” In 1895, the marbles are mostly dyed in sable or mink ( sable marbles, mink marbles, also Skunks marbles). For a long time, this refinement was carried out almost exclusively by German companies.

In 1902 Larisch mentions the " grooting " of marble; On the previously dyed mink-colored fur panels, the darker middle of the fur that was lost through the dyeing is highlighted again. After the invention of the fur sewing machine , skins began to be omitted at the end of the 19th century; With the resulting narrow strips of fur, new fashionable effects could be achieved that are only conceivable in skinning. The attempt was made to imitate this very quickly by no longer simply re-coloring the groats on cheaper types of fur in the middle of the fur, but applying them randomly in the width of mink strips that were processed in a random manner. Larisch writes: “ For the processing, however, it is advisable to use skins without Krotzen stripes and to pull them onto the object using templates only when the same has already been used. This makes the cross seams a little easier to disappear, and the ticks can be better adapted to the shape of the pattern. “After the skins had been beautifully processed into bodies , sheets of fur for a coat or jacket, and the coloring had been perfected, one could say that it was the most perfect mink imitation (1952).

The refinement of so-called Susliki marbles, which was brought onto the market in America, was described as new in 1925 . As with other types of fur, the guard hair was plucked out and the fur was dyed silver-gray or bronze-colored.

Sometimes also printed, marble tablets are processed into jackets and coats, but also for trimmings, collars and hats. Because of its good thermal properties, alpine marble hides were often used for fur blankets , and the hunters also made hats out of them. Tarbagan marbles are particularly suitable for trimmings and small items because of their larger fur surface and longer hair; Orenburger and Beisky are mainly used for coats and jackets.

Until the Second World War, marmot skins often came to furriers as skins and not as semi-finished products in the form of tablets . Hermann Deutsch on this in 1930:

“In the past, collars and muffs were mainly made from it, but nowadays the fur is a very popular material for coats and jackets. For the processing of jackets and coats, the skins are almost exclusively cut in half, seldom left out, so that the grot comes to one side. This type of combination produces very beautiful effects and the fur is enjoying increasing popularity thanks to its durability and the fact that the pieces made from it are relatively cheap. "

In 1965 the fur consumption for a fur board with 30 to 40 fur (so-called coat “body”) was specified for a marble coat, and more for Mindelmurmel. A board with a length of 112 centimeters and an average width of 150 centimeters and an additional sleeve section was used as the basis. This corresponds roughly to a fur material for a slightly exhibited coat of clothing size 46 from 2014. The maximum and minimum fur numbers can result from the different sizes of the sexes of the animals, the age groups and their origin. Depending on the type of fur, the three factors have different effects.

Numbers and facts

Men's marble coat, rock band "Firefall" (1977)
  • 1864 to 1950 , world production
Skins
1864 ( Heinrich Lomer ) 55,000
1900 ( Paul Larisch , Fritz Schmidt) 2,020,000
1923/24 ( Emil Braß ) 200,000
1930 (IPA - International Fur Exhibition ) 4,000,000
1950 (Friedrich Lübstorff) 1,800,000
  • In 1801 Buse wrote about trade and prices: “ The marmot hide mostly comes from Poland, but Russia also supplies quite a lot. The fur is mostly colored black and then costs 6 Kop in Russia. Marmot pelts are also found in the American fur trade. The price is in Kjachta: from common or blackened 1 hour 15-25 Kop. - in London: Canadian 1 ½ - 2 ½ Schelling. "
  • In 1925 , the tobacco wholesaler Jonni Wende offered : Marble: Mink colored 9 to 12 Reichsmarks; sable 8 to 12 Reichsmarks; Mindel (small) 5 to 8 Reichsmarks.
  • In the 1930s , for example, some of the larger batches of marbles that came onto the Leipzig market were made up as follows:
a) 5000 Mongolians - all blue
20% ex large
50% large
25% medium
  5% small
Quality: I = 40%, II = 60%
b) 5000 marble - blue (all blue)
50% Mongolians - 50% Urga
35% ex large (22 × 12 ")
45% large (18 × 10 ")
10% medium
10% small
Quality: I = 80%, II = 20%
c) 5000 Mongols
50% ex large
50% large
Quality I = 80%, II = 20%
d) 10,000 Mongolians (90% blue, 10% yellow)
75% ex large and large
15% medium
10% small
Quality I = 75%, II = 25%
  • Between 1942 and 1957 , Mongolia produced around 2 million pelts a year, in earlier years even 3 million.
  • In 1943 the hunting range in the Swiss canton of Graubünden was 9,000 and in Valais 2,200 animals. During the Second World War (1939–1945) the average annual production was 14,000 skins, while in peacetime hardly 2000 to 3000 skins were available on the market.
  • Before 1944 the maximum price for colored marbles was: large 12 RM, medium 9 RM.
  • In 1971 , Mongolia's yield had dropped to around 1.1 million a year. The number of unused pelts was seen as uncontrollable, which is lost because the animals are shot because of the meat and, according to local custom, are usually fried in the fur.
  • In 1987 , for the then Soviet Union, the annual volume around 1987 is said to have been between 200,000 and 300,000 pelts.
In 1987, 187,000 skins were auctioned in Leipzig and Leningrad, where the Bobaks are exclusively offered. At the moment, they are no longer traded in any noticeable amount in Germany.

annotation

  1. The specified comparative values ​​( coefficients ) are the result of comparative tests by furriers and tobacco shops with regard to the degree of apparent wear and tear. The figures are ambiguous; in addition to the subjective observations of shelf life in practice, there are also influences from tanning and finishing as well as numerous other factors in each individual case. More precise information could only be determined on a scientific basis.
    The division was made in steps of 10 percent each. The most durable types of fur according to practical experience were set to 100 percent.

See also

Commons : Marmots  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Marble Skin Clothing  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Wiktionary: Marmot  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

supporting documents

  1. Scientific information system for international species protection (Wisia) of the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation .
  2. ^ Annual report 2006 of the German Archaeological Institute.
  3. a b N. Dawaa, M. Not, G. Schünzel: About the fur animals of the Mongolian People's Republic (MVR) . In: Das Pelzgewerbe 1971 Jg. XXI New Series Vol. 1, pp. 7–8.
  4. ^ A b c Fritz Schmidt : The book of the fur animals and fur , 1970, FC Mayer Verlag, Munich. Pp. 121-127.
  5. Dr. Hans Damm, Leipzig: Marmots in Northern Siberia. The fur trade, "Supplement to the magazine Hermelin", Hermelin-Verlag, 1951, No. 1, Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Leipzig . Pp. 27-28. Primary source: Description of the land of Kamtschatka , Frankfurt, Leipzig 1774, p. 126.
  6. W. Jochelson: “The Yakuts”. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History . New York, 1933, Part 2, p. 148 (primary source: Dr. Hans Damm, Leipzig: Marmots in Northern Siberia. The fur industry, "Supplement to the magazine Hermelin", Hermelin-Verlag, 1951, No. 1, Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Leipzig, pp. 27-28).
  7. ^ JG Krünitz: Oekonomische Encyklopädie , Volume 57: Kürschner - Kyrn , Brünn 1794, keyword Kürschner .
  8. Without author's name: The status of smoking goods refinement around 1800. In: Der Rauchwarenmarkt No. 80, Leipzig, October 12, 1935, p. 5. Primary source: Karl Philipp Funke: Natural history and technology , Dessau 1798.
  9. a b Prof. D. Johann Heinrich Moritz Poppe: Johann Christian Schedel's new and complete ware encyclopedia, second part M to Z, fourth thoroughly improved edition , Offenbach am Mayn, Verlag Carl Ludwig Brede, 1814. P. 68.
  10. ^ A b c d e Emil Brass : From the realm of fur , 1911, publisher of the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin. Pp. 589-594.
  11. ^ H. Werner: Die Kürschnerkunst , Verlag Bernh. Friedr. Voigt, Leipzig 1914. pp. 72-73.
  12. a b c Heinrich Dathe , Paul Schöps with the collaboration of 11 specialists: Pelztieratlas , VEB Gustav Fischer Verlag Jena, 1986, pp. 104-107.
  13. ^ A b c d e Christian Franke / Johanna Kroll: Jury Fränkel's Rauchwaren-Handbuch 1988/89 , 10th revised and supplemented new edition, Rifra-Verlag Murrhardt. Pp. 168-170.
  14. a b c d e f g h i j Paul Schöps u. a .: The marmots . In: Das Pelzgewerbe Vol. VI / New Series, 1955 No. 4, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Leipzig, Berlin, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 126-136.
  15. a b c Alexander Tuma: Pelz-Lexikon . Fur and rough goods. XX. Tape. Verlag Alexander Tuma, Vienna 1950. pp. 16-18.
  16. Dr. Paul Schöps; Dr. H. Brauckhoff, Stuttgart; K. Häse, Leipzig, Richard König , Frankfurt / Main; W. Straube-Daiber, Stuttgart: The durability coefficients of fur skins in Das Pelzgewerbe , Volume XV, New Series, 1964, No. 2, Hermelin Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin, Frankfurt / Main, Leipzig, Vienna, pp. 56–58.
  17. Paul Schöps, Kurt Häse: The fineness of the hair - the fineness classes . In: Das Pelzgewerbe Vol. VI / New Series, 1955 No. 2, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Leipzig, Berlin, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 39–40.
  18. Max Bachrach: Fur. A Practical Treatise. , Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1936. pp. 150-157 (English).
  19. ^ A b c Richard König : An interesting lecture (lecture on the trade in Chinese, Mongolian, Manchurian and Japanese tobacco products). In: Die Pelzwirtschaft No. 47, 1952, p. 50.
  20. Aladar Kölner in Fa. D. Kölner, Leipzig : Chinese, Manchurian and Japanese fur skins, smoking goods. Eleven lectures from the product knowledge of the fur trade , Verlag Der Rauchwarenmarkt, Leipzig 1931. pp. 106–107
  21. Sosorbaram, 1968. Quoted in About the Fur Animals of the Mongolian People's Republic (MVR) , s. there.
  22. Heinrich Hanicke, furrier: Handbook for furriers , 1895, published by Alexander Duncker in Leipzig.
  23. Paul Larisch and Josef Schmid with the collaboration of outstanding specialists : Das-Kürschner-Handwerk III. Part. The processing of the skins. Volume 1, No. 2, Paris, November 1902. p. 57.
  24. Max Nasse: America's fur industry - results of a study trip by German furriers and fur manufacturers. Berlin 1925, p. 40.
  25. ^ Hermann Deutsch: The modern skinning. Handbook for furriers, dyers, bleachers, cutters and manufacturers , A. Hartleben's Verlag, Vienna and Leipzig, 1930. pp. 98–99.
  26. Paul Schöps u. a .: The material requirements for fur clothing . In: Das Pelzgewerbe Vol. XVI / New Series 1965 No. 1, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin a. a., pp. 7-12. Note: The information for a body was only made to make the types of fur easier to compare. In fact, bodies were only made for small (up to about muskrat size ) and common types of fur, and also for pieces of fur . The following dimensions for a coat body were taken as a basis: body = height 112 cm, width below 160 cm, width above 140 cm, sleeves = 60 × 140 cm.
  27. Gerhard Heinrich Buse: The whole of the action, or complete handbook of the most excellent action knowledge: for prospective merchants, brokers, manufacturers, young people eager to act and teachers in action schools, drafted in an appropriate order by Gerhard Heinrich Buse. Complete handbook of commodities: which the commodities a. the fur trader, b. the leather dealer, c. ... contains . Hennings, 1801, p. 101 (accessed August 14, 2013).
  28. Jonni Wende company brochure , Rauchwaren en wholesale, Hamburg, Düsseldorf, Leipzig, New York, August 1925, p. 11.
  29. fur trade 1955/4. Primary source Swiss fur industry 1944, No. 72.
  30. ^ Friedrich Malm, August Dietzsch: The art of the furrier. Fachbuchverlag Leipzig 1951, p. 48.