Bearskin

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Black Bear Fur (Alaska)

With bearskin or bearskin usually the fur is Great Bear meant. For the skins of the two types of small bears used for fur , see →  Raccoon skin and →  Bassarisk skin .

Until before the First World War (1914 to 1918), many polar bear skins were imported via Denmark to the fur wholesale center in Leipziger Brühl in Germany, and Canadian brown bears were also traded on the Brühl. In 1940 a contemporary still remembers the large, deeply falling collars for the stately coachmen, but also of their use as rugs: " In the boudoir , in front of the grand piano or in a corner of the master bedroom, you loved these monsters ", with one “ Big, throat-tearing head. "

Since then, only occasionally by the big bear skins for clothing the coat of Baribals used. The bearskin is of little importance in terms of fur and the possible uses. For today's needs, the fur is too coarse and too thick in the hair, often too curled or shaggy and, moreover, too heavy. However, due to the decline in stocks and the protective measures introduced as a result, the incidence is now so low that no greater use is to be expected for this reason alone. Otherwise bearskins are almost only used as blankets, carpets and tapestries (partly naturalized, with elaborated heads). The hair is also made into brushes (brush bears).

Bear meat was also used , bear paws were considered a delicacy. In some countries bear fat was considered to have a high healing power, in Germany also as a hair restorer.

brown bear

"Member of the Brotherhood of Medicine Men, wrapped in his sacred bearskin" ( Arikaree Indians, 1908)

The brown bear is most widespread among bears, but it has been decimated or pushed back almost everywhere by hunting and the destruction of its habitat; in Europe it is almost only found in Spain, the Balkan countries, northern Scandinavia and Russia. The glacier mummy Ötzi found shoes with bearskin soles, the hair worked inwards.

In Russia during the Tsarist era, the bear's fur, “always covered with a blue cloth, was the daily winter clothing of the noble and rich. The fur of the black Siberian bear was preferred, where the deep black, the length of the hair and the lightness were particularly appreciated. Durability and resilience made bear fur a suitable item of clothing even in the worst winter weather. Brown and gray bearskins were rarely used for this purpose. ”The fur coat was part of the equipment of every Russian peasant and citizen, it was an expression of the social position of its owner:“ And some people dreamed of the ladder of all furs, from sheepskin to bearskin and finally to go through the honor fur, which the Tsar bestowed as the highest reward. "

Elaborated head of a brown bear

The fur length can be up to over 2 meters. The fur of the Kodiak bear is the largest subspecies at over 3 meters, it is larger than that of the Kamchatka bear and this larger than that of the Ural bear . The different shapes vary considerably in size and color. In the area of ​​the former Soviet Union alone, the bears do not form a uniform group with regard to their fur. Kamchatka bears and the large ones from the Chukchi Peninsula have very long, soft and dense fur. The bears from the Transbaikalia region and the Yakut Republic are also large , but considerably smaller than those from the Kamchatka region , and the color of their fur is predominantly dark brown, sometimes almost black. Typical of the Central Asian and Tibetan bears is a dark, almost bluish shimmering color, but there are also dark brown specimens. As a rule, they have a wide white stripe in the shape of a ring in the shoulder area. The bears from the forest areas of European Russia are medium-sized. The fur is of medium hair density and softness, the color is brown, mostly a little lighter than that of the Siberian bears. North Caucasian species are slightly smaller than northern European species, the color varies from brownish yellow to light brown. The skins of the Isabel brown bears from the Himalayas and the Syrian brown bears are pale isabel . The North American grizzly bear (hence also gray bear ) is silver-gray in various colors .

The North American brown bears are similarly different, a list names eight different forms. Among them is the largest of all bears today, the Kodiak bear.

The best American quality (Ones) are the pelts hunted shortly before or during the winter dormancy. They are a good colored brown and the hair is fairly straight. The 2nd quality (Twos) comes from the time after, these heads are rust-colored or bad in color. At that time, the hair tends to twist like a corkscrew, which makes the fur matted and dull.

The Russian trade standard is different

  • by origin: Siberian, Northern, Russian, Caucasian
  • Types: I = full-haired, II = less full-haired, III = half-haired, IV = thin
  • Colors: a) dark b) brown
  • Sizes: largest = 177 cm and longer, medium-sized = 142 to 177 cm, small = 106 to 142 cm, young animals = 71 to 106 cm, bear cub = up to 71 cm.

The oldest comparative durability table for furs with a rating from 1 to 100 names brown bear and black bear fur almost at the top of the list with 94 points. The attempt to compare it with other types of fur that are more used as clothing is more of a problem.

In the first half of the 20th century, small American brown bear pelts were still being processed in the country. In particular, the brown qualities that were not in demand there were exported to Europe and Asia via London. Today's fur attack is insignificant and of no importance for the trade. The skins are delivered open, i.e. not pulled off round.

Grizzly bear (grizzly bear) or gray bear

Mountain Grizzly Skin (Alaska)

The occurrence of the grizzly is limited to North America, from Alaska, Canada and the Rocky Mountains to the Mexican highlands in the south. Numerous geographic races live within the area, which differ in their coat color, among other features. The hair pattern sometimes shows more light, light to iron gray shades. In its overall effect, it appears a bit mottled, but sometimes also dark gray-brown to dark brown. The hair is thick and long, sometimes a bit coarse, and there is often a mane formation on the neck. Grizzlies reach a total length of 2.50 meters.

The few furs that arise are used for blankets and rugs, young animals with slightly softer hair are also suitable for collars and trimmings.

Baribal or Black Bear

Bearskin overshoes,
part of a splendid Japanese armor
(18th century)
Excerpt (scroll)
Front view
Side view
Back view
Queen Elisabeth in open carriage with her husband Prince Philip as Grenadier Guard with bearskin hat (2007)

The baribal , also black bear or American bear, with several subspecies, lives in the forest areas of northern Canada down to central Mexico. Because of certain similarity of the coat with the Skunk fur he was in the fur trade also Skunkbär called. It becomes 1.5 to 2 meters long. The fur is usually black, often also cinnamon, rarely red-gray to blue-gray and silver-gray. The hair is relatively short to longer, smoky, finer-haired than other bear species, shiny and dense. The brownish to blackish brown undercoat is fine and dense. The 4 to 5 centimeters long under hair is covered by the approximately 10 centimeters long, shiny black guard hairs. Some of the skins have a mane on the neck. The leather is finer than that of other bear species.

For fur clothing and trimmings (in the past especially for coachman collars ), the particularly fine-haired and supple skins of animals up to one year old are preferred ("cub bears"). Furs that are generally suitable for fur purposes were also called fur bears ("furriers"). The skins of older animals were made into blankets ("blanket bears").

Color variants are the silver or glacier bear (Ursus americanus emmonsii dall). Its home is the glacier regions of southeastern Alaska. The sides of the body are usually silver-gray, sometimes light, almost silver-colored, also deep black. Furthermore, the cinnamon bear (Ursus americanus cinnamomum Audubon & Bachmann) from the northern rocky mountains , which is more reddish-brown in color.

The fur trade traditionally differentiates according to usability:

Fur bears : medium-sized skins with long, thick and fine hair, for collars, hats and trimmings.
Cub bears , in 1852 they are also referred to as head bears "in furrier language" : small, fine-haired, thin-leather skins from one-year-old baribals, which are also processed into fur. When the fur animals are divided into the hair fineness classes silky, fine, medium-fine, coarse and hard, the hair of the cubbear is classified as coarse to hard.
Ceiling bears : big-haired, schwerledrige skins especially southern Baribals for rugs, formerly of carriage ceiling.
Army bears : firm skins with thick, even hairs. The high bearskin hat (bearskin), which is mainly worn by the English Guard infantrymen, is made from them , unless imitations are used instead today. The first mention of its use comes from the year 1768. Army bears were also used in the military as an accessory to grenadier hats .

In 1967 the delivery of fur was stated as “considerable”. The prices at the London auctions rose whenever the Army Administration placed orders on bear hats.

The raw fur delivery is open.

  • The Louisiana black bear (eastern Texas, Louisiana, and southern Mississippi) has been fully protected since 1992.

Collar bear

Fur of a big collar bear (Tibet, 1938)

The male collar bear reaches a head body length of 153 to 171 centimeters, up to a maximum of 200 centimeters, the female animal 128 to 144 centimeters, the tail length is 9 to 11 centimeters or 7 to 10 centimeters. The body color is deep black. On the chest there is a large, light-colored mark from a half-moon to a Y-shape, which is sometimes broken up into several parts. The collar bear gets its name from the hair that is extended in the neck and on the sides of the neck. In the northern occurrences, the body hair is thick, long and almost shaggy, in the south it is significantly shorter. The hair on the back of the Ussuri collar bears is 160 millimeters, the chest and stomach hair is only about 20 millimeters long. The winter coat has a dense undercoat, the shorter summer hair has no undercoat.

The skins, meat and fat were valued higher than those of the brown bear. The skins were only used as a blanket or decoration.

  • Declining populations require control and restriction of hunting. Overall, the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) lists the Asian black bear as endangered ("vulnerable").

Sloth bear

Sloth bears live in India and Sri Lanka and occasionally in Bangladesh , Bhutan and Nepal . Their fur was apparently never a real trade object, most of the fur was kept as a trophy by the Shikarees, the hunters of the Shikar hunt ( Maharajas , Nawabs , English officers) during the feudal and colonial times .

Sloth bears reach a head body length of 140 to 180 centimeters. As with all bears, the tail is a stub 10 to 12 centimeters long. The fur is long and shaggy, the hair is longest on the neck area. It is mostly colored black and often interspersed with brown or gray hair, but there are also red-brown specimens. On the chest they have a light, mostly white or yellow colored drawing in the form of a Y or V. As an inhabitant of tropical climates, the sloth bear does not have an undercoat. The feet are large and have extremely long, sickle-shaped claws. They are reminiscent of the claws of a sloth and, in addition to the missing incisors and shaggy fur, gave this bear the name Sloth Bear ("sloth bear"). The soles of the feet are hairless.

Polar bear or polar bear

Male polar bear skins can have a total length of 2.40 meters, in individual cases even up to 3.40 meters, female from 1.80 to 2.10 meters, and those of 2.50 meters have also been measured. The largest furs come from Greenland , the middle ones from the coasts of Siberia, Spitsbergen and the east coasts of North America, the smaller ones from Labrador and from the districts of Baffin Bay and Hudsonbay . The larger body is more elongated than the closely related brown bear, the neck is long and relatively thin, and the head is quite narrow.

The yellowish white fur has a distinct sheen, the summer fur is more yellow than the winter fur. In living animals, the very dense fur is oily and therefore water-repellent. The youth dress seems pure white, although the polar bear fur does not contain any color pigments, the age dress is yellowish, spotty. The only non-white fur parts are the black-brown to blue-black nasal mirror, the lips and the claws. The hair is very bristly and glassy, ​​usually tighter than that of other bear species. The smaller and medium-sized skins are usually softer than the larger types. The hair is longest on the back fur, stomach and legs, and shortest on the head, back and neck. The hair change begins in the second half of May and hair growth continues until autumn; therefore the summer coat is flatter than the winter coat. The front feet are wider than the hind feet, the soles of the feet are hairy. The leather is heavy. The skin, which is still pink in young animals, is black with age.

In 1250, the Arab Ibn Said mentions the polar bear skin among the peoples living on the Arctic Ocean: " The skins of these bears are soft and they are brought to the Egyptian countries as gifts ".

1911 turned fur traders Emil Brass found that the polar bear skins, which were brought from the Greenland Company from Greenland annually on the sale to Copenhagen as well as the skins, the Norwegian fishing vessels each year, from the islands and ice floes of the Arctic Ocean to Hammerfest , Tromsø and Bergen started off Erten , were of significantly higher quality than the skins brought to London by the Hudson's Bay Company and the Harmony Company, run by the Moravian brothers in Labrador. To a large extent, however, this was due to the treatment of the raw hides, they were stripped off very carefully, always provided with paws, snouts, etc., and mostly the prepared skull was also included. The skins were not smeared with grease, on the fishing ships the skins are even said to have been tied to ropes and pulled behind in the water so that they remained white and clean.

In general, different characteristics can be determined based on the origin. The more northerly the attack, the longer-haired and thick-haired they are and the thinner the leather. Thick leather and short hair are characteristics of a southern tradition. This can already be seen quite clearly with the Siberian skins. While the coastal bears usually have short hair and thick skin, the skins from the more inhospitable island of Novaya Zemlya already show a considerably thinner leather and fuller and longer hair.

1762 are considered to be for pelts of polar bears " Men sleeves and wild Churen called". Polar bear skins were still being made into blankets, boots and gloves around 1910, and the first polar researchers used sleeping bags made from bear skin. Completely spoiled skins were sent for brush processing ("brush bears"). Today is occasionally for hunting trophies from taxidermists still the head naturalized and lined the coat for decorative purposes. The use of polar bear hair for flies for flight fishing was named by a specialist of the Hudson's Bay Company in the 1970s , “ what they are particularly suitable for ”.

Almost all pelts are bleached during the fur trim process to remove the yellowish tints and the common stains.

Polar bear skins are cut open, not peeled off round, delivered. Since it cannot be dried well in the cold, the leather side is often preserved with salt. As early as the 1930s, however, the Greenlandic skins delivered by the Danish state administration were, without exception, dried out for world trade.

Classification

Polar bear fur and prepared young animal fur (1897)
Inuit family with trousers made of polar bear fur (approx. 1900–1918)

In the trade, polar bear skins were classified according to size, hair, and leather. There were a number of intermediate stages within these main guidelines. There was also a division into the sub-groups damaged and undamaged.

  • size
Extra large = 2.65 meters and above
Large = 2.25 to 2.60 meters
Medium = 1.75 to 2.20 meters
Smaller ones = 1.25 to 1.70 meters
Smallest = 1.20 meters
Cubs = under 0.75 meters
  • hair
According to the hair length into long-haired, medium-haired and short-haired (flat)
  • leather
According to the thickness of the leather, in thick-leather skins, medium-thick leather, thin leather, very thin leather (from young animals)

The Russian standard , only polar origin, deviates from this classification:
a) According to natural characteristics:

I. variety = full-haired
II. Variety = less full-haired
III. Variety = half-haired
IV. Variety = thin-haired

according to the color of the hair:

1. All white
2. Whites
3. Yellowish
4. Mottled

According to the size:

1. Large = from 1.77 meters
2. Medium size = from 1.42 to 1.76 meters
3. Small = up to 1.41 meters
4. Cubs = up to 1.06 meters
5. Baby bears = up to 0.71 meters

b) According to additional features:

1. Damaged, depending on the degree of damage
2. "Brack" = shot, reject

  • Stripped polar bear skins to dry ( Ittoqqortoormiit , Greenland 1994)

  • Polar bear skins in the shop window of Joszef Katzer Kgl. Purveyor to the court Budapest, on the occasion of the funeral service for Empress Elisabeth of Austria-Hungary (1898)

  • "The Naked". Nude painting with polar bear skin ( Giacomo Grosso (1860–1938))

Bear skin

Statue of Bavaria with bearskin, Munich Hall of Fame

The term “bear skin” is largely associated with the ancient Teutons who lazily lie on a bear skin. The Duden says: " Lying on the bear skin (colloquially derogatory: lazing around, being lazy; in humanist circles of the 16th century based on Tacitus'" Germania "[Chapter 15] assertion made about the way of life of the ancient Germanic peoples: during the rainy vacation did they lie a lot on the lazy bear skin) ”. Tacitus writes about the Teutons in the 15th chapter, but without even mentioning a bear skin: “ More often they spend their free time doing nothing, sleeping, eating and drinking. Especially the bravest and most warlike live there in lazy calm. The care of the house and stove, as well as the cultivation of the fields, is left to the women, the old people and all the weak in general, while the gentlemen laze about themselves. "

The bear skin and the attribution to Tacitus became popular in the 19th century through the student song “Tacitus and the old Germans”, which Wilhelm Ruer is said to have composed for a newspaper: “On a summer evening, in the shadow of the holy grove, // there lay on Bear skins on both sides of the Rhine // various old Teutons, when suddenly with a polite greeting // a Roman came: 'Gentlemen! my name is Tacitus'. "

Indian medicine man with bearskin ( George Catlin , oil painting, 1832)

At the end of the 18th century, JM Bechstein wrote :

“ The bear skin is one of the excellent works of smoke and makes up a considerable branch of the story. To the northerners it is a very necessary house and need for clothing. We make hussar hats, hats, furs, hats, foot covers in carriages and the like out of them. In many places it is the bed pad, hence the old German name Bärenhäuter, which describes a lazy, inactive person. The Kamchadals use it to make their blankets, beds, hats and collars for their dogs, as well as the soles of their shoes, in order to be safe on the ice. "

1762 the use of black, female bearskins from Poland for muff is also mentioned, while the male skins were used for horse blankets and hussar hats.

From the customs of the Giljak (people of the Niwchen ) and the Ainui (Japan) bear culture , the setting up of bear skins emerged, a cult activity that is difficult to prove today due to the transience of the material. With the help of sticks or in a rectangular wooden frame, the bear skins were set up in such a way that the bear appeared to be alive, often in front of a specially made hut. There are already representations of the bear propping up the front legs on bronze plates of the Permian cultures of Finnish peoples of the 2nd to 1st millennium BC, where remnants of the bear cult can still be proven today.

Kekutsu or Kutsu were part of Japanese armor as protective shoes . The kekutsu are usually made of bearskin and leather, as well as fabrics such as brocade. The shoes are made so big that they can be worn over the normal tabi or the armored Kôgake and Kusari tabi .

Donor book of the Zwettl monastery, called Bärenhaut

The donor book of the Zwettl Monastery, called Bärenhaut, Latin Liber fundatorum zwetlensis monasterii, is a manuscript that was written in the Zwettl Monastery at the beginning of the 14th century. The popular name "bear skin" comes from the pigskin binding - so it is not bear leather, but the skin of a "Saubär" (boar). In addition to various literary and historical texts in Latin and Middle High German, it mainly contains copies of documents relating to the Zwettl monastery, as well as a land register of the monastery. It is one of the most important sources for the history of Lower Austria in the 13th and 14th centuries. The manuscript is kept in Zwettl Abbey without interruption to this day.

Numbers and facts

  • 1801 , quote: “ The sea bears or polar bears that are caught on Jenesei are larger than those that come from other places. Therefore, they are always higher in price than those that come from Ob and Lena . “---“ ... The skin of the polar bear is used in the deep north on winter journeys, because it gives a very warm and durable fur. They will also Müffen , Wild Churen and horse blankets needed "
  • 1814 , quote: “ Bear skins, which are known to be the strongest form of incense, are traded well by furriers and smokers. They are used for mattresses and saddlecloths, for sleeves, hats and similar items of clothing. Most of the trade in this article in Russia takes place from St. Petersburg and Archchangel . In the first place the largest and dark brown or yellow skins (Russian Medvedni) cost 7 to 8 rubles, the less 3 to 5 rubles per piece. "
  • 1864 , quote: " They [the polar bear pelts] serve as foot covers in rooms, also as camp beds, and are paid between 20 and 30 thaler per piece, depending on their beauty ."
  • Around 1870 a good North American brown bear skin cost around 500 marks, before 1911 it cost around 60 to 80 marks.
  • Around and before 1900 the English government paid 8 pounds for a bearskin hat made from army bears for the royal guard (in 1911 Brass could no longer determine the price at the time), the high fur price was therefore quite irrelevant, it used to be over 200 marks each, In 1911 probably about half as much (1 British pound = about 20 German marks).
  • Around 1904 , around 1,000 polar bear skins came on the market every year.
  • In 1911 , Brass suspected that no more than 1,000 black bear pelts came onto the market annually from all of East Asia, including Eastern Siberia and Kamchatka. The value fluctuated between 20 and 120 marks. Furs from Tibet came into circulation via the Chinese province of Sichuan , and some were sold to tourists in Darjeeling , Shimla , etc., but there were probably no more than a few hundred per year. The skins from northern Central Asia went to the Siberian fairs. Of the species Ursus collaris ( collar bear ?) And Ursus meridionalis (?, Both no longer in use zoological names) probably 5000 to 6000 pieces came from Siberia annually.
The value for the fur of a European bear is likely to have been 30 to 40 marks in 1911 . No more than 1500 pelts were sold as most hunters kept the pelt for themselves.
  • Around 1915 around 5,000 black bear pelts were exported to Europe from the USA and around 3,000 from Canada.
  • In 1953 there were only 100 polar bear skins on the tobacco market every year . According to Fritz Schmidt , the annual number of polar bears between 1963 and 1965 in the arctic territories of Canada averaged 400, in Norway around 300, in polar Greenland around 150 and in Alaska 250 polar bears.
  • From 1963 to 1965 the annual number of grizzlies shot ranged between 520 and 620 animals.
  • In 1974 only 25 brown bear skins were offered at the 67th Leningrad Tobacco Auction.
In the same year the Hudson's Bay Company offered 37 skins without specifying the origin in the colors brown and black in the March auction.
  • In 1988 , the number of black bears (baribals) in North America was estimated to be around 3,000 furs (of which around 2,000 were from Canada), but these were of no importance for fur purposes.
During this time, after protective measures, 500 polar bear pelts came into the trade every year, 300 of them from Canada.

literature

  • Florian Siebeck: Bear on duty , review and report in the FAZ, May 13, 2016 (bearskin costumes)

Web links

Commons : Bearskins  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Bearskin Apparel  - Collection of images, videos and audio files
Commons : Bearskin Hats  - Collection of Images, Videos, and Audio Files
Commons : Bearskin Processing  - Collection of Images, Videos and Audio Files
Wiktionary: Bearskin  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Philipp Manes : The German fur industry and its associations 1900-1940, attempt at a story . Berlin 1941 Volume 1. Copy of the original manuscript, p. 17 ( G. & C. Franke collection ).
  2. ↑ a b c d e f g h Fritz Schmidt : The book of the fur animals and fur . FC Mayer Verlag, Munich 1970, pp. 303-311.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Christian Franke / Johanna Kroll: Jury Fränkel ´s Rauchwaren-Handbuch 1988/89 . 10. revised and supplemented new edition, Rifra-Verlag Murrhardt, pp. 73-79.
  4. ↑ a b c d e f g Emil Brass: From the realm of fur . 1st edition, published by the "Neue Pelzwaren-Zeitung and Kürschner-Zeitung", Berlin 1911, pp. 543–558.
  5. ↑ R. Goedecker-Ciolek: On the production technique of clothing and equipment. In: Markus Egg , Konrad Spindler : The glacier mummy from the end of the Stone Age from the Ötztal Alps. In: Yearbook of the Roman-Germanic Central Museum. 39/2, 1992, pp. 101-106.
  6. ↑ Without an author's name: The fur coat as a symbol of class . In: Der Rauchwarenmarkt No. 40, October 2, 1936, p. 5.
  7. ^ Anthony: Field Book . Quoted by Fritz Schmidt (secondary source): The book of fur and fur animals .
  8. ^ A b Max Bachrach: Fur. A Practical Treatise. Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York 1936. pp. 302–304 (Eng.)
  9. ^ Kurt Nestler: Tobacco and fur trade . Max Jänecke Verlagsbuchhandlung, Leipzig 1929, p. 102. Based on the table by the American fur finishing specialist William E. Austin.
  10. ↑ Alexander Lachmann: The fur animals. A manual for furriers and smokers . Baumgärtner's Buchhandlung, Leipzig 1852, pp. 105-106.
  11. ↑ Paul Schöps, Kurt Häse: The fineness of the hair - the fineness classes . In: Das Pelzgewerbe Vol. VI / New Series, 1955 No. 2, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Leipzig, Berlin, Frankfurt am Main, pp. 39–40 (Note: fine (partly silky); medium-fine (partly fine); coarse (medium-fine to coarse)).
  12. ↑ Dr. Paul Schöps in connection with Kurt Häse and Richard König sen. Zoological processing Dr. Ingrid Weigel: The bears . In: Das Pelzgewerbe , Volume XIII, 1967, No. 2.
  13. ↑ Melursus ursinus in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2009. Posted by: Garshelis, DL, Ratnayeke S. & Chauhan, NPS (IUCN SSC Bear Specialist Group), 2008. Accessed January 23, 2010, p 489th
  14. ↑ a b c d e f O. Li .: The polar or polar bear fur. In: Der Rauchwarenmarkt No. 12, Leipzig, February 13, 1935, pp. 3-4.
  15. ↑ Paul Schöps, Kurt Häse, Richard König : Der Eisbär . In: Das Pelzgewerbe , Vol. XVI / New Series, 1965 No. 3, pp. 111–120.
  16. ↑ Bruno Schier : Ways and forms of the oldest fur trade . Archive for fur studies Volume 1, Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Frankfurt am Main, 1951, p. 48. Table of contents . Primary source: Ibn Said: Expansion of the earth . Around 1250.
  17. ^ A b Heinrich Lomer : The smoke goods trade . Leipzig 1864, pp. 77-80.
  18. ↑ a b Johann Samuel Halle: Workshops of today's arts , chapter Der Kirschner . Berlin 1762, page 310 .
  19. ↑ a b Dr. Max Meßner, edited by E. Unger: Materials science for leather and fur workers. Alfred Hahns Verlag, Leipzig, 1910, pp. 23, 25, 29
  20. ↑ Alexander Tuma: Pelz-Lexikon. Fur and rough goods. XVII. Tape. Verlag Alexander Tuma, Vienna 1950. Keyword "bear skin"
  21. ^ Hudson's Bay and Annings Ltd. (Eds.): The HBA Book of Furs , undated , approx. Before 1967? (engl.)
  22. ^ Friedrich Lorenz: Rauchwarenkunde , 4th edition. Volk und Wissen publishing house, Berlin 1958, p. 117
  23. ↑ Duden, keyword bear skin .
  24. ↑ " http://www.akazienblatt.de:/ Bärenhaut ( Memento of the original from February 3, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ". Last accessed January 20, 2014 @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.akazienblatt.de
  25. ↑ General German Kommersbuch 1875, verse 4 a. 5. From: No. 631, Tacitus and the old Germans.
  26. ↑ Fritz Schmidt . Primary source Johann Matthäus Bechstein : Handbuch der Jagdwirtschaft . End of 18th century
  27. ↑ B. Bentjes: The bear skin as a historical symbol . In: Das Pelzgewerbe , Vol. XX / New Series, No. 4, 1970, Hermelin-Verlag Dr. Paul Schöps, Berlin et al., P. 25
  28. ↑ Paul Schöps, Kurt Häse, Richard König : Der Eisbär . P. 120 primary source Gerhard Heinrich Buse: The whole of the plot . Erfurt 1801, p. 83
  29. ^ D. Johann Heinrich Moritz Poppe: Johann Christian Schedels new and complete wares lexicon . Second part M to Z, fourth completely improved edition, Verlag Carl Ludwig Brede, Offenbach am Mayn 1814. p. 76
  30. ^ AR Harding: Fur Buyer's Guide . AR Harding, Columbus, Ohio 1915, p. 284