Asian donkey

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Asian donkey
Indian half donkey or khur

Indian half donkey or khur

Systematics
Subclass : Higher mammals (Eutheria)
Superordinate : Laurasiatheria
Order : Unpaired ungulate (Perissodactyla)
Family : Horses (Equidae)
Genre : Horses ( equus )
Type : Asian donkey
Scientific name
Equus hemionus
Pallas , 1775

The Asiatic donkey ( Equus hemionus ) is a species of horse . Outwardly it is similar to the African donkey ( Equus asinus ) - the ancestral form of the house donkey - but also has many equine characteristics ; for this reason it is also known as a half donkey or horse donkey . It is also known by numerous regional names such as "Khur" or "Kulan" (see systematics ). The Asiatic donkey inhabits arid semi-desert and steppe-like landscapes from western to central and northern Asia and feeds mainly on hard grass. The social structure of the Asian donkey is considered to be very complex, but the species has not yet been researched in great detail. Overall, the stocks are considered to be endangered.

features

Habitus

Kulan

With a head-torso length of over 200 cm, plus a tail length of 40 cm, a shoulder height of 97 to 138 cm and a weight of 200 to 260 kg, the Asian donkey is slightly larger than the average domestic donkey . The sexual dimorphism is only slightly pronounced. In general, the horse species is slender with long legs, each ending in a broad hoof that exceeds that of the African donkey ( Equus asinus ). As with all zebras and donkeys, the characteristic chestnuts , brown callus-like elevations, are only found on the front legs, in contrast to the wild horse ( Equus ferus ), where they also appear on the hind legs. The ears are also longer than those of the real donkey; In addition, the tail tassel and mane are less pronounced, and the meal snout is also typical. The upper side is colored gray, pale yellow to ocher or red-brown in the short-haired summer fur; the underside, lower neck, and legs are white or partly off-white. The individual subspecies vary in the intensity of the coat colors. The transition of the colors on the sides of the body is characterized by a crescent moon-like course in all forms, which partly pulls up on the flanks, but differs significantly from the M-shape of this transition in the wild horse, which also usually has darker coat colors on the legs. The long-haired winter coat is generally darker. A dark brown line of eel stretches across the back and is 60 to 80 mm wide in summer and 70 to 90 mm wide in winter. This back strip is often framed by lighter areas of fur. A horizontal leg stripe pattern, which is typical of the African donkey, rarely occurs in the Asian donkey.

Skull and dentition features

Asian donkey skull

The skull of the Asiatic donkey is between 42 and 52 cm long and is very similar to that of the Kiang ( Equus kiang ) with a typical short snout. The forehead line is relatively straight, the occiput is narrow and vertical and barely extended beyond the attachment surfaces of the cervical vertebrae (condyles). The nasal bone is up to 22 cm long and has a slight curve in the front part. The nasal space between the nasal bone and the intermaxillary bone and the upper jaw is relatively large. The eye socket is sometimes very low in the skull, but always behind the last molar.

The massive lower jaw reaches a length of up to 42 cm, whereby the jawbone is up to 5 cm wide. The jaw joints in particular are very strong. The dental formula for adult animals is: . The incisors are very wide and in the upper jaw are significantly more sloping forward than in the kiang ( Equus kiang ), the canine is usually small. The diastema to the posterior dentition can be up to 8.6 cm wide. Premolars have a similar structure to molars , i.e. they are clearly molarized, sometimes the first molar tooth is still rudimentary ( wolf tooth ). In general, the molars are crowned with a lot of cement and twisted enamel strips . On the chewing surfaces of the lower molars, the enamel runs between the two protrusions metaconid and metastylid in the rear (tongue-side) area, partly V-shaped, but partly also more clearly U-shaped.

Sensory performances and vocalizations

As with the other horses, the main communication between the Asiatic donkeys is olfactory via the secretions they excrete, but they also have a good sense of sight and hearing . They usually flee at a distance of 2 km from potential dangers. So far, there have been hardly any studies on their vocalizations.

distribution

Distribution area of ​​the Asian donkey
earlier (olive) and today (yellow and orange)

The distribution area of ​​the Asiatic donkey extends from the Mediterranean region in western Asia via Transcaucasia and Central Asia to the western area of South Asia and the southern area of North Asia . Today, the distribution area is very fragmented, so that the Asian donkey is limited to individual areas in Mongolia , Turkmenistan , Kazakhstan , India , Iran , Ukraine and Saudi Arabia . The Dschiggetai predominantly inhabit the Gobi desert and the Khur the Rann of Kachchh . The kulan is found in larger populations in the Badkhyz nature reserve and the Andasaiski nature reserve , while the onager is still commonly found in the Touran sanctuary and in Bahram-e-Goor .

The habitats of the Asian donkey are dry semi-deserts , steppes , mountain steppes and partly deserts . These extreme habitats , which can reach up to 2000 m above sea level, are characterized by high temperatures in summer (up to 40 ° C) and low temperatures in winter (down to -35 ° C) as well as low rainfall, sometimes less than 100 mm per year. Furthermore, the areas are characterized by a thin cover of vegetation. In the western part of its range, the Asian donkey used to occur together with the real donkey, but preferred lower-lying areas. Today both species are extinct there in the wild. In the east it partially overlaps with the distribution area of ​​the wild horse ( Equus ferus ).

Way of life

Territorial behavior

Khur group

The Asian donkey's social structure is very different. The northern populations, such as the Dschiggetai of the Gobi Desert and the Kulan of Central Asia, tend to herd formation with one stallion, several mares and foals and large home ranges . There are also annual large hikes here, which can cover 4,500 to 40,000 km² areas, with hikes being more limited in summer than in winter. In some cases, large groups of up to 450 individuals are formed, but this usually only takes place in good feeding places or at water points. Since these large associations dissolve again within a day, there seems to be no higher hierarchy than the ranking of the individual herds. There are also “bachelor groups” of young males that often form in winter. Such a way of life is also known from the wild horse and the steppe ( Equus quagga ) and mountain zebra ( Equus zebra ). However, here too there is occasional formation of temporary territories, which are then aggressively defended.

Southern populations, such as the Khur and Onager, tend towards a purely territorial way of life, with the territories partially overlapping. Dominant stallions maintain territories that reach 9 km² in size, but can also be considerably larger. These territories contain feeding and resting places and permanent or intermittent sources of water. However, the waters are usually on the edge of a district and not in the center. Frequently used paths are marked with feces and urine , often using the same marking points. Mares with foals sometimes come together in small groups that graze areas of up to 20 km² that overlap with those of other groups and dominant stallions. A similar behavior is known from the Grevy's zebra ( Equus grevyi ) and the African donkey.

The different social behaviors of the Asian donkey are not fully understood. Climatic factors or hunting pressure from predators may play a role. In the areas of distribution of the Khurs and Onager, there are hardly any larger predators, so they have retained the more original way of life as territorial animals. Kulan and Dschiggetai, on the other hand, are subject to the hunting pressure of the wolf, which possibly stimulated the formation of herds, since more stable groups have better chances of survival. Here the stallion actively defends his group.

nutrition

There are only a few detailed studies on the diet of the Asian donkey; in general, with its high-crowned molars and a large proportion of dental cement, it is adapted to hard, silicic acid-containing plant foods ( grazing ). The populations of the Gobi prefer spring grasses that occur widely in the inhabited steppe habitats (Stipa-steppe) to continue but also to comb couch grass , Achnatherum grasses, reeds and rushes consumed. Artemisia , anabasis , salt herbs , saxaul and pea bushes have also been proven in the food spectrum of the Asian donkey. Furthermore, leeks , zygophyllum and tamarisk plants are also found regionally as food plants. Finger millet , fall seed grass , love grass and dicanthium grass have also been found as a source of food in more southern populations . However, in dry seasons with only withered grass growth, the Asian donkey may also consume woody plants, unless otherwise available. He uses his hooves to break wood in order to get to the more watery areas of the plants. The uptake of seed pods was also observed.

Due to the dry climatic conditions in the area of ​​distribution, the Asiatic donkey needs constantly available water, which should not be further than 10 to 15 km away - but up to 30 km long migrations to water points have also been observed. The Asian donkey also digs holes up to 60 cm deep in search of water. In winter, an animal also ingests snow.

Reproduction

Dschiggetai mare with young animal

The reproductive behavior of the Asiatic donkey has also rarely been studied and has only rarely been observed in the wild. The Asian donkey is sexually mature at an average of two years, the first mating usually takes place at three to four years. The mating takes place between April and September, but there is an accumulation in June and July. The gestation period lasts about eleven months, after which a single foal is born, with birth only taking a little more than ten minutes. This can stand within 15 to 20 minutes and starts sucking milk after an hour and a half at the latest. During rearing, the foal and mother stay close together, other animals, including their own older young, are displaced by the mother. Occasionally, stallions in territorial populations try to drive away the young and then mate the mare. Asiatic donkeys living in the wild can reach an age of 14 years, in captivity it can be up to 26 years.

Interaction with other animal species

The largest predator is the wolf . Investigations showed that a good 23% of the prey share could be assigned to the Asian donkey. The horse species actively defends itself against predators, but also a fleeing Asian donkey can sometimes be very fast and gallop at speeds of 70 km / h, with a distance of 50 km / h being held over longer distances. Goiter gazelles occasionally appear near groups of the Asiatic donkey.

Parasites

The most common internal parasites largely include roundworms , such as Trichostrongylus , Parascaris , horse palmetto worms , lungworms and the dwarf nematode . In addition, get tapeworms before, and the infestation of coccidia , including Eimeria is known. It is worth mentioning that mutual infections with the Przewalski horse and the domestic horse can occur.

Systematics

Internal systematics of the genus Equus according to Jónsson et al. 2014
 Equus 
 caballines 

Equus caballus


 non-caballines 


Equus zebra


   

Equus grevyi


   

Equus quagga




   

Equus asinus


   

Equus kiang


   

Equus hemionus






Template: Klade / Maintenance / Style

As a representative of the genus Equus, the Asiatic donkey belongs to today's modern horses. Although the morphology of the lower molars is very variable, it is nevertheless placed in the group of stenonine or non-caballine horses. DNA analysis from 2009 suggests that the Asiatic donkey's closest relative is the Kiang ( Equus kiang ). A closely related fossil species of the Asiatic donkey was the European wild donkey ( Equus hydruntinus ), which was widespread in Europe and Asia in the Middle and Upper Pleistocene and possibly only died out in the Holocene . This was slimmer and larger than today's Asian donkeys and reached a shoulder height of 160 cm. Originally, some experts put this type of horse close to the African donkey, but anatomical studies have shown that it is more closely related to the Asian donkey, which has been confirmed by genetic analyzes. Both the Asiatic donkey, the Kiang and the European wild ass are referred to as hemionins within the stenonine horses , which refers to the scientific name of the Asiatic donkey Equus hemionus and expresses their close relationship. The possible closest related horse species are the various donkeys and zebras, the wild horse is a rather more distant relative within the genus Equus . The scientific name Equus hemionus was introduced by Peter Simon Pallas in 1775 , the first description was based on an individual from northeast Mongolia .

There are currently six subspecies of the Asiatic donkey, two of which have become extinct:

There was originally a lot of disagreement about the division into subspecies. In many older works, for example, seven or eight species of Asiatic donkey are distinguished, which today are mostly classified as subspecies. The exception is the Kiang , which today is a species of its own. In a revision of the ungulates from 2011, presented by Colin Peter Groves and Peter Grubb , the Khur ( Equus khur ) and the Achdari ( Equus hemippus ) are also recognized as separate species.

Peter Simon Pallas

The different subspecies are characterized by an increase in size from the southwest of the distribution area to the northeast. The Achdari in the southwest only reached shoulder height of 100 cm, while the Dschiggetai in the northeast measures between 127 and 138 cm. The Kulan is then 108 to 116 cm high, for Onager and Khur 112 to 120 cm shoulder height are specified. Onager and kulan are one and the same subspecies, according to some authorities. According to current molecular genetic studies on the phylogenesis of equidae , the two populations can be clearly differentiated from one another. Another subspecies, the Gobi half donkey ( Equus hemionus luteus ), is sometimes split off from the Dschiggetai due to different coat colors , but these other experts say that these are very variable in individual populations. However, the fact that all subspecies are of monophyletic origin is not confirmed in the 2009 DNA analysis, as the onager is more closely related to the mountain zebra. Another study from the same year, however, shows that all subspecies of the Asian donkey are closely related.

Internal systematics of the species Equus hemionus according to Bennett et al. 2017



Equus kiang


   

E. kiang + E. h. hemionus



 Equus hemionus 


E. h. onager (Iran)


   

E. h. hemionus


   

E. h. onager (Caucasus / Iran)


   

E. h. hemippus





   


E. h. kulan


   

E. h. hemionus



   

E. h. khur





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More extensive genetic analyzes from 2017 on subfossil and recent material indicate a much more complex phylogenetic development of the Asiatic donkey. The Mongolian Djiggetai is divided into at least three different clades , the Onager into two. Of the latter, the western line (Caucasus / Iran) is considered largely extinct, only a few individuals in the eastern part of the distribution area could still represent them. According to the authors of the study, the strong diversification of the Jiggetai can be associated with several waves of migration. Since one of the lines is more mixed with that of the Kiang, this could indicate that the Kiang is a form of the Asiatic donkey that is more adapted to high mountain conditions.

Stenonine horses were first recorded in Asia 2.5 to 3 million years ago, possibly they go back to Equus cumminsi in North America. The closer relationship of the Asiatic donkey is unknown, but could be found in the Pleistocene forms Equus namadicus or Equus sivalensis . Early fossils of animals similar to hemionus have come down to us from Tologoj in Russia and are around a million years old. The fossil subspecies E. h. Is only a little younger . nalaikhaensis from Mongolia , whose findings from deposits of the Tuul River date back to the magnetostratigraphically important Jaramillo event around 900,000 years ago. With E. h. binagadensis from the Middle and Upper Pleistocene is another relatively small, only fossil-documented subspecies in Azerbaijan and Iran , which may have survived into the Holocene . Finds from Tajikistan , such as those from Chudji and Ogzi-Kichik, have been handed down in the Upper Pleistocene. Especially in the Middle and Younger Pleistocene, the Asian donkey often appeared sympatric with the European wild ass ( Equus hydruntinus ). This donkey form, which became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene, can also only be regarded as a subspecies of the Asiatic donkey, as genetic studies from 2017 show that it has stronger connections to the South and Central Asian representatives.

Asian donkey and man

Domestication

Current DNA tests confirm that all today's domestic donkeys are descended from the African donkey . The family tree, which was created on the basis of the DNA sequences, clearly divides the donkey into an African and an Asian branch. The Asian donkey ( Equus hemionus ) is found on the latter . The question of whether the Asian donkey can also be domesticated and whether this has happened in the past has been controversial. In representations from ancient Mesopotamia ( standard from Ur ) one believed to recognize animals that were neither horse nor donkey, and from this it concluded somewhat prematurely that the Asiatic donkey had been domesticated by the Sumerians and Akkadians in order to harness them to wagons. In more recent experiments, however, it has never been possible to make the Asiatic donkeys shy of humans. It is generally considered more likely that African donkeys were domesticated in Mesopotamia (which, despite their name, also occurred in the Middle East in prehistoric times ).

Other researchers suggest that the Sumerians used donkey and onager crossbreeds.

Threat and protection

In historical times, Asian donkeys roamed the Asian semi-deserts in large herds. Thirst regularly led them to the few watering holes in their habitat. Marco Polo reported in the 13th century on the large occurrence of the animals in Arabia, Persia, Turkestan and the Gobi. The greatest threats today are the loss of habitat due to the spread of human settlements and the economic development of the often inhospitable but resource-rich areas. The competition with large farm animals is also a major problem, as the Asiatic donkey usually has no access to pastureland and water sources. Furthermore, illegal hunting of the Asian donkey, on the one hand for food production, on the other hand because of the fur, is an increasing danger. Since the 1990s, the population has decreased by 52%. All subspecies are threatened, albeit to different degrees. The entire population is classified by the IUCN as vulnerable ("highly endangered").

The protection measures coordinated by the Equid Specialist Group of the IUCN include relocation and reintroduction measures for individual populations of the Asiatic donkey, further studies of the ecological needs of the species and the individual subspecies, including habitat use, increased control of the meat trade and awareness-raising among the local population .

Anatolian and Syrian half donkey

Syrian donkey at London Zoo in 1872

The Anatolian half donkey was already exterminated in antiquity . Syrian half donkeys were still numerous in the 19th century in what is now Iraq , where they roamed in large herds. After becoming increasingly rare, the Syrian half donkey was hunted so frequently by British and Ottoman soldiers during World War I that it was on the verge of extinction. The last wild Syrian half donkey was killed in 1927; a single animal died in the same year in the Vienna Zoo .

Dschiggetai

The Dschiggetai, also called Mongolian Kulan, is the most common subspecies with around 41,900 individuals living in Mongolia, which makes up about three quarters of the total population of the Asian donkey. The population there shows a stable development trend. Significant protected areas are the Great Gobi-A and the Great Gobi-B Conservation Area in southern Mongolia. The IUCN assumes a loss of 5 to 10 percent per year. The Dschiggetai is officially protected, but there are numerous conflicts with the nomadic population and their agriculturally used animals over pastureland and water sources. Poaching has also increased since the 1990s, which is another reason for the sharp decline in populations. Around 5,000 more animals are accepted in northern China, more than 3,300 of them in the Kalameili Reserve . Originally only about 360 Jiggetai lived here in the 1980s, and it was not until the year 2000, after several larger groups immigrated from Mongolia, that the number rose by leaps and bounds.

Khur

Khur

During the 1960s, the khur died out in the Iranian and Pakistani parts, as well as in almost all Indian parts of its range. He only survived in the Little Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat , India . Here, with the Dhrangadhra game reserve, a special sanctuary for the rare donkeys was set up. The khur is the only subspecies of the Asiatic donkey whose number of individuals has steadily increased in the recent past. In 2014, 4000 khure were counted in the Kleiner Rann. About 30% of them live in the protected area. The animals are now spreading to neighboring regions, such as the Great Rann of Kachchh and Blackbuck National Park . The population has grown steadily, but the Narmada Canal is currently endangering the status of the reserve, as it attracts numerous farmers and their large animals through its fresh water, who are in direct competition with the Khure. There are also demands for permission to mine salt in Kachchh . Outside the sanctuary, khure are shot by farmers because they are kept for agricultural pests and forage competitors of the cattle.

Kulan

Kulane, half wild in the GRKW gravel pits

After the kulan was exterminated in Kazakhstan and large parts of Turkmenistan, the Soviet Union created the Badkhys Game Reserve in the 1940s , where a herd of 5,000 animals formed over the next fifty years. The Kulan population in Turkmenistan has recently fallen sharply: from 5000 animals in 1993 to an estimated 580 in 2001. With the independence of Turkmenistan , poaching spread. The only remaining herd lived temporarily in the Badkhyz nature reserve , where around 420 animals are found today. The second largest group in Turkmenistan is resident in the Sarykamysh Depression with possibly 350 to 400 animals. In the meantime, the animals have also been successfully resettled elsewhere, for example in the Kaplankyr Nature Reserve , the Barsa-Kelmes Nature Reserve and the Altyn-Emel National Park , the latter housing around 2500 to 3000 animals, according to information from 2014. However, the stock is limited by the heavy agricultural use of the surrounding area. The IUCN estimates the total Kulan population to be up to 2,000 adult individuals. The reason for this development is the loss of the effective hunting control that existed during the Soviet Union.

Twelve European zoos maintain around 50 kulans under the EEP of the European Zoo Association ( EAZA ). EEP coordinator is Anna Mekarska at Krakow Zoo. The society for the recultivation of the gravel pit landscape Weilbach (GRKW) is currently trying to let 6 male Kulans live semi-wild in a natural environment in Europe.

Onager

Onager at Wilhelma

The number of onagers in northern Iran is estimated at around 780 individuals. The onagers live in two separate populations . The largest population is that of the 14,000 km² Touran reserve with around 630 animals, the second and smaller is found in the Bahram-e-Goor reserve, which covers 3850 km² and houses almost 150 individuals. The Iranian government is working to ensure the survival of the subspecies through draconian penalties for poaching and the creation of additional water points.

As part of the European Conservation Breeding Program ( EEP ) of the European Zoo Association ( EAZA ), around 150 onagers now live in scientifically managed zoos. EEP coordinator is Stephan Hering-Hagenbeck in the Hagenbeck Zoo , Hamburg. Onager from zoos were in the desert Negev in Makhtesh Ramon -Erosionskrater in Israel exposed, but the majority comes from the population from crosses with Kulanen. The size of the population is around 250 animals. A much smaller group was settled in Saudi Arabia .

etymology

The species name used by Pallas hemionus is derived from the Greek word ἡμιόνος hemiónos , which is made up of ἡμί hemí "half" and ὄνος ónos "donkey". The term hemionos was already used in ancient times by Homer and Aristotle for animals from Anatolia and Persia , but originally referred to mules and mules .

The origin of the name Onager , which Pieter Boddaert used, is also Greek: ὄναγρος ónagros , a composite word from ὄνος ónos "donkey" and ἄγριος ágrios "wild". The Latin names are onagrus or onager . The Greeks and Romans used these words exclusively for the African wild ass, but in the Vulgate they also refer to the Syrian half ass.

Achdari , Dschiggetai , Gur-khar , Khur and Kulan are the local names for the individual populations of the Asiatic donkey.

literature

  • Petra Kaczensky, Chris Walzer: The Asian wild ass - endangered survivor in the Gobi desert. In: Journal of the Cologne Zoo. 51 (3), 2008, pp. 147-163.
  • Hans Klingel: Observations on social organization and behavior of African and Asiatic wild asses (Equus africanus and Equus hemionus). In: Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 44, 1975, pp. 323-331.
  • P. Moehlman (Ed.): Equids: Zebras, Asses and Horses. Status survey and conservation action plan . IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 2002.
  • Ronald M. Nowak: Walker's Mammals of the World . Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-8018-5789-9 .
  • Daniel Rubenstein: Family Equidae (Horses and relatives). In: Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 104-143.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c d e f g Colin Peter Groves, V. Mazák: On some taxonomic problems of Asiatic wild asses; with the description of a new subspecies (Perissodactyla; Equidae). In: Journal of Mammals. 32, 1967, pp. 321-355.
  2. ↑ a b Ingmar M Braun, Wolfgang Zessin: Representations of horses in paleolithic wall art and the attempt at their zoological-ethological interpretation. In: Ursus, newsletter of the Zooverein and the Schwerin Zoo. 17 (1), 2011, pp. 4–26.
  3. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l P. Kaczensky, B. Lkhagvasuren, O. Pereladova, M. Hemami, A. Bouskila: Equus hemionus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015. e.T7951A45171204 ( [1] ); last accessed on April 19, 2018
  4. ^ A b Véra Eisenmann, Marjan Mashkour: The small equids of Binagady (Azerbaijan) and Qazvin (Iran): E. Hemionus Binagadensis nov. subsp. and E. Hydruntinus. In: Geobios. 32 (1), 1999, pp. 105-122.
  5. ^ A b Hans Klingel: Observations on social organization and behavior of African and Asiatic Wild Asses (Equus africanus and Equus hemionus). In: Applied Animal Behavior Science. 60, 1998, pp. 103-113. (Reprint, original publication in Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 44, 1977, pp. 323–331)
  6. ↑ a b c d e Petra Kaczensky, Chris Walzer: The Asian wild ass - threatened survivor in the Gobi desert. In: Journal of the Cologne Zoo. 51 (3), 2008, pp. 147-163.
  7. ^ Richard P. Reading, Henry M. Mix, Badamjaviin Lhagvasuren, Claudia Feh, David P. Kane, S. Dulamtseren, Sumyain Enkhbold: Status and distribution of khulan (Equus hemionus) in Mongolia. In: Journal of the Zoological Society. 254, 2001, pp. 381-389.
  8. ^ Martha I. Grinder, Paul R. Krausman, Robert S. Hoffmann. Equus asinus. In: Mammalian Species. 794, 2006, pp. 1-9.
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g h i C. Feh, B. Munkhtuya, S. Enkhbold, T. Sukhbaatar: Ecology and social structure of the Gobi khulan Equus hemionus subsp. in the Gobi B National Park, Mongolia. In: Biological Conservation. 101, 2001, pp. 51-61.
  10. ↑ Petra Kaczensky, Ralph Kuehn, Badamjav Lhagvasuren, Stephanie Pietsch, Weikang Yang, Chris Walzer: Connectivity of the Asiatic wild ass population in the Mongolian Gobi. In: Biological Conservation. 144, 2011, pp. 920-929.
  11. ^ G. Neumann-Denzau, H. Denzau: Remarks on the social system of the Mongolian wild ass (Equus hemionus hemionus). In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 177-187.
  12. ^ A b David Saltz, Mary Rowen, Daniel I. Rubenstein: The Effect of Space-Use Patterns of Reintroduced Asiatic Wild Asses On Effective Population Size. In: Conservation Biology. 14 (6), 2000, pp. 1852-1861.
  13. ^ A b N. Shah, Q. Qureshi: Social organization and spatial distribution of Khur (Equus hemionus khur). In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 189-200.
  14. ↑ a b Hu Defu, Zhang Daming and Lan Chunmei: Ecology Habits of Equus hemionus and Gazella subgutturosa in Kalamaili Ungulate Reserve in Autumn. In: Journal of Forestry Research. 9 (2), 1998, pp. 131-132.
  15. ↑ J. Lengger, F. Tataruch, Ch. Walzer: Feeding ecology of Asiatic Wild ass Equus hemionus. In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 93-97.
  16. ^ SP Goyal, B. Sinha, N. Shah, HS Panwar: Sardar Sarovar ProjectÐa conservation threat to the Indian wild ass (Equus hemionus khur). In: Biological Conservation. 88, 1999, pp. 277-284.
  17. ↑ David Saltz, Daniel I. Rubenstein: Population dynamics of reintroduced Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus) herd. In: Ecological Applications. 5 (2), 1995, pp. 327-335.
  18. ^ G. Neumann-Denzau: The birth of a Wild ass (Equus hemionus khur) in India's Little Rann of Kutch. In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 219-226.
  19. ↑ Johanna Painer, Petra Kaczensky, Oyunsaikhan Ganbaatar, Klaus Huber, Chris Walzer: Comparative parasitological examination on sympatric equids in the Great Gobi “B” Strictly Protected Area, Mongolia. In: European Journal of Wildlife Research. 2010 doi: 10.1007 / s10344-010-0415-8
  20. ↑ a b Hákon Jónsson, Mikkel Schubert, Andaine Seguin-Orlando, Aurélien Ginolhac, Lillian Petersen, Matteo Fumagallic, Anders Albrechtsen, Bent Petersen, Thorfinn S. Korneliussen, Julia T. Vilstrup, Teri Lear, Jennifer Leigh Myka, Judith Lundquist, Donald C. Miller, Ahmed H. Alfarhan, Saleh A. Alquraishi, Khaled AS Al-Rasheid, Julia Stagegaard, Günter Strauss, Mads Frost Bertelsen, Thomas Sicherheitsitz-Ponten, Douglas F. Antczak, Ernest Bailey, Rasmus Nielsen, Eske Willerslev, Ludovic Orlando: Speciation with gene flow in equids despite extensive chromosomal plasticity. In: PNAS. 111 (52), 2014, pp. 18655-18660.
  21. ↑ a b Ann Forstén: Mitochondrial DNA time-table and the evolution of Equus: comparison of molecular and paleontological evidence. In: Annales Zoologici Fennici. 28, 1992, pp. 301-309.
  22. ↑ a b c Samantha A. Price, Olaf RP Bininda-Emonds: A comprehensive phylogeny of extant horses, rhinos and tapirs (Perissodactyla) through data combination. In: Zoosystematics and Evolution. 85 (2), 2009, pp. 277-292.
  23. ^ Ariane Burke, Vera Eisenmann, Graeme K. Ambler: The systematic position of Equus hydruntinus , an extinct species of Pleistocene equid. In: Quaternary Research. 59 (3), 2003, pp. 459-469.
  24. ↑ Ludovic Orlando, Marjan Mashikour, Ariane Burke, Christophe J. Douady, Véra Eisenmann, Catherine Hänni: Geographic distribution of an extinct equid ( Equus hydruntinus : Mammalia, Equidae) revealed by morphological and genetic analyzes of fossils. In: Molecular Ecology. 15 (8), 2006, pp. 2083-2093.
  25. ^ A b Ludovic Orlando, Jessica L. Metcalf, Maria T. Alberdi, Miguel Telles-Antunes, Dominique Bonjean, Marcel Otte, Fabiana Martin, Véra Eisenmann, Marjan Mashkour, Flavia Morello, Jose L. Prado, Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi, Bruce J. Shockey, Patrick J. Wrinn, Sergei K. Vasil'ev, Nikolai D. Ovodov, Michael I. Cherry Blair Hopwood, Dean Male, Jeremy J. Austin, Catherine Hänni, Alan Cooper: Revising the recent evolutionary history of equids using ancient DNA. In: PNAS. 106, 2009, pp. 21754-21759.
  26. ↑ Peter Simon Pallas: Equus hemionus, Mongolis Dishikketaei ​​dictus, describente. In: Novi commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae. 19, 1774, pp. 394-414 ( [2] ).
  27. ^ Daniel Rubenstein: Family Equidae (Horses and relatives). In: Don E. Wilson, Russell A. Mittermeier (eds.): Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 2: Hooved Mammals. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2011, ISBN 978-84-96553-77-4 , pp. 104-143.
  28. ↑ Colin Groves, Peter Grubb: Ungulate Taxonomy. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2011, pp. 1-317 (pp. 13-17)
  29. ↑ Karin Krüger: Comparative molecular genetic studies on the phylogenesis of equidae with special consideration of E. hemionus kulan and E. hemionus onager. Zurich 2003 ( vet.uzh.ch )
  30. ↑ a b c E. Andrew Bennett, Sophie Champlot, Joris Peters, Benjamin S. Arbuckle, Silvia Guimaraes, Mélanie Pruvost, Shirli Bar-David, Simon JM Davis, Mathieu Gautier, Petra Kaczensky, Ralph Kuehn, Marjan Mashkour, Arturo Morales- Muñiz, Erich Pucher, Jean-François Tournepiche, Hans Peter Uerpmann, Adrian Bălăşescu, Mietje Germonpré, Can Y. Gündem, Mahmoud-Reza Hemami, Pierre-Elie Moullé, Aliye Ötzan, Margarete Uerpmann, Chris Walzer, Thierry Grange, Eva-Maria Geigl: Taming the late Quaternary phylogeography of the Eurasiatic wild ass through ancient and modern DNA. In: PLoS ONE. 12 (4), 2017, p. E0174216, doi: 10.1371 / journal.pone.0174216 .
  31. ^ Véra Eisenmann: Pliocene and Pleistocene Equids: palaeontology versus molecular biology. In: Courier of the Senckenberg Research Institute. 256, 2006, pp. 71-89.
  32. ↑ TV Kuznetsova, VI Zhegallo: Equus (Hemionus) nalaikhaensis from the Pleistocene of Mongolia, the Earliest Kulan of Central Asia. In: Paleontological Journal. 43, 2009, pp. 574-583.
  33. ↑ Ann Forsten, Sharif Sharapov: Fossil equids (Mammalia, Equidae) from the Neogene and Pleistocene of Tadzhikistan. In: Geodiversitas. 22 (2), 2000, pp. 293-314.
  34. ^ P. Ucko, G. Dimbleby: The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals . Aldine Pub., 2007, ISBN 978-0-202-36169-7 (books.google.de)
  35. ^ Juliet Clutton-Brock: Horse Power: A History of the Horse and the Donkey in Human Societies. 1992, ISBN 0-674-40646-X .
  36. ^ Rohini Rangarajan: The Influence of Ecto-Parasites on the behavior of the Indian Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur), in the Wild Ass Sanctuary, Kutch, Gujarat. Manipal University, 2008.
  37. ↑ Yang Weikang: An overview on the state of Equus hemionus in whole China. In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 155-158.
  38. ↑ V: S. Lukarevskiy, Yu. K. Goerlov: Kulan (Equus hemionus PALLAS 1775) in Turkmenistan. In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 231-240.
  39. ↑ L. Tatin, BF Darreh-Shoori, C. Tourenq, D. Tatin, B. Azmayesh: Up-date on the behavior and status of the critically endangered Onager, Equus hemionus onager, from Iran. In: Exploring Mongolia's Biological Resources. 10, 2007, pp. 253-259.

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