Koranism

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Koranismus ( Arabic القرآنيون, DMG al-Qurʾāniyyūn ) is a movement in Islam whose followers regard the Koran as a source of faith and reject hadiths as a theological and legal source alongside the Koran. Koranists ( Arabic أهل القرآن, DMG Ahl al-Qurʾān ) believe that God's message in the Koran is clear and complete, and that it can therefore be fully understood without referring to hadith.

The first critics of the Hadtith tradition existed as early as the time of the scholar asch-Shāfiʿī , but their arguments were not very well received by Muslims. From the 19th century onwards, reformist thinkers such as Sayyid Ahmad Khan , Abdullah Chakralawi and later Ghulam Ahmad Parwez in India began to systematically question the hadith and the Islamic tradition and to found Koranist organizations. At the same time, there was a long-standing discussion on the sole authority of the Koran in Egypt , initiated by an article by Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī in the magazine al-Manār . Koranism also took on a political dimension in the 20th century when Muammar al-Gaddafi declared the Koran to be the constitution of Libya . As a result of Egyptian scholars such as Rashad Khalifa and Ahmad Subhy Mansour, who moved to the United States , Koranic ideas also spread to many other countries. Today there are Koranists in Nigeria , Malaysia and Turkey , but also in European countries like Switzerland .

In some cases, the rejection of the hadith leads to drastic differences in the worship services . The biggest discrepancies are in ritual prayer . While some Koranists traditionally pray five times a day, others reduce the number to three or even two daily prayers. There are also different views on the details of prayer or other activities such as zakāt and fasting .

Background and belief base

In the traditional understanding of Islam, the Koran is considered the main source of belief and belief. In its interpretation, however, the biography of the prophet ( Sira ) of Mohammed , his hadiths and exegeses by earlier scholars are also taken into account. These sources were created much later than the Koran and establish a meaning for the Koran text, which is often not immediately apparent from the text. In addition, these sources add certain prohibitions and commands that do not appear in the Koran. The validity and value of the individual hadiths is also controversial in traditional Islam, but the majority of them are not completely rejected.

In Qur'anism, on the other hand, the Qur'an and the interpretations that follow directly from it are the sole basis of belief, with external sources such as hadiths being rejected. In particular, the concept of abrogation is rejected, with the result that the interpretations of the Koranism sometimes differ significantly from the orthodox doctrines. There are comparable approaches in Judaism among the Karaites and in (especially Protestant ) Christianity with the concept of sola scriptura .

Various verses from the Koran that would legitimize the Koranic approach are taken as the basis of belief. Examples are:

6:38: "And there is no animal on earth and no bird that flies with its wings without communities like you (people). We have in the Scriptures (in which everything that is and will be, recorded) nothing is passed over. Finally (w. thereupon) they (all) will be gathered to their Lord. "

6: 114: "Should I wish for another arbitrator than God, since it is he who has clearly explained the scriptures down to you? Those to whom we gave the scriptures (before you) know, that it was revealed (to you) from your Lord with the truth. You must not doubt it. "

12: 1: "lr. These are the verses (w. Signs) of the clear script."

history

Early discussions

A tradition of the Prophet Muhammad himself, in which he is said to have forbidden the writing of his statements, plays an important role in the arguments of the Koranists against the hadith corpus . There are also several reports about Umar ibn al-Chattab (d. 644), who also forbade writing down hadiths in order not to endanger the authority of the Koran . However, the fact that several collections of hadiths arose in the following centuries shows that these traditions were not interpreted as a general prohibition.

The Muslims of the first generation made no strict separation between the Koran and other authoritative sources, such as the Sunnah of the Prophet and the statements and actions of the Prophet's companions and the caliphs . These were all viewed as " revelation " ( waḥy ). It was not until the “classical phase” in the eighth and ninth centuries that these traditions were separated, systematized and hierarchized. In this context there was also a discussion about the authority of the Sunnah and the resilience of the hadith as a source for it. The Ahl al-Hadith (“People of the Hadith”), whose opinion ultimately prevailed, gave the Sunnah the same authority as the Koran with regard to legal issues, and viewed the Hadith as an authentic source in this regard. Muhammad ibn Idrīs asch-Schāfiʿī (d. 820) in particular contributed to the fact that the hadith as the bearer of the Sunnah were seen as a supplementary and explanatory revelation alongside the Koran.

However, that this view also had critics and opponents, is shown in the works of scholars such as ash-Shāfiī himself and Ibn Qutaiba (d. 889). In it, the authors defend the authority of the hadiths in general on the one hand and individual hadiths whose content appears contradictory or ridiculous on the other. In his Kitāb al-Umm , al-Shāfidī calls those who regard the Qur'an as a sufficient source for legal questions and who largely reject the hadiths as unreliable or as a whole reject them as Ahl al-Kalām ("people of speech"). However, these did not question the authority of the Prophet himself, but only how one can get trustworthy knowledge about his actions and how one should obey them. However, the Ahl al-Kalām could not hold on to a strict position for long and mostly accepted the arguments of the traditionalists.

Within the Muʿtazila , a theologically Islamic movement that flourished between the ninth and eleventh centuries, there were various critical positions regarding the hadith. One of their representatives, an-Nazzām , had a very skeptical attitude towards the hadith and examined contradicting traditions regarding their differing content in order to defend his position.

Education in India

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Muslim reformist thinkers began again to deal with the authority of Islamic sources of law, rejected the Taqlid and called for a return to the Koran and the Sunna. In addition, there was the confrontation with the overwhelming power and colonialism of the great Western powers. The Muslim scholars now had to deal with new questions and problems that arose as a result of the influence of Western ideas that were spread by missionaries and orientalists , among others . They also tried to find an explanation for the backwardness of Muslims compared to the progress made in western countries. In order to answer these questions, to defend Islam against allegations and to interpret it in such a way that it is compatible with rational and naturalistic ideas, some modernist scholars tried to separate the foundations of religion from historical influences and tradition. To this end, they critically examined the four traditional sources of Islamic law .

In this context, a number of thinkers and scholars emerged, especially in the then British India , who rejected hadith and wanted to establish the Koran as the main source. Sayyid Ahmad Khan (d. 1898), founder of the Aligarh movement , believed that the Koran is the only authoritative source of Islam. The hadith corpus is unreliable, since in the traditional criticism of the hadith only the trustworthiness of the narrator was used as proof of the authenticity of the hadith. But one should also critically analyze the hadith text ( matn ) and check its compatibility with the Koran and reason . On the basis of this, some fundamental theological dogmas and legal regulations would have to be rationalized and interpreted according to criteria of reason, regardless of the additions of tradition. Another important point in Ahmad Khan's thinking was his definition of nature . He equated the laws of nature, the “work of God” with revelation , the “word of God”. This led, among other things, to the fact that other scholars dismissed him as a " naturalist " ( nayčirī ) and his ideas were criticized by numerous contemporary scholars, sometimes very strongly.

Chiragh Ali (d. 1895) developed Sayyid Ahmad Khan's ideas further and took a more rigorous view of the use of hadiths as an authoritative source. He also criticized the focus of Muslim scholars on isnād criticism and the fact that the hadiths were only collected decades after the death of Prophet Muhammad , and concluded that almost all hadiths were inauthentic. This assumption made it possible to invalidate and reform all regulations and institutions based on the hadith tradition. Ali's starting point, however, was not the criticism of hadiths per se, but the defense of the feasibility of Islam in modern times and the search for “true Islam” away from the ideas of the Orthodox Muslims and the accusations of Western orientalists.

At the beginning of the 20th century, Abdullah Chakralawi (d. 1916) founded the Ahl aḏ-ḏikr wa-l-Qurʾān ( Ahl al-Qurʾān for short ) in Lahore . He was convinced that the Koran is so comprehensive that it is sufficient as a divine source for the guidance of Muslims and that therefore the rest of the written tradition including the hadiths and earlier commentaries on the Koran can be excluded. In contrast to their predecessors, Chakralawi and his followers rejected the hadiths as a whole, only recognized the Koran as an authoritative and valid source for theological and ritual questions and broke away from the classical exegetical methods. Between 1903 and 1932 they also published the journal Išāʿat al-Qurʾān .

A few years after Chakralawi's death, Ahmad ad-Dīn Amritsārī (d. 1936) founded another Koranist movement in Amritsar , the Anǧuman-i Ummat-i Muslima , with the magazines al-Balāġ and al-Bayān . The return to the Koran as the only binding source should, in his opinion, purify Islam from previous theological-philosophical conclusions and jurisprudence as well as from Arab-dominated thinking and thus make it a universal faith that can create harmony between the various religions .

The historian and Islamic scholar Muhammad Aslam Jairājpūrī (d. 1955) developed a Qur'anic history of the hadith and did not regard the hadith as a religiously binding, but very important historical source. With regard to ritual questions, he regarded the many strands of the conduct of the Prophet ( sunnat al-mutawātir ) as trustworthy. His student Ghulam Ahmad Parwez (d. 1985) became one of the most influential and productive figures in the Ahl al-Qurʾān movement. In 1938 he founded the Tahrīk-i ṭulūʿ-i islām in Delhi , which was later relocated to Lahore and published the journal Ṭulūʿ-i islām , which was previously edited by Muhammad Iqbal . Like his teacher, Parwez viewed the hadith as a historical source and recognized the prophet's interpretation primarily as an authority in his day. The hadiths that have reached us must, however, be compared with the Koran, selected and thus cleared up. Similar to Amritsārī, he gave Islam a universal character that can be achieved on the basis of the Koran. As far as the details in the interpretation and implementation are concerned, these would have to be determined by a central Muslim authority - also in the form of a state. In this context, Parwez also developed a state theory and later supported the founding of Pakistan . In particular, his views on the hadiths earned him much criticism. It even got to the point that 1,000 traditionalist scholars declared him an unbeliever in a fatwa . The movement he founded is still active today and has supporters in Pakistan and Europe , among others .

Discussion in Egypt

Coinciding with Syed Ahmad Khan began Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905) in Egypt careful criticism of hadith to comment. He only considered the hadiths handed down by a large number of people to be ultimately binding ( ḥadīṯ mutawātir ). Those hadiths, however, which were narrated by only one person ( ḥadīṯ aḥād ), should only be followed if they convince the reader. With this he opened the door for a personal assessment of the binding nature of the hadith without rejecting them as a whole. His focus was on the rejection of the imitation ( taqlīd ) of earlier law schools and scholars , which, in his opinion, had contributed greatly to the backwardness of the Muslims in his country.

The Egyptian doctor Muhammad Tawfīq Sidqī (d. 1920) published an article in 1906 with the title "Islam is the Quran alone" ( al-Islām huwa l-Qurʾān waḥda-hū ) in Rashīd Ridā's magazine al-Manār . As the name of the article indicates, Sidqī accepted the Koran alone as an authoritative religious source and was convinced that it contained all the necessary information. The Sunnah of the Prophet had only been a role model for his contemporaries. If the Prophet had wanted his hadiths to reach the following generations, he would have had them written down - just like the Koran. So the Muslims today could freely decide whether or not to obey something that is narrated by the Prophet and is not contained in the Koran. Sidqī's article attracted a long discussion and several rebuttals, which were published in the journal along with his answer.

Also worth mentioning is the activist Ahmad Subhy Mansour . Because of his Koranic ideas, he was expelled from his professorship in Islamic History at Azhar University and imprisoned. In 2002 he received asylum in the United States , where he founded the “International Qur'anic Center”, which is mainly active online. In addition to a return to the Koran, the goals of the organization include the promotion of democracy and human rights .

Libya under al-Gaddafi

The military coup in Libya in 1969 brought Muammar al-Gaddafi (d. 2011) to power, who initially gave the country a pan-Arab - socialist and later an increasingly clear Islamic orientation. Al-Gaddafi gave Islam a universal claim and called for a return to the "essence of Islam" and its fundamental source, the Koran , which has been interpreted in a progressive manner. In the declaration on the authority of the people of 1977, the Koran was finally declared the " constitution " of the People's Republic of Libya. The Islamic tradition, including the hadiths , the schools of law and the jurisprudence of earlier scholars , was criticized by al-Gaddafi, however, because it distracts Muslims from the "original source of divine truth". In contrast, the cultic and religious acts of the Prophet such as ritual prayer were recognized as Sunnah . In 1978, the year zero of the Islamic calendar was changed from the hijra to the day of the Prophet's death.

The circle around Rashad Khalifa

In the United States , the Egyptian Rashad Khalifa developed a theological doctrine at the end of the 20th century that influenced Koranists in many other countries. With the help of computers he carried out a numerical analysis of the Koran , which clearly proves that it is of divine origin. The fundamental role was played by the number 19, which according to Khalifa can be found everywhere in the structure of the Koran and is even mentioned in a verse. This scientific approach was initially welcomed by many Muslims. The conclusions that Khalifa subsequently drew, however, led to strong criticism from Muslims as well as scholars worldwide and ultimately to his murder in the Tucson Mosque in 1990, where he had previously served as imam for eleven years . Khalifa claimed that the Sunnah and Hadith were pure speculation and satanic traps for people and that observing them would be equivalent to adding ( širk ). In addition, he excluded two verses from the Koran (Q 9: 128-129) as "satanic" because they would not be compatible with his theory based on the number 19. Another sensation was caused by his own presentation as a " messenger " of God ( "Gods Messenger of the Covenant"), similar to Abraham and Muhammad, whose task was the restoration of God's revelation.

The organization “United Submitters International” (USI) founded by Khalifa has its center in Tucson and has published a monthly newsletter with the title “Submitter's Respective” since 1985. Followers, albeit few in number, can also be found in other regions of America and Canada and are mainly active online. They see themselves as a “moderate reformist religious community” and are not associated with other Muslim communities because, in their opinion, they do not really obey the Koran. The so-called "Submitters" practice the Five Pillars of Islam with deviations from the practice of the majority of Muslims, as some details cannot be found in the Koran. The women do not wear a headscarf and take an active part in community life.

Edip Yüksel , a Kurdish activist from Turkey , initially campaigned for an Islamic revolution in Turkey, which is why he was imprisoned. Through the works of Rashad Khalifa he later got to know the ideas of Koranism and began to propagate them. In 1989 he had to leave the country as a result and joined the Submitters in Tucson, which he left some time later. Together with two other authors, Yüksel created his own translation of the Koran and represents his own and Khalifa's ideas in numerous Turkish and English books as well as online, above all the doctrine of the number 19. In some points, however, his views differ from those of the submitter. For example, one only has to pray three times a day because only three times of prayer are mentioned in the Qur'an, and there are no fixed dress codes during prayer.

In Malaysia , Kassim Ahmad (died 2017) wrote the book Hadith: A Re-evaluation in 1997 , in which he called for a scientific evaluation of the hadith and the entire Islamic tradition, as these are responsible for the backwardness of Muslims. He saw the Qur'an as the only sunna of the Prophet Muhammad and criticized the classic Sunni view of the sunna and hadith since al-Shafiʿī. Even if his ideas largely coincide with those of Rashad Khalifa, Ahmad uses a milder tone and at the same time calls on people to rational thinking and social reform. His book was banned in Malaysia and Ahmad was declared a heretic .

Maitatsine Movement in Nigeria

In Nigeria , too, there were a number of Koranist movements in the second half of the 20th century, the leaders of which were partly influenced by the teachings of Rashad Khalifa. The movement under Muhammad Marwa “Maitatsine” (d. 1980) is particularly noteworthy as it resulted in an armed uprising . Like most Koranists, Marwa recognized the Koran alone as an authoritative religious source and there is a suspicion that he even rejected the prophecy of Muhammad completely and saw himself as a prophet with a divine mission. His interpretation of the Koran, excluding traditional literature and using the Hausa language, led him and his followers to derive specific prohibitions directly from the Koran. They rejected all modern and western inventions such as wristwatches , bicycles and cigarettes and saw it as inadmissible to have more money than absolutely necessary. Those who did not obey these regulations were branded as pagans . In December 1980, they stormed eventually arming the Friday Mosque of Kano . The uprising was put down by the Nigerian army . Several thousand people died in the fighting, including Marwa herself. The movement continued, however, and for some time led to riots in other parts of northern Nigeria.

Koranic thinking in Turkey and Europe

In Turkey , Koranic ideas have made themselves felt especially since the mid-1970s. One of the first and most important thinkers in this line is the Islamic theologian Hüseyin Atay. Among other things, he wrote his own translation of the Koran and was of the opinion that the religion at the time of the Prophet consisted of the Koran and reason . Only after the death of the Prophet did one begin to refer to hadiths , statements from the Prophet's companions and scholarly opinions, which in the long term led to an alienation from the Koran and to imitation ( taqlīd ). All non-Quranic sources and the tradition belonged only to the area of ​​religious culture and should be critically examined. His student Yaşar Nuri Öztürk (died 2016), who also wrote his own translation of the Koran, had similar ideas.

Kerem Adıgüzel , a Swiss- Turkish author, founded the German-language website alrahman.de in 2007 and the Al-Rahman association in 2017 - with reason and devotion . In addition to a return to the Koran, Adıgüzel advocates a “de-Arabization” of Islam, tries to make the Koran more accessible to German-speaking readers and to enable independent interpretation . His arguments regarding the rejection of the Sunnah and the Hadith, as well as his belief in a mathematical code in the Koran, largely agree with Yüksel's ideas. In his book Key to Understanding the Koran , he describes his attitude to the hadiths as follows: “Aḥādīṯ, in German pronouncements, do not explain the reading, but rather dilute it with new words and new questions, new (often meaningless) laws, superstitions and sometimes even blasphemies. They rise up as another authority alongside God's Word by selling themselves as "Islamic". They unconsciously demand from us that we associate them with God's word and thus make ourselves guilty of the capital sin in faith, namely the shirk, the association of other deities and authorities besides God. These sayings are not prophetic words. The Prophet himself was always against the writing of his personal sayings (Sunan Al-Daramy; Ibn Abdil Berr, Camiul Bayanil Ilm ve Fazluhu 1 / 64-65; Ibn Sad, Tabakat 5/140; Sahih al- Bukhari: 9.468 and 7.573), which is why no book was written in the first century that records the personal words of the Prophet. [...] ”.

Dogmatic differences from traditional Islam

Since Koranism is a current that is mainly represented by individuals and communities, there are sometimes considerable differences in terms of ritual practices . How much these deviate from the traditional Islamic understanding also depends on whether the Sunna and the Hadith are completely or only partially rejected and which exegetical methods are used in interpreting the Koran . It is noticeable that the early Koranists for the most part did not make any significant changes to the ritual practices and rather discussed theological issues, whereas the religious practice of the current Koranists shows some serious differences to traditional Islam. Here are just a few examples with a focus on the Five Pillars of Islam.

Shahada (creed)

The Shahāda accepted by Koranists is lā ilāha illā Llāh : "There is no god but God". The traditional second part, which refers to the Prophet Muhammad, is deliberately left out, as this does not appear in the Koran .

Salāt (prayer)

Differences can also be found in ritual prayer ( ṣalāt ). There are Koranists who, as in traditional Islam, pray five times a day, but also those who read only two or three daily prayers from the Koran. Other Koranists, on the other hand, see the Arabic word ṣalāt as a spiritual contact or a spiritual devotion to God through the observance of the Koran, and therefore not as a rite .

The blessings for the prophets , which are part of the traditional ṣalāt , are omitted by many Koranists in the call to prayer and in the prayer itself. The ablution in prayer ( wuḍūʾ ) only includes washing the face, hands up to the elbows and stroking the head and feet, as only these steps are explicitly mentioned in the Koran.

Other possible differences are, for example, that the woman's menstruation is not an obstacle to prayer, that men and women are allowed to pray together in a mosque , or that there is no catching up of the kalāt .

Zakāt (alms tax)

In traditional Islam, giving zakāt is a religious duty. This amounts to 2.5 percent of the annual income . According to many Koranists, the Koran does not specify a percentage because it does not appear explicitly in the Koran. Supporters of United Submitters International, on the other hand, agree with the 2.5 percent, but don’t give the zakāt annually, but from every money they earn.

There are also Koranists who see the Zakāt rather as a purification , a symbolic purification of the soul from one's own sins , since the Arabic word zakāt comes from the root zāy kāf wāw , which also means "purity or purification".

Hem (fasting)

There are also different views regarding the duration and the necessity of fasting ( ṣaum ). For example, the Arabic word maʿdūdātin in 2: 184 is considered to be a small number of days (3-10) and not necessarily a whole month, including with regard to 2: 203. There are Koranists, for example, who do not consider it necessary to fast for the entire month of Ramadan as in traditional Islam - one can fast for at least three days. Others traditionally fast all of Ramadan, but do not celebrate Ramadan at the end of the month. According to Waqas Muhammad there is also the possibility of replacing fasting with feeding someone in need. According to 2: 184, however, fasting is still better than this replacement service.

Hajj (pilgrimage)

The Hajj is traditionally performed in the month of Dhū l-Hijjah on the Islamic calendar . However, according to Rashad Khalifa and the Submitters, it is also possible to perform the pilgrimage in one of the other three holy months, i.e. Muharram , Rajab or Dhū l-Qaʿda .

Extra-Quran traditions in Hajj , such as kissing or hugging the black stone and the symbolic stoning of the devil by throwing seven (or a multiple of it such as 49 or 70) small stones at the Jamarat al-Aqaba , are rejected. Even walking seven times between the two hills as-Safā and al-Marwa is not seen as a mandatory obligation, but merely as an option.

Ridda (apostasy)

In the collection of hadiths from al-Buchari there is a tradition in which the Prophet is said to have said that a Muslim who rejects his religion should be killed. However, since Koranists reject hadith and there is no request to kill apostates in the Koran , they reject this procedure. In addition, 2: 256 is taken into account, where enforcement is not provided for in the order of life (religion).

Others

The following aspects can be cited as further examples, which, compared to traditional Islam, are rejected by Koranists or considered irrelevant:

  • Circumcision, Eid al-Fitr (festival of breaking the fast), Eid ul-Adha (Islamic festival of sacrifice), headscarves, stoning of adulterers or homosexuals, Tahrīf (the alleged falsification of the holy scriptures of Judaism and Christianity ), prohibition of music, singing, Pictures, prohibition for the man to wear gold or silk, to shave his beard etc.

Criticism and persecution

The teachings of the Koranists are now attracting the attention of many Muslims internationally, but the reactions are not always positive. Numerous traditional scholars and authors in the past wrote rebuttals in response to Quranic works. Fatwas were even issued against some Koranists, such as Ghulam Ahmad Parwez, declaring them unbelievers.

Even today, supporters of the Koranism must expect sanctions. For this reason, some Koranic authors write anonymously or under a pseudonym . In some countries scholars and individuals who promote Koranic ideas are even persecuted by the state. The Egyptian Ahmad Subhy Mansour, for example , who as a Koranist himself had to leave Azhar University and emigrate to the United States , writes that opponents of Hadith in Egypt would face persecution, imprisonment and exile because they would "insult" Islam. In Sudan in 2015 25 men were detained from 15 to 51 years and sentenced to death for only the Koran recognized and the Sunnah rejected what in Sudan as apostasy is condemned. The Turkish Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı criticizes the rejection of the Sunnah by, for example, Friday sermons .

literature

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  • Aisha Y. Musa: “The Qur'anists.” In: Religion Compass 4.1 (2010), pp. 12-21.
  • Martin Nguyen: "United Submitters International." In: Encyclopedia of Islam in the United States . Jocelyne Cesari (ed.). Vol. 2. Westport, Connecticut / London: Greenwood Press, 2007, pp. 623-635.
  • Mustafa Öztürk: “Modern Döneme Özgü Bir Kur'an Tasavvuru. Kur'ancılık ve Kur'an İslamı Söyleminin Tahlil ve Tenkidi. ”In: Marife 10.3 (2010), pp. 9–43.
  • Ali Usman Qasmi: Questioning the Authority of the Past. The Ahl al-Qur'ān Movements in the Punjab . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
  • ANM Wahidur Rahman: “Modernist Muslim's Approach to Ḥadīth. Aligarh School. ”In: Hamdard Islamicus Winter 16.4 (1993), pp. 13-26.
  • Abdurrahman Saaleh: "Sectarian Islam in America: The Case of United Submitters International-The Foundation." In: Islamic Studies 55.3-4 (2016), pp. 235–259.
  • Muḥammad Tawfīq Ṣidqī: “Al-islām huwa al-Qur'ān waḥdahu.” In: Al-Manār 9 (1906), pp. 515-524.
  • Edip Yüksel; Layth Saleh al-Shaiban; Martha Schulte-Nafeh: Quran: A Reformist Translation . Brainbow Press, 2007.
  • Edip Yüksel: Manifesto for Islamic Reform , Brainbow Press, 2007–2012. ISBN 978-0-9796715-6-2 (English).

Web links

supporting documents

  1. ^ Ahmad: Islamic Modernism . 1967, pp. 14-15.
  2. ↑ Sura 6, Verse 38 at www.corpuscoranicum.de
  3. ↑ Sura 6, verse 114 at www.corpuscoranicum.de
  4. ↑ Sura 12, Verse 1 at www.corpuscoranicum.de
  5. ↑ Musa: Ḥadīth as Scripture . 2008, p. 29.
  6. ↑ Cf. Musa: Ḥadīth as Scripture . 2008, pp. 21-28.
  7. ↑ Brown: Rethinking Tradition . 1996, p. 13.
  8. ↑ Brown: Rethinking Tradition . 1996, p. 13.
  9. ↑ Brown: Rethinking Tradition . 1996, p. 13.
  10. ↑ Brown: Rethinking Tradition . 1996, pp. 14-17.
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  58. ↑ The text can be viewed here.
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  117. ↑ For example Sayyid Ahmad Khan. See Ahmad: Islamic Modernism in India and Pakistan 1857-1964 . 1967, p. 49.
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  120. ^ Haddad and Smith: Mission to America . 1993, p. 163.
  121. ↑ Kerem Adıgüzel: "Menstruation and Prayer in Islam, Fasting During Menstruation ...." Online [7/18/2018].
  122. ^ Haddad and Smith: Muslim Minority Groups in American Islam . 2014, p. 153 .; "The made-up religion and the Koran - Chapter 36 (1): Prayer." Online [5/15/2020].
  123. ↑ "The made-up religion and the Koranic religion - Chapter 36 (2): Alms, charity." Online [5/15/2020].
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  129. ↑ Sura 2, verse 203 at www.corpuscoranicum.de
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  131. ↑ Quranistajm: "Fasting and Shahr Ramadan - Quran Alone Best Hadith of Allah." Online [03/03/2020].
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  135. ↑ Sura 2, Verse 256 at www.corpuscoranicum.de
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