Manchurian language
| Manchurian (manju gisun ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ) |
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Spoken in |
People's Republic of China | |
| Linguistic classification |
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| Official status | ||
| Official language in | - | |
| Language codes | ||
| ISO 639 -1 |
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| ISO 639 -2 |
mnc |
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| ISO 639-3 |
mnc |
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The Manchurian language ( manju gisun ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ) or the Manchu was spoken by the Manchu and has almost been extinct since the 19th or early 20th century. The Manchurians in the People's Republic of China , recognized as a national minority, rarely speak Manchurian and mostly speak Chinese . Yet there is an endeavor to revive Manchurian. Ethnic Manchu in particular learn the Manchurian language. About a thousand people can speak Manchu as a second language.
classification
Manchurian belongs to the family of the Tungusic languages (also: Manchu-Tungusic languages) and is considered a daughter language of the Jurchen language. It is an agglutinating language with vowel harmony ( tongue-root and labial harmony ) and is written with the Manchurian script , a modified Mongolian alphabet which in turn goes back to the ancient Uighur script.
The language of the Xibe in Xinjiang is a daughter language of Manchurian, which is very close to classical Manchurian.
In contrast to the other Tungusic languages, the Manchurian language has a high proportion of loanwords from old Korean languages such as Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), which points to an influence of the states on the Korean Peninsula on the Jurchen and early Manchu.
history
Qing Dynasty
Manchurian was the language at the court of the Manchurian Qing dynasty , who ruled China from 1644–1911, but towards the end of the 17th century it was hardly spoken at court. However, official documents were written in Chinese and Manchurian until 1911, and Manchurian inscriptions can be seen on many buildings from the Qing Dynasty.
In 1708, following a decree of the Kangxi emperor of 1673, the Manchurian dictionary (mansch. Han-i araha manju gisun-i buleku bithe ᡥᠠᠨ ᡳ
ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ ᡳ
ᠪᡠᠯᡝᡴᡠ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ ᠈, Chinese Yù zhì Qīng wén jiàn "御 製 清 文 鑑" ) with around 12,000 lemmas . The pronunciation of the Manchurian entries is indicated with Chinese characters. In 1771, the expanded and revised Manchurian dictionary ( "增訂 清 文 鑑" ) was published with 18,671 lemmas, each of which is accompanied by a translation into Chinese . The pronunciation of Chinese is given in Manchurian. In 1779 the trilingual dictionary of words ( "三 體 清 文 鑑" ) appeared with around 13,000 lemmas in Manchurian, Chinese and Mongolian . Pronunciation information is attached to the entries in all three languages. The four-language dictionary of words ( "四 體 清 文 鑑" ) appeared around 1794 with around 18,671 lemmas in Manchurian, Chinese, Mongolian and Tibetan . However, no phonetic transcriptions are attached to the entries . The five-language table of words ( “五 體 清 文 鍵” ) with around 18,671 lemmas in Manchurian, Chinese, Mongolian, Tibetan and Chagatai was also created around 1794 . The Tibetan translations are also transliterated and transcribed into Manchurian , the Chagatai are transcribed into Manchurian.
Knowledge of Manchurian is an essential requirement for studying the Qing Dynasty. Yet few sinologists learn Manchurian today .
Modern China
In the province of Liaoning there have been voluntary Manchurian lessons for children and young people of the lower and higher middle grades in some schools since the 1980s or at least 1990s. This also applies to several Manchu autonomous counties, for example in the Xinbin Autonomous County in the administrative area of Fushun City . Since there was initially a shortage of teachers, teacher seminars to train Manchurian teachers were held in Northeast China (Liaoning, Jilin , Heilongjiang ) in the 1980s . These efforts make it possible today in many places to be able to receive instruction in Manchu, which goes hand in hand with a limited renaissance of the Manchurian sense of tradition and is also supported by some local authorities, for example by the county government in Xinbin. Although this does not automatically mean that Manchu becomes a language used in everyday life again, it can certainly lead to the knowledge of the Manchurian language and script being spread beyond the small circle of the Manchu.
In the last 20-25 years there has also been a wealth of scientific works, including Manchurian dictionaries, lexicons, grammars, textbooks for spoken Manchurian, etc. The specialist journal Mǎnyǔ yánjiū ( 满 语 研究 - "Manchu Studies") appears in Harbin deals exclusively with the Manchu-Tungus languages and the Manchurian script.
The situation of spoken Manchurian (without Xibe) can be reproduced by translating two passages from the introduction to the book Xiandai Manyu babai ju :
“Throughout the country [meaning China], apart from a few old people in the provinces of Liaoning and Jilin who can still speak some simple Manchurian, the Manchurian-speaking Manchu are mainly concentrated in the north of Heilongjiang Province in the catchment area of Heilong Jiang [Amur ] and in the southwest [of Heilongjiang Province] in the catchment area of the Nen Jiang [Nonni]. "
"According to its peculiarities [today's spoken Manchurian] can be roughly divided into three dialects [...]: Manchurian in Sanjiazi in Fuyu County ( 富裕縣 三家 子 / 富裕县 三家 子 ), Manchurian in Dawujiazi in the city of Heihe ( 黑河 市 大 五 家子 ) and the Manchurian in Daxingcun in the Tailai district ( 泰來 縣 大興 村 / 泰来 县 大兴 村 ). "
This is no longer relevant, and many of the old people who spoke Manchurian in the 1980s and 1990s may now have passed away; However, the strong scientific interest together with the regular visits by ethnologists, linguists and storytellers may also have led to the younger generations (i.e. people under 70) in these three villages regaining interest in speaking Manchurian, as have many Manchu in other Manchu settlement areas as well.
Phonetics and Phonology
Manchurian was no longer a living lingua franca in the 18th century, writes Haenisch. Where it was still artificially cultivated, its pronunciation was shaped by that of Chinese. The reconstruction of the original pronunciation has therefore not yet been successful in every detail. Russian Manchuristics and Möllendorff assumed that there were originally eight vowel phonemes; however, the Manchurian script distinguishes only six.
Consonants
There are different systems of transcription for the consonants of Manchurian:
- Möllendorff : k, g, h, n, b, p, s, š, t, d, l, m, c, j, y, r, f, w; k ‛, g‛, h ‛, ts‛, ts, dz, ž, sy, c‛y, jy
- Haenisch : nkghkgh ng bps ś tdtdlmcjyrfwz z 'ź s c'i j'i k'a g'a
- Gorelova: n ng kgh [q ɢ χ / k ɡ x] kʰ gʰ hʰ bps š tdlmcjrfv (w) ts' (c) ts (ci) sy (si) dz (z) c'y (chi) jy (zhi) ž (r)
Vowels
This also applies to the vowels:
- Möllendorff: a, e (ä), i, o, u, ū
- Haenisch: aeio ô u ai ei oi ui ôi
- Gorelova: a, e, i, o, u, ū [a ə / ɜ i ɔ uo / ʊ] ai ei oi ui; iya, iye, i (y) o; eo; u (a), u (w) e, ū (w) a, ū (w) e
In this article, the Möllendorff transcription is used.
grammar
Vowel harmony
A fundamental characteristic of Manchurian is vowel harmony : a distinction is made between back ( a, o, ū ), front ( e ) and neutral vowels ( i and u ). As a rule, a word can only be followed by an anterior vowel and a posterior one by a posterior vowel. This also applies to suffixes .
There are suffixes that only have one form (e.g. de ᡩᡝ, ci ᠴᡳ) and can follow all stems . There are two-form suffixes ( giyan / giyen ᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ
ᡤᡳᠶᡝᠨ, hiyan / hiyen ᡥᡳᠶᠠᠨ
ᡥᡳᠶᡝᠨ, kiyan / kiyen ᡴᡳᠶᠠᠨ
ᡴᡳᠶᡝᠨ), one of which is attached to stems with anterior vowels and the other to stems with posterior vowels. And there are suffixes with three forms, either with the vowels a / e / o (e.g. han / hen / hon ᠊ᡥᠠᠨ
᠊ᡥᡝᠨ
᠊ᡥᠣᠨ) or with the vowels o / ū / u (e.g. hon / hūn / hun ᠊ᡥᠣᠨ
᠊ᡥᡡᠨ
᠊ᡥᡠᠨ), which are used according to the following scheme:
| tribe | suffix | example |
|---|---|---|
| a - a | a | wakalan ᠸᠠᡴᠠᠯᠠᠨ "Fault" |
| i - a | cihalan ᠴᡳᡥᠠᠯᠠᠨ "Will" | |
| u - a | tusangga ᡨᡠᠰᠠᠩᡤᠠ "useful" | |
| a - i | faksikan ᡶᠠᡴᠰᡳᡴᠠᠨ "Work of art" | |
| a - u | kuralan ᡴᡠᡵᠠᠯᠠᠨ "Retribution" | |
| o - i | moringga ᠮᠣᡵᡳᠩᡤᠠ "Equestrian" | |
| e - e | e | helmets ᡥᡝᠯᠮᡝᡥᡝᠨ "Spider" |
| i - e | ildehe ᡳᠯᡩᡝᡥᡝ "Tree bast" | |
| u - e | tubehe ᡨᡠᠪᡝᡥᡝ "Salmon" | |
| e - i | esihe ᡝᠰᡳᡥᡝ "Fishsoup" | |
| e - u | erulen ᡝᡵᡠᠯᡝᠨ "Punishment" | |
| o - o | O | doloron ᡩᠣᠯᠣᡵᠣᠨ "Rite" |
| o - i | hojihon ᡥᠣᠵᡳᡥᠣᠨ "Son in law" | |
| a - i | ū | wasihūn ᠸᠠᠰᡳᡥᡡᠨ "down" |
| e - i | u | wesihun ᠸᡝᠰᡳᡥᡠᠨ "Upwards" |
Word formation
Manchurian has numerous productive word formation suffixes .
Denominal verbs
The suffix -la / -le / -lo ᠊ᠯᠠ
᠊ᠯᡝ
᠊ᠯᠣforms a verb by making the noun the object of activity: songko ᠰᠣᠩᡴᠣ"Track" - songkolombi ᠰᠣᠩᡴᠣᠯᠣᠮᠪᡳ“Follow a trail”; aba ᠠᠪᠠ"Hunt" - abalambi ᠠᠪᠠᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Hunt", gisun ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ"Word" - gisurembi ᡤᡳᠰᡠᡵᡝᠮᠪᡳ "talk".
The suffix -na / -ne / -no ᠊ᠨᠠ
᠊ᠨᡝ
᠊ᠨᠣforms z. T. a kind of incoative or denotes an inherent development or ability of an object or person: fiyeren ᡶᡳᠶᡝᡵᡝᠨ"Column" - fierenembi ᡶᡳᡝᡵᡝᠨᡝᠮᠪᡳ“ Split up ”, ilha ᡳᠯᡥᠠ"Flower" - ilhanambi ᡳᠯᡥᠠᠨᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Bloom"; monggo ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ"Mongolia" - monggorombi ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣᡵᠣᠮᠪᡳ “Speak Mongolian”, “behave like a Mongol”.
The suffix -ša / -še / -šo ᠊ᡧᠠ
᠊ᡧᡝ
᠊ᡧᠣforms verbs that express the effort to achieve a certain result: sain ᠰᠠᡳᠨ“Good” - saišambi ᠰᠠᡳᡧᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Praise", oncohon ᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣᠨ"Arrogant" - oncohošombi ᠣᠨᠴᠣᡥᠣᡧᠣᠮᠪᡳ" Boast ", buleku ᠪᡠᠯᡝᡴᡠ"Mirror" - bulekušembi ᠪᡠᠯᡝᡴᡠᡧᡝᠮᠪᡳ "Look in a mirror", "reflect"
The suffix -da / -de / -do ᠊ᡩᠠ
᠊ᡩᡝ
᠊ᡩᠣforms verbs of intensity , duration or a gradual development of an action: jili ᠵᡳᠯᡳ"Anger" - jilidambi ᠵᡳᠯᡳᡩᠠᠮᠪᡳ" To be angry", ceku ᠴᡝᡴᡠ"Swing" - cekudembi ᠴᡝᡴᡠᡩᡝᠮᠪᡳ“ To swing”, eruwen ᡝᡵᡠᠸᡝᠨ"Drill" - eruwedembi ᡝᡵᡠᠸᡝᡩᡝᠮᠪᡳ"Drill", goho ᡤᠣᡥᠣ" Elegant " - gohodombi ᡤᠣᡥᠣᡩᠣᠮᠪᡳ "Dress up".
Flexion
Compared to related languages, Manchurian grammar is characterized by a poorly developed inflectional morphology .
noun
There is no grammatical gender in Manchurian .
For a number of word pairs, the gender is denoted by different vowels: ama ᠠᠮᠠ"Father" - eme ᡝᠮᡝ"Mother", haha ᡥᠠᡥᠠ"Man" - hehe ᡥᡝᡥᡝ"Woman", naca ᠨᠠᠴᠠ" Brother -in-law" - nece ᠨᡝᠴᡝ"Sister-in-law", hūwašan ᡥᡡᠸᠠᡧᠠᠨ(Chinese héshang和尚) "monk" - huwešen ᡥᡠᠸᡝᡧᡝᠨ"Nun", amila ᠠᠮᡳᠯᠠ"Male" - emile ᡝᠮᡳᠯᡝ"Females", arsalan ᠠᡵᠰᠠᠯᠠᠨ"Lion" - erselen ᡝᡵᠰᡝᠯᡝᠨ"Lioness", garudai ᡤᠠᡵᡠᡩᠠᡳ"Male phoenix" - gerudei ᡤᡝᡵᡠᡩᡝᡳ“Female phoenix”, but also habenaha ᡥᠠᠪᡨᠠᡥᠠ"Men's belt" - lifted the ᡥᡝᠪᡨᡝᡥᡝ"Women's belt", ganggan ᡤᠠᠩᡤᠠᠨ"Strong" - enough ᡤᡝᠩᡤᡝᠨ "weak".
Modern grammars usually differentiate between animate and inanimate nouns and nouns that denote properties.
Plural
The plural is generally not denoted. There are several ways to do this if it is explicitly named.
Analytical plural
The plural can be expressed analytically ; H. with a numeric word or with a word that expresses the plural ( eiten ᡝᡳᡨᡝᠨ"Everyone", geren ᡤᡝᡵᡝᠨ "All", ududu ᡠᡩᡠᡩᡠ"Several", tome ᡨᠣᠮᡝ“Everyone”) and prefixed the noun, or by adding a generic noun ( urse ᡠᡵᠰᡝ"People", gurgu ᡤᡠᡵᡤᡠ"Animal", hacin ᡥᠠᠴᡳᠨ"Kind", jergi ᠵᡝᡵᡤᡳ "Rank") is added.
The combination of two synonyms can - as in Chinese and Mongolian - express the plural: baita sita ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ
ᠰᡳᡨᠠ"Affairs," gasha cecike ᡤᠠᠰᡥᠠ
ᠴᡝᠴᡳᡴᡝ"Birds", ulin nadan ᡠᠯᡳᠨ
ᠨᠠᡩᠠᠨ"Possessions", ulha ujime ᡠᠯᡥᠠ
ᡠᠵᡳᠮᡝ "Pets".
The plural of some words can be formed by reduplication : jalan jalan ᠵᠠᠯᠠᠨ
ᠵᠠᠯᠠᠨ"Generations", se se ᠰᡝ
ᠰᡝ "Years"
Synthetic plural
The plural of nouns denoting persons can be expressed synthetically , through a plural suffix.
The most common plural suffixes are -sa / -se / -so ᠊ᠰᠠ
᠊ᠰᡝ
᠊ᠰᠣ, -ta / -te ᠊ᡨᠠ
᠊ᡨᡝ, -si ᠊ᠰᡳand -ri ᠊ᡵᡳ. Some words lose the ending -n, -i or -lo when the plural suffix is used .
The plural suffix -sa / -se ᠊ᠰᠠ
᠊ᠰᡝis used with nouns denoting age, generations, relatives, peoples, offices, ranks, titles and professions:
Gege ᡤᡝᡤᡝ"Older sister" - given ᡤᡝᡤᡝᠰᡝ, age ᠠᡤᡝ"Prince" - agese ᠠᡤᡝᠰᡝ, amban ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ"High official" - ambasa ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠰᠠ, hurry ᠪᡝᡳᠯᡝ"Ruler" - beile se ᠪᡝᡳᠯᡝ ᠰᡝ, yu ᠵᡠᡳ"Son" - juse ᠵᡠᠰᡝ, any ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠨ"People" - irgesic ᡳᡵᡤᡝᠰᡝ, lama ᠯᠠᠮᠠ"Monk" - lamasa ᠯᠠᠮᠠᠰᠠ, manju ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ"Manchu" - manjusa ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠᠰᠠ, nikan ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ"(Han) Chinese" - nikasa ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠰᠠ, oros ᠣᡵᠣᠰ"Russian" - oros se ᠣᡵᠣᠰ ᠰᡝ.
The plural suffix -se is the Nominalsuffix -se to distinguish which occurs in Chinese loanwords: cise ᠴᡳᠰᡝ"Pond" (< chízi池子), kose ᡴᠣᠰᡝ"Pants" (< kùzi褲子), dangse ᡩᠠᠩᠰᡝ"Act, act" (< dàngzi檔 子).
The plural suffix -so ᠊ᠰᠣis used with some nouns denoting peoples or genders: monggo ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ"Mongol" - monggoso ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣᠰᠣ, solho ᠰᠣᠯᡥᠣ"Koreans" - solhoso ᠰᠣᠯᡥᠣᠰᠣ, gioro ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ(Name of the imperial family) - gioroso ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣᠰᠣ.
The plural suffix -si ᠊ᠰᡳis used with nouns denoting age, relationships and status: aha ᠠᡥᠠ"Slave" - ahasi ᠠᡥᠠᠰᡳ, haha ᡥᠠᡥᠠ"Man" - hahasi ᡥᠠᡥᠠᠰᡳ(polite: haha niyalma ᡥᠠᡥᠠ ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ), hehe ᡥᡝᡥᡝ"Woman" - hehesi ᡥᡝᡥᡝᠰᡳ(politely: hehe urse ᡥᡝᡥᡝ ᡠᡵᠰᡝ), omolo ᠣᠮᠣᠯᠣ"Grandchildren" - omolosi ᠣᠮᠣᠯᠣᠰᡳ.
The plural suffix -ta / -te ᠊ᡨᠠ
᠊ᡨᡝis used with some nouns denoting age, generations, and relatives:
ama ᠠᠮᠠ"Father" - amata ᠠᠮᠠᡨᠠ, eme ᡝᠮᡝ"Mother" - emete ᡝᠮᡝᡨᡝ, ahūn ᠠᡥᡡᠨ"Older brother" - ahūta ᠠᡥᡡᡨᠠ, ejun ᡝᠵᡠᠨ"Older sister" - ejute ᡝᠵᡠᡨᡝ, asihan ᠠᠰᡳᡥᠠᠨ"Young man" - asihata ᠠᠰᡳᡥᠠᡨᠠ.
The plural suffix -ri ᡵᡳis only used with a few nouns: mafa ᠮᠠᡶᠠ"Grandfather" - mafari ᠮᠠᡶᠠᡵᡳ, mom ᠮᠠᠮᠠ"Grandmother" - mamari ᠮᠠᠮᠠᡵᡳ.
Some words can take different plural suffixes: agusa ᠠᡤᡠᠰᠠ, aguse ᠠᡤᡠᠰᡝ"Men's"; sargasa ᠰᠠᡵᡤᠠᠰᠠ, sargata ᠰᠠᡵᡤᠠᡨᠠ "Wives"
declination
The declination , i.e. H. the formation of the case indicates the syntactic role of the noun in the sentence. In Manchurian, it is analytical and syntactic rather than morphological and synthetic. Compared to the other Manchurian-Tungusic languages, Manchurian has only a few cases: nominative (without ending), genitive (ending: i ᠊ᡳ), Accusative ( be ᠪᡝ), Dative / locative ( de ᡩᡝ) and ablative / elative ( ci ᠴᡳ). To compensate for this, Manchurian has developed analytical combinations of nouns with case markings plus postal positions . Most post positions are derived from nouns.
Nominative
The nominative is not marked any further. The nominative can denote the subject or the predicate in a sentence.
ere deo umesi hulcin niyalma
ᡝᡵᡝ
ᡩᡝᠣ
ᡠᠮᡝᠰᡳ
ᡥᡠᠯᠴᡳᠨ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
this younger
brother very stupid person "This little brother is a very stupid person."
The nominative can indicate an attribute :
tere mederi han jili banji-ha
ᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᠮᡝᡩᡝᡵᡳ
ᡥᠠᠨ
ᠵᡳᠯᡳ
ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᡥᠠ
that sea khan become anger-PARTICIPLE
"That khan of the sea became angry."
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡴᠣᠣᠯᡳ
boo kooli
house rite
" house rites ", "family rites "
The nominative often denotes an indefinite direct object .
emu hotun sabu-mbi
ᡝᠮᡠ
ᡥᠣᡨᡠᠨ
ᠰᠠᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ
see a city-IMPERFECT
"Someone has seen a city."
tuwa dabu
ᡨᡠᠸᠠ
ᡩᠠᠪᡠ
Light fire (IMPERATIVE)
"light fire!"
The nominative can also denote supplementary circumstances.
tere dobori
ᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᡩᠣᠪᠣᡵᡳ
that night
"that night"
accusative
The accusative is used with be regardless of the vowel harmony ᠪᡝmarked. Above all, it denotes the direct object .
i boo be while-mbi
ᡳ
ᠪᠣᠣ ᠪᡝ
ᠸᡝᡳᠯᡝᠮᠪᡳ
he house build ACCUSATIVELY-IMPERFECT "He's building a house."
bi hergen be ara-mbi
ᠪᡳ
ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᠪᡝ
ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡳ
I write letters
ACCUSATIVELY-IMPERFECT "I write letters."
abka. na. šun. biya. edun. aga. akjan. talkiyan be tuwaci
ᠠᠪᡴᠠ᠈
ᠨᠠ᠈
ᡧᡠᠨ᠈
ᠪᡳᠶᠠ᠈
ᡝᡩᡠᠨ᠈
ᠠᡤᠠ᠈
ᠠᡴᠵᠠᠨ᠈
ᡨᠠᠯᡴᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᠪᡝ
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᠴᡳ
Heaven Earth Sun Moon Wind Rain Thunder Lightning Look ACCUSATIVELY-CONDITIONAL
"if you look at heaven and earth, sun and moon, wind and rain, thunder and lightning ..."
The direct object is not always marked with the accusative, although the rules for this are not entirely clear.
Genitive
The genitive becomes with i ᡳor ni ᠨᡳmarked. For nouns ending in a vowel or -n , i is used, for nouns ending in other consonants, ni . The genitive case can be omitted after words that end in -i , especially after loan words from Chinese. The genitive denotes an argument governed by a noun , i.e. H. a very general syntactic relationship between two nouns. Above all, it describes the owner, the origin or the place of residence of an object.
boo i ejen
ᠪᠣᠣ ᡳ
ᡝᠵᡝᠨ
House GENITIVE Mr.
"Lord of the House"
abka-i jui (<Chinese tiān zǐ天子)
ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ
ᠵᡠᡳ
Himmel-GENITIVE son
"son of heaven", "emperor"
men-i baita
ᠮᡝᠨ ᡳ
ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ
I-GENITIVE business
"my business"
In addition, the genitive can express the part of a whole, the material of which something is made, a quantity, a relationship or an attribute. Word connections are also formed with the genitive.
bithe-i niyalma
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ ᡳ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
Book GENITIVE human being
"scholar"
monggo i ba
ᠮᠣᠩᡤᠣ ᡳ
ᠪᠠ
Mongolia GENITIVE place
"Mongolia"
abka-i fejergi
ᠠᠪᡴᠠ ᡳ
ᡶᡝᠵᡝᡵᡤᡳ
Heaven-GENITIVE under
"everything under heaven", "China", "the world" (cf. Chinese tiānxià天下)
In addition, the genitive can have an instrumental meaning: galai ᡤᠠᠯᠠᡳ "with the hand"
ere suhe-i saci-mbi
ᡝᡵᡝ
ᠰᡠᡥᡝ ᡳ
ᠰᠠᠴᡳᠮᠪᡳ
this ax-GENITIVE chop-IMPERFECT
"(I) will chop with this ax."
mini yasai tuwaha
ᠮᡳᠨᡳ
ᠶᠠᠰᠠᡳ
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᡥᠠ
I-GENITIVE eye-GENITIVE look-PERFECT
" looked at with my eyes"
hesei takūraha
ᡥᡝᠰᡝᡳ
ᡨᠠᡴᡡᡵᠠᡥᠠ
"Sent on imperial order"
A number of postpositions rule the genitive, including cala ᠴᠠᠯᠠ"Beyond", dolo ᡩᠣᠯᠣ"In", emgi ᡝᠮᡤᡳ"With", baru ᠪᠠᡵᡠ"On, to", jalin ᠵᠠᠯᡳᠨ "For ... sake".
Dative / locative
The dative or locative is despite the vocal harmony with de ᡩᡝmarked. Above all, it describes a recipient or beneficiary of an action.
morin be tere niyalma de bufi
ᠮᠣᡵᡳᠨ ᠪᡝ
ᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᠪᡠᡶᡳ
Horse ACCUSATIVE that person give DATIVE GERUNDIUM
"He gave the horse to that man."
In a verb in the passive voice, the dative denotes the agent (the agent).
bi in-de gel-bu-he
ᠪᡳ
ᡳᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᡤᡝᠯᡝᠪᡠᡥᡝ
I fear he-DATIVE-PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
“I was afraid of him”, “He scared me”.
The dative can be used to express possession.
ahun de bithe bi
ᠠᡥᡠᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ
ᠪᡳ
big brother
DATIV book KOPULA "Big brother has a book."
The dative can denote an instrument.
angga de hula, mujilen de eje
ᠠᠩᡤᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᡥᡠᠯᠠ᠈
ᠮᡠᠵᡳᠯᡝᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᡝᠵᡝ
Mouth DATIVE read (IMPERATIVE), Mind DATIVE yourself.inprint (IMPERATIVE)
"Read it with your lips and remember it with your brain."
It serves as the locative of calm and direction and also describes the time, manner and cause of an action.
alin buja de tolo-mbi
ᠠᠯᡳᠨ
ᠪᡠᠵᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᡨᠣᠯᠣᠮᠪᡳ
Berg Wald DATIV Leben-IMPERFEKT
"You live in the mountains and forests."
mukden de gene-mbi
ᠮᡠᡩᡝᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᡤᡝᠨᡝᠮᠪᡳ
Mukden DATIV go-IMPERFKT
"I'm going to Mukden (Shenyang)."
tere nergin-de
ᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᠨᡝᡵᡤᡳᠨ ᡩᡝ
that time DATIVE
"in that moment"
doron de
ᡩᠣᡵᠣᠨ ᡩᡝ
"According to the rites"
emu gisun de mergen obu-mbi, emu gisun de mergen akū
ᡝᠮᡠ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᠮᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ
ᠣᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ᠈
ᡝᠮᡠ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᠮᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ
ᠠᡴᡡ
make a word DATIVE wise-PARTICIPLE, a word DATIVE wise KOPULA.NEGATIVE
"A word can lead to wisdom or to stupidity."
ejen-i hese de
ᡝᠵᡳᠨ ᡳ
ᡥᡝᠰᡝ ᡩᡝ
Ruler GENITIVE command DATIVE
"at the command of the ruler"
A number of nouns are converted into postpositions by adding the dative ending: ba ᠪᠠ"Place, occasion" - bathe ᠪᠠᡩᡝ"If, if", there ᡩᠠ"Basis" - dade ᡩᠠᡩᡝ“Next to it, except”, erin ᡝᡵᡳᠨ"Time" - discover ᡝᡵᡳᠨᡩᡝ "if".
Ablative / elative
The ablative or elative becomes with -ci ᠴᡳmarked. It denotes a spatial or temporal starting point.
boo ci tucike
ᠪᠣᠣ ᠴᡳ
ᡨᡠᠴᡳᡴᡝ
House coming out ABLATIVELY PARTICIPLE
"he came out of the house"
abka ci wasi-mbi
ᠠᠪᡴᠠ ᠴᡳ
ᠸᠠᠰᡳᠮᠪᡳ
SKY ABLATIVELY DESCENDING-IMPERFECT
"(someone) descends from heaven"
na ci banji-mbi
ᠨᠠ ᠴᡳ
ᠪᠠᠨᠵᡳᠮᠪᡳ
Earth ABLATIVELY born.be-IMPERATIVE
"(something) grows out of the earth"
da-ci dube-de isitala
ᡩᠠ ᠴᡳ
ᡩᡠᠪᡝ ᡩᡝ
ᡳᠰᡳᡨᠠᠯᠠ
Beginning-ABLATIVE End-DATIVE to
"from the beginning to the end"
The ablative can denote the object of a comparison:
manju gisun ci nikan gisun mangga
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᠪᡳᠰᡠᠨ ᠴᡳ
ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ
ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ
"Chinese is more difficult than Manchu."
adjective
An adjective as an attribute comes before the noun without case suffixes.
sain niyalma
ᠰᠠᡳᠨ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
good person
"a good person"
As a predicate, it is at the end of the sentence.
niyalma sain
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
ᠰᠠᡳᠨ
Good man
"man is good."
Comparisons are made with the ablative of the noun.
morin indahūn ci amba
ᠮᠣᡵᡳᠨ
ᡳᠨᡩᠠᡥᡡᠨ ᠴᡳ
ᠠᠮᠪᠠ
Horse dog ABLATIVE big
"The horse is bigger than the dog."
Numerals
The cardinal numbers are as follows:
| 1 emu ᡝᠮᡠ | 11 juwan emu ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ ᡝᠮᡠ |
||
| 2 juwe ᠵᡠᠸᡝ | 12 juwan juwe ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ ᠵᡠᠸᡝ |
20 orin ⁑ᠣᡵᡳᠨ | 200 juwe tanggū ᠵᡠᠸᡝ ᡨᠠᠩᡤᡡ |
| 3 ilan ᡳᠯᠠᠨ | 13 juwan ilan ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ ᡳᠯᠠᠨ |
30 gūsin ⁂ᡤᡡᠰᡳᠨ | 300 ilan tanggū ᡳᠯᠠᠨ ᡨᠠᠩᡤᡡ |
| 4 duin ᡩᡠᡳᠨ | 14 juwan duin ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ ᡩᡠᡳᠨ |
40 dehi ᡩᡝᡥᡳ | Etc. |
| 5 sunja ᠰᡠᠨᠵᠠ | 15 tofohon *ᡨᠣᡶᠣᡥᠣᠨ | 50 susai ᠰᡠᠰᠠᡳ | |
| 6 ninggun ᠨᡳᠩᡤᡠᠨ | 16 juwan ninggun ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ ᠨᡳᠩᡤᡠᠨ |
60 ninju ᠨᡳᠨᠵᡠ | |
| 7 nadan ᠨᠠᡩᠠᠨ | Etc. | 70 nadanju ᠨᠠᡩᠠᠨᠵᡠ | |
| 8 jakūn ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨ | 80 jakūnju ᠵᠠᡴᡡᠨᠵᡠ | ||
| 9 uyun ᡠᠶᡠᠨ | 90 uyunju ᡠᠶᡠᠨᠵᡠ | ||
| 10 juwan ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ | 100 tanggū ᡨᠠᠩᡤᡡ |
21 orin emu ᠣᡵᡳᠨ
ᡝᠮᡠ Etc.
101 tanggū emu ᡨᠠᠩᡤᡡ
ᡝᠮᡠ Etc.
1000 minggan ᠮᡳᠩᡤᠠᠨ(from the Mongolian ‹mingɣ-a (n)› ᠮᠢᠨᠭᠭᠠ)
10,000 tumen ᡨᡠᠮᡝᠨ(from Mongolian ‹tume (n)› ᠲᠦᠮᠡᠨ)
100000 juwan tumen ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ
ᡨᡠᠮᡝᠨ
1000000 TANGGU tumen ᡨᠠᠩᡤᡡ
ᡨᡠᠮᡝᠨ
* irregular; see. Mongolian ‹taboo (n)› ᠲᠠᠪᠤᠨ "five"
⁑ see. Mongolian ‹qori (n)› ᠬᠣᠷᠢᠨ
⁂ see. Mongolian ‹ɣuči (n)› ᠭᠤᠴᠢᠨ
Loan words from Sanskrit are also used for larger numbers, especially in translations of Buddhist texts. Most ordinals are given with the -ci suffix ᠴᡳformed, whereby the final -n is omitted (except with juwanci ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨᠵᡳ“Tenth” and tumenci ᡨᡠᠮᡝᠨᠵᡳ"Ten thousandth").
Distributive numbers are given with the suffix -ta / -te / -to ᡨᠠ
ᡨᡝ
ᡨᠣformed, whereby the final -n fails:
emte ᡝᠮᡨᡝ“One each”, juwete ᠵᡠᠸᡝᡨᡝ“Two each,” ilata ᡳᠯᠠᡨᠠ"Three each" etc.
Fractional numbers are formed according to the following pattern:
ilan (ubu) ci emu
ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡠᠪᡠ ᠴᡳ
ᡝᠮᡠ
three (part) ABLATIVE one
"one third" (literally: "of three parts of one")
sunja (ubu) ci ilan
ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡠᠪᡠ ᠴᡳ
ᡝᠮᡠ
five (part) ABLATIVE three
"three fifths"
nadan ci juwe
ᠨᠠᡩᠠᠨ ᠴᡳ
ᠵᡠᠸᡝ
"Two sevenths"
The word ubu ᡠᠪᡠ "Part" can also be in the genitive:
ninggun ubu-i sunja
ᠨᡳᠩᡤᡠᠨ
ᡠᠪᡠ ᡳ
ᠰᡠᠨᠵᠠ
six part-GENITIVE five
"five sixths"
This is the same construction as in Chinese:
sān fēn zhī èr
三分之二
three part GENITIVE two
"two thirds"
Reproduction numbers are given with the suffix -rsu ᡵᠰᡠor with a subsequent ubu ᡠᠪᡠ "Part" formed:
emursu ᡝᠮᡠ, emu ubu ᡝᠮᡠ
ᡠᠪᡠ"easy"; jursu ᠵᡠᡵᠰᡠ, juwe ubu ᡠᠸᡝ
ᡠᠪᡠ"Double"; ilarsu ᡳᠯᠠᡵᠰᡠ, ilan ubu ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡠᠪᡠ"Triple"; Etc.
Collective numbers are given with the suffix -nofi ᠊ᠨᠣᡶᡳeducated: juwenofi ᠵᡠᠸᡝᠨᠣᡶᡳ“For two”, ilanofi ᡳᠯᠠᠨᠣᡶᡳ“In three”, duinofi ᡩᡠᡳᠨᠣᡶᡳ "To four" etc.
Repetitions are usually given with the suffix -nggeri ᠊ᠨᡝᡵᡳor geri ᠊ᡤᡝᡵᡳ educated:
emgeri ᡝᠮᡤᡝᡵᡳ“Once”, juwenggeri ᠵᡠᠸᡝᠩᡤᡝᡵᡳ "Twice", ilanggeri ᡳᠯᠠᠩᡤᡝᡵᡳ"Three times", duinggeri ᡩᡠᡳᠩᡤᡝᡵᡳ "Four times" etc.
For information on tens (such as in Chinese Juwan cikten ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ
ᠴᡳᡴᡨᡝᠨ"Ten colors" or " tribes ") and a cycle of twelve ( juwan juwe gargan ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠨ
ᠵᡠᠸᡝ
ᡤᠠᡵᡤᠠᠨ"Twelve animals" or " twigs ") are used.
Count words
In Manchurian, as in Chinese, there is a considerable number of counting unit words (also called counting words , numerative counting words, classifiers or meters) that stand between the number word and noun:
ilan fesin loho
ᡳᠯᠠᠨ
ᡶᡝᠰᡳᠨ
ᠯᠣᡥᠣ
three CLASSIFIER sword
"three swords"
The counting unit word fesin ᡶᡝᠰᡳᠨ"Handle" is used for objects with a handle or hilt such as knives, swords, sabers, spades, fans, etc. (similar to the Chinese counting unit bǎ把).
Further examples of counting unit words are afaha ᠠᡶᠠᡥᠠ"Blatt (paper)" for paper, lists etc. (cf. Chinese zhāng張), debtelin ᡩᡝᠪᡨᡝᠯᡳᠨ“Volume” for books (cf. Chinese běn本), angga ᠠᠩᡤᠠ"Mouth" for animals, objects with openings (pots, bags, etc.), ports, mountain passes, etc., baksan ᠪᠠᡴᠰᠠᠨ"Bundles" for grain stacks, bundles of paper, key rings, caravans etc., dalgan ᡩᠠᠯᡤᠠᠨ "Area" for flat objects such as flags, mirrors, fans and meat cutlets etc.
pronoun
Personal pronouns
The personal pronouns are bi ᠪᡳ"I", si ᠰᡳ"You", i ᡳ"He, she", be ᠪᡝ“We” (exclusive, cf. chinese wǒmen我們), muse ᠮᡠᠰᡝ“We” (inclusive, cf. Chinese zánmen咱們), see below (w) e ᠰᡠᠸᡝ"You", ce ᠴᡝ "She" (3rd person plural).
These pronouns refer to people, not objects. The demonstrative pronoun ere is usually used for objects ᡝᡵᡝ"This" and tere ᡨᡝᡵᡝ"That" is used. The exclusive "we" be ᠪᡝrefers to the first and third person excluding the second person , i.e. H. of the addressed. The inclusive “we” muse ᠮᡠᠰᡝ refers to the speaker and the addressee.
The personal pronouns are declined irregularly:
| - | I | we (excl.) | we (incl.) | you | her | he she | she PL.) |
| Nominative | bi ᠪᡳ | be ᠪᡝ | muse ᠮᡠᠰᡝ | si ᠰᡳ | su (w) e ᠰᡠᠸᡝ | i ᡳ | ce ᠴᡝ |
| Genitive | mini ᠮᡳᠨᡳ | meni ᠮᡝᠨᡳ | musei ᠮᡠᠰᡝᡳ | sini ᠰᡳᠨᡳ | su (w) eni ᠰᡠᠸᡝᠨᡳ | ini ᡳᠨᡳ | ceni ᠴᡝᠨᡳ |
| Dative / locative | at least ᠮᡳᠨᡩᡝ | end ᠮᡝᠨᡩᡝ | musede ᠮᡠᠰᡝᡩᡝ | are ᠰᡳᠨᡩᡝ | su (w) end ᠰᡠᠸᡝᠨᡩᡝ | in the ᡳᠨᡩᡝ | cende ᠴᡝᠨᡩᡝ |
| accusative | mimbe ᠮᡳᠮᠪᡝ | membe ᠮᡝᠮᠪᡝ | musebe ᠮᡠᠰᡝᠪᡝ | simbe ᠰᡳᠮᠪᡝ | su (w) embe ᠰᡠᠸᡝᠮᠪᡝ | imbe ᡳᠮᡝ | cembe ᠴᡝᠮᠪᡝ |
| Ablative / elative | minci ᠮᡳᠨᠴᡳ | menci ᠮᡝᠨᠴᡳ | museci ᠮᡠᠰᡝᠴᡳ | sinci ᠰᡳᠨᠴᡳ | su (w) enci ᠰᡠᠸᡝᠨᠴᡳ | inci ᡳᠨᠴᡳ | cenci ᠴᡝᠨᠴᡳ |
Possession can be expressed using the genitive form of the personal pronoun: mini boo ᠮᡳᠨᡳ
ᠪᠣᠣ"My house", sini boo ᠰᡳᠨᡳ
ᠪᠣᠣ"Your house", musei boo ᠮᡠᠰᡝᡳ
ᠪᠣᠣ "Our house" etc.
Noun possessive pronouns are used with -ngge ᠩᡤᡝformed: miningge ᠮᡳᠨᡳᠩᡤᡝ“ Mine ”, gūwaingge ᡤᡡᠸᠠᡳᠩᡤᡝ "Something that belongs to someone else".
ere uthai we-i jaka - miningge
ᡝᡵᡝ
ᡠᡨᡥᠠᡳ
ᠸᡝᡳ
ᠵᠠᡴᠠ᠉
ᠮᡳᠨᡳᠩᡤᡝ
then this who-GENITIVE thing - my
“Whose is it? - Me."
As in other Asian languages, formed Manchurians avoided personal pronouns, especially for the first and second person; instead, paraphrases are often used, e.g. B. Manchurian officials used aha to the emperor ᠠᡥᠠ"Slave", Chinese amban ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ"Subject" when they spoke of themselves (instead of the pronoun bi ᠪᡳ"I"), while the emperor called himself Manchurian princes ( amban ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨand hurry ᠪᡝᡳᠯᡝ) sitahūn niyalma ᠰᡳᡨᠠᡥᡡᠨ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ"Poor person" or emteli beye ᡝᠮᡨᡝᠯᡳ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ"Orphan"; In general, such terms were used that are loan translations from Chinese, or combinations of personal pronouns in the genitive case with the word beye ᠪᡝᠶᡝ"Yourself": mini beye ᠮᡳᠨᡳ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ"I", sini beye ᠰᡳᠨᡳ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ "She".
Demonstrative pronouns
The demonstrative pronouns are formed with the stems e- and u- for more details and with te- and tu- for more: ere ᡝᡵᡝ“This one”, duck ᡝᠨᡨᡝᡴᡝ"Such", ubaingge ᡠᠪᠠᡳᠩᡤᡝ"Local"; tere ᡨᡝᡵᡝ"That one", tenteke ᡨᡝᠨᡨᡝᡴᡝ"Such", tubaingge ᡨᡠᠪᠠᡳᠩᡤᡝ "There".
The demonstrative pronouns ere ᡝᡵᡝ"This" and tere ᡨᡝᡵᡝ“Those” can also refer to persons. They form the plural with -se and are not declined quite regularly:
| - | this | that | this | those |
| Nominative | ere ᡝᡵᡝ | tere ᡨᡝᡵᡝ | ese ᡝᠰᡝ | tese ᡨᡝᠰᡝ |
| Genitive |
ere (n) i ᡝᡵᡝᡳ ᡝᡵᡝᠨᡳ |
terei ᡨᡝᡵᡝᡳ | esei ᡝᠰᡝᡳ | tesei ᡨᡝᠰᡝᡳ |
| dative |
e (re) de ᡝᡩᡝ ᡝᡵᡝᡩᡝ |
te (re) de ᡨᡝᡩᡝ ᡨᡝᡵᡝᡩᡝ |
esede ᡝᠰᡝᡩᡝ | tesede ᡨᡝᠰᡝᡩᡝ |
| accusative | happen ᡝᡵᡝᠪᡝ | terebe ᡨᡝᡵᡝᠪᡝ | esebe ᡝᠰᡝᠪᡝ | tesebe ᡨᡝᠰᡝᠪᡝ |
| ablative | ereci ᡝᡵᡝᠴᡳ | tereci ᡨᡝᡵᡝᠴᡳ | eseci ᡝᠰᡝᠴᡳ | teseci ᡨᡝᠰᡝᠴᡳ |
If pronouns serve as an attribute, the case marking does not come after the pronoun, but only after the noun:
enenggi ere ba de ainu ebu-mbi
ᡝᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ
ᡝᡵᡝ
ᠪᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᠠᡳᠨᡠ
ᡝᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ
this place today DATIVE why stop-IMPERFECT
"Why did you stop here today?"
Interrogative pronouns
The most important interrogative pronouns are we ᠸᡝ"Who", ai ᠠᡳ"What", ya ᠶᠠ“Who, what, which” (attributive), aika ᠠᡳᡴᠠ, aimaka ᠠᡳᠮᠠᡴᠠ, yaka ᠶᠠᡴᠠ, yamaka ᠶᠠᠮᠠᡴᠠ"What a", aba ᠠᠪᠠ, aiba ᠠᡳᠪᠠ, yaba ᠶᠠᠪᠠ"Where", eke ᡝᡴᡝ"Who is that?", Udu ᡠᡩᡠ"How much (e)?", Ainu ᠠᡳᠨᡠ "how why?".
| Nominative | we ᠸᡝ "who?" | ai ᠠᡳ "What?" |
| Genitive | know ᠸᡝᡳ "whose?" | aini ᠠᡳᠨᡳ "With what, with what?" |
| dative | wede ᠸᡝᡩᡝ "whom?" | aide ᠠᡳᡩᡝ "Where, where, why, how?" |
| accusative | weave ᠸᡝᠪᡝ "whom?" | aibe ᠠᡳᠪᡝ "What?" |
| ablative | weci ᠸᡝᠴᡳ "By whom?" | aici ᠠᡳᠴᡳ "what a …?" |
The pronouns ai ᠠᡳ, ya ᠶᠠand we ᠸᡝare also used as relative pronouns .
Indefinite pronouns
The most important indefinite pronouns are we we ᠸᡝ
ᠸᡝ"whoever"; ai ai ᠠᡳ
ᠠᡳ, ya ya ᠶᠠ
ᠶᠠ"Whatever", aika ᠠᡳᡴᠠ, aimaka ᠠᡳᠮᠠᡴᠠ, yaka ᠶᠠᡴᠠ, yamaka ᠶᠠᠮᠠᡴᠠ“Whatever one”; ememu ᡝᠮᡝᠮᡠ, ememungge ᡝᠮᡝᠮᡠᠩᡤᡝ"Some", gūwa ᡤᡡᠸᠠ"Another", "someone"; elite ᡝᡳᡨᡝᠨ, yaya ᠶᠠᠶᠠ, beri beri ᠪᡝᡵᡳ
ᠪᡝᡵᡳ, meni meni ᠮᡝᠨᡳ
ᠮᡝᠨᡳ, meimeni ᠮᡝᡳᠮᡝᠨᡳ, geren ᡤᡝᡵᡝᠨ "everyone".
Final particles
The most important final particles are kai ᡴᠠᡳ(noting), be ᠪᡝ(defining), akū ᠠᡴᡡ, waka ᠸᠠᡴᠠ(negating), dere ᡩᡝᡵᡝ(presuming), inu ᡳᠨᡠ(also adverb; asserting); dabala ᡩᠠᠪᠠᠯᠣ(restrictive), semeo ᠰᡝᠮᡝᠣ(amazed, doubtful), unde ᡠᠨᡩᡝ(also conjunction ; “not yet”); jiya / jiye ᠵᡳᠶᠠ
ᠵᡳᠶᡝ(exclaiming), bai ᠪᠠᡳ(with imperative; "only"), na / ne / no ᠨᠠ
ᠨᡝ
ᠨᠣ, ya ᠶᠠ (Question: "also not?"; Statement: "yes!")
Verbs
The Manchurian verb has no morphological category of number and person .
The mere verb stem is the second person imperative , singular and plural; otherwise the verb takes participle, converb or verb suffixes, which also express tense and modus.
Aspect is an important category in Manchurian. According to the Russian tradition of Manchurian languages, the past tense participle denotes -ra / -re / -ro ᡵᠠ
ᡵᡝ
ᡵᠣPresent and Future; the perfect participle on -ha / -he / -ho ᠊ᡥᠠ
᠊ᡥᡝ
᠊ᡥᠣexpresses the past. In fact, these two participles express different aspects, not different times. Avrorin has shown that aspect meaning was about to transition into tense meaning when the two forms were fixed in Classical Manchurian.
Möllendorff distinguishes 23 different forms of the verb according to tense and mode.
Genera verbi
Passive and causative
The diathesis , ie the distinction between active and passive , is a problematic category in Manchurian that has not yet been fully clarified. The passive voice has the suffix -bu ᠪᡠ educated:
baita de uša-bu-ha
ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᡠᡧᠠᠪᡠᡥᠠ
Affair DATIVE-PASSIVE PARTICIPLE
"(someone) was charged with the matter"
In some verbs, the passive with the suffix -mbu ᠊ᠮᠪᡠeducated; but it can also be analytical, with the verb isibu- ᡳᠰᡳᠪᡠ "Bring" (<isi- ᡳᠰᡳ᠊ "Achieve") are formed.
Some passive verbs have reflexive meanings:
gurun dasa-bu-mbi
ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ
ᡩᠠᠰᠠᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ
Correct the state PASSIVE PARTICIPATE
"The state is improving."
The suffix -bu ᠪᡠ(sometimes -mbu ᠊ᠮᠪᡠ) also expresses the causative : arambumbi ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ "Is written", "let write"
tere-be gene-bu
ᡨᡝᡵᡝᠪᡝ
ᡤᡝᠨᡝᠪᡠ
this-ACCUSATIVE go-CAUSATIVE (IMPERATIVE)
"ordered him to go"
It is also possible to combine the two suffixes -mbu and -bu to create a passive causative form that cannot be translated directly into German: arambubumbi ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡠᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ "Let it be written"
Reciprocal
The reciprocal becomes with -ndu ᠊ᠨᡩᡠ(< ishunde ᡳᠰᡳᡥᡠᠨᡩᡝ"Mutual") formed: aisilambi ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Help" - aisilandumbi ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠯᠠᠨᡩᡠᠮᠪᡳ "help each other".
Cooperative
The cooperative becomes with -ca / -ce / -co ᠴᠠ
ᠴᡝ
ᠴᠣor with -nu ᠊ᠨᡠformed:
ilimbi ᡳᠯᡳᠮᠪᡳ"Stand" - ilicambi ᡳᠯᡳᠴᠠᠮᠪᡳ“ Standing there with several people”, afambi ᠠᡶᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Fight" - afanumbi ᠠᡶᠠᠨᡠᠮᠪᡳ "To fight united with others".
Durative, Frequentative and Intensive
The durative becomes with -ta / -te / -to ᠊ᡨᠠ
᠊ᡨᡝ
᠊ᡨᠣ, -nja / -nje / -njo ᠊ᠨᠵᠠ
᠊ᠨᠵᡝ
᠊ᠨᠵᠣor -ša / -še / -šo ᠊ᡧᠠ
᠊ᡧᡝ
᠊ᡧᠣformed, the iterative with -ta / -te ᠊ᡨᠠ
᠊ᡨᡝand the Frequentative or Intensive with -ca / -ce / -co ᠴᠠ
ᠴᡝ
ᠴᠣ:
jailambiᠵᠠᡳᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ" Dodge " - jailatambi ᠵᠠᡳᠯᠠᡨᠠᠮᠪᡳ" Dodge anywhere", injembi ᡳᠨᠵᡝᠮᠪᡳ"Laugh" - injecembi ᡳᠨᠵᡝᠴᡝᠮᠪᡳ“ Keep laughing in the crowd,” halambi ᡥᠠᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Change" - halanjambi ᡥᠠᠯᠠᠨᠵᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Alternate", ibembi ᡳᠪᡝᠮᠪᡳ“Go forward” - ibešembi ᡳᠪᡝᡧᡝᠮᠪᡳ "Going forward step by step".
Illative, allative and missive
The verbs of locomotion in the broadest sense are similar to the “complement of direction” in Chinese between a movement away from the speaker with -na / -ne / -no ᠊ᠨᠠ
᠊ᠨᡝ
᠊ᠨᠣ(from genembi ᡤᡝᠨᡝᠮᠪᡳ" To go", Chinese qù去; Illative ) and a movement towards the speaker with -nji ᠊ᠨᠵᡳ(from jimbi ᠵᡳᠮᠪᡳ"Come", Chinese lái來; Allative ). There is also a missive with -nggi ᠊ᠩᡤᡳ(from unggimbi ᡠᠩᡤᡳᠮᠪᡳ" Send ") formed:
alambi ᠠᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ" Report " - alanambi ᠠᠯᠠᠨᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Go to report", alanjimbi ᠠᠯᠠᠨᠵᡳᠮᠪᡳ"Come with a message", alanggimbi ᠠᠯᠠᠩᡤᡳᠮᠪᡳ" Send with a message", fekumbi ᡶᡝᡴᡠᠮᠪᡳ"Jump" - fekunembi ᡶᡝᡴᡠᠨᡝᠮᠪᡳ"Jump over" - fekunjembi ᡶᡝᡴᡠᠨᠵᡝᠮᠪᡳ“Jump over”, ebišembiᡝᠪᡳᡧᡝᠮᠪᡳ“ Bathe ” - ebišenembi ᡝᠪᡳᡧᡝᠨᡝᠮᠪᡳ "Go swimming".
Participles
Participles can have four different functions in a sentence:
- As in Indo-European languages, they are used in attributive constructions. In this position they are not declined either.
- They can adopt substantive suffixes - including case markings - and in this form (nomina substantiva), as in Indo-European languages, they can be ruled as a subject or object by a verb.
- They serve as a predicate in a simple sentence or in the main sentence of a sentence structure, without a copula (as in Latin: exerticus profectus (est) "The army has marched off.").
- They form the predicate in subordinate clauses.
Past tense
The Imperfektpartizip -ra / -re / -ro ᡵᠠ
ᡵᡝ
ᡵᠣAbove all, denotes actions in the present and in the future: arara ᠠᠷᠠᠷᠠ "Writing", "I will write"
Some verbs form irregular forms: bimbi ᠪᠢᠮᠪᠢ“ To be”, “to be there”, “to stay” - bisire ᠪᠢᠰᠢᠷᠡ, jembi ᠵᠡᠮᠪᠢ"Eat" - jetere ᠵᠡᠲᠡᠷᠡ, jimbi ᠵᠢᠮᠪᠢ"Come" - jidere ᠵᠢᠳᠡᠷᠡ, ombi ᠣᠮᠪᠢ"Be, will" - ojoro ᠣᠵᠣᠷᠣ.
Relative / indefinite
With the particle ele ᡝᠯᡝor with the suffix -le (-la) ᠊ᠯᡝ
᠊ᠯᠠindefinite or relative forms are formed:
arahale ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠᠯᡝ, ararale ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᠯᡝ“Whoever writes”, “whatever is written”; bisire ele jaka ᠪᡳᠰᡳᡵᡝ
ᡝᠯᡝ
ᠵᠠᡴᠠ“The things that are always there,” duleke ele ba ᡩᡠᠯᡝᡴᡝ
ᡝᠯᡝ
ᠪᠠ“The places he always passed”, “all the places he passed”, mini alaha ele ba ᠮᡳᠨᡳ
ᠠᠯᠠᡥᠠ
ᡝᠯᡝ
ᠪᠠ "Everything I said"
Perfect
The perfect participle on -ha / -he / -ho ᠊ᡥᠠ
᠊ᡥᡝ
᠊ᡥᠣoften expresses an action in the past: araha "I wrote", "having written"
Some verbs take -ha / -he / -ho instead ᠊ᡥᠠ
᠊ᡥᡝ
᠊ᡥᠣthe ending -ka / -ke / -ko ᠊ᡴᠠ
᠊ᡴᡝ
᠊ᡴᠣan even smaller number the ending -nka / -nke / -nko ᠊ᠨᡴᠠ
᠊ᠨᡴᡝ
᠊ᠨᡴᠣand some verbs form irregular forms: bahambi ᠪᠠᡥᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Find" - baha ᠪᠠᡥᠠ, hafumbi ᡥᠠᡶᡠᠮᠪᡳ"Penetrate" - hafuka ᡥᠠᡶᡠᡴᠠ.
Durative
The durative participle in -mbihe ᠊ᠮᠪᡳᡥᡝ indicates an indefinite, incomplete, or ongoing act in the past: arambihe ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡳᡥᡝ "Writing", "I wrote" (in English more precisely: "I was writing.")
malaha boo-de weile-mbihe
ᠮᠠᠯᠠᡥᠠ
ᠪᠣᠣ ᡩᡝ
ᠸᡝᡳᠯᡝᠮᠪᡳᡥᡝ
Hat house-DATIVE-PARTICIPLE
"They made hats at home."
Frequentative
The participle in -mbihebi ᠊ᠮᠪᡳᡥᡝᠪᡳ denotes habitual and frequent actions in the distant past.
hūwangheo beye nimala fata-mbihebi
ᡥᡡᠸᠠᠩᡥᡝᠣ
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ
ᠨᡳᠮᠠᠯᠠ
ᡶᠠᡨᠠᠮᠪᡳᡥᡝᠪᡳ
Empress picking the mulberry tree herself-PARTICIPLE
"In the past, the empresses picked berries from the mulberry tree themselves."
Nouning
With the suffix -ngge ᠊ᠩᡤᡝBoth participles and verbs are substantiated in the perfect or past tense . These substantiated forms mean abstract ideas of an action, the object or the subject of an action: arahangge ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠᠩᡤᡝ, ararangge ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᠩᡤᡝ “The writing”, “that which is written”, “the written”, “he who writes”.
Negative forms are also substantiated like this: akdarakūngge ᠠᡴᡩᠠᡵᠠᡴᡡᠩᡤᡝ “Suspicion”, “someone who does not trust”.
Direct speech and quotations are often substantiated with forms such as alarangge ᠠᠯᠠᡵᠠᠩᡤᡝ“Tell”, hendurengge ᡥᡝᠨᡩᡠᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ"Talk", serengge ᠰᡝᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ"Say", fonjirengge ᡶᠣᠨᠵᡳᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ"Ask" or wesimburengge ᠸᡝᠰᡳᠮᠪᡠᡵᡝᠩᡤᡝ "Report" initiated.
Participles can also be used with ba ᠪᠠ be substantiated.
Gerunds
Gerunds (also called " converges ") have an adverbial function, and constructions with gerunds often correspond to subordinate clauses in German . Gerunds cannot serve as a predicate in a simple sentence. The grammatical function of the gerunds is clearly expressed by appropriate suffixes. The great variety of forms in this area is typical of the Ural-Altai languages.
Present tense / imperfect tense
The present tense or past tense gerund on -me ᠊ᠮᡝdescribes a simultaneous action and is to be translated into German as a final sentence or as an infinitive . It is the most common form of the gerund:
arame ᠠᡵᠠᠮᡝ"Writing", hendume ᡥᡝᠨᡩᡠᠮᡝ"Saying", fonjime ᡶᠣᠨᠵᡳᠮᡝ“ Asking ”, necihiyeme toktobumbi ᠨᡝᠴᡳᡥᡳᠶᡝᠮᡝ
ᡨᠣᡴᡨᠣᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ"Leveling", "conquering" (Chinese píng-dìng平定)
amba edun da-me deribu-he
ᠠᠮᠪᠠ
ᡝᡩᡠᠨ
ᡩᠠᠮᡝ
ᡩᡝᡵᡳᠪᡠᡥᡝ
high wind blow-GERUNDIUM begin-PARTICIPLE
"A strong wind began to blow."
morin be dali-me boo-de ji-he
ᠮᠣᡵᡳᠨ ᠪᡝ
ᡩᠠᠯᡳᠮᡝ
ᠪᠣᠣ ᡩᡝ
ᠵᡳᡥᡝ
Horse ACCUSATIVE hide-GERUNDIUM house-DATIVE come-PARTICIPLE
"He went home to hide the horses."
A combined form ends in -lame / -leme ᠊ᠯᠠᠮᡝ
᠊ᠯᡝᠮᡝor -ralame / -releme ᡵᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ
ᡵᡝᠯᡝᠮᡝ:
araralame ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ "Writing", "while writing"
Durative
The durative gerund on -mbime ᠊ᠮᠪᡳᠮᡝdenotes an incomplete or ongoing action: arambihe ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡳᡥᡝ(< ara-me bi-he ) “writing”, “while writing”, “I wrote” (in English more precisely: “whilst writing” or “I was writing.”); fuze hendume. tacimbime gūnirakū oci mekele ombi. gūnimbime tacirakū oci, jecuhuri ombi ᡶᡠᡰᡝ
ᡥᡝᠨᡩᡠᠮᡝ᠈
ᡨᠠᠴᡳᠮᠪᡳᠮᡝ
ᡤᡡᠨᡳᡵᠠᡴᡡ
ᠣᠴᡳ
ᠮᡝᡴᡝᠯᡝ
ᠣᠮᠪᡳ᠈
ᡤᡡᠨᡳᠮᠪᡳᠮᡝ
ᡨᠠᠴᡳᡵᠠᡴᡡ
ᠣᠴᡳ᠈
ᠵᡝᠴᡠᡥᡠᡵᡳ
ᠣᠮᠪᡳ“The master said: If you study but do not think, then study is vain. If one thinks but does not study, thinking is dangerous. "( Confucius )
Perfect / simple past
The perfect or past tense gerund on -fi ᠊ᡶᡳhas temporal and causal meaning. It is the second most common form of the gerund:
arafi ᠠᡵᠠᡶᡳ"Having written", "I wrote and ...", "after I wrote", "after I wrote"; niyakūrafi baniha bume hendume ᠨᡳᠶᠠᡴᡡᡵᠠᡶᡳ
ᠪᠠᠨᡳᡥᠠ
ᠪᡠᠮᡝ
ᡥᡝᠨᡩᡠᠮᡝ "He knelt down and thanked with the words ...".
si boo-de isina-fi majige teye-fi buda je-fi dere obo-fi jai ji-ki
ᠰᡳ
ᠪᠣᠣ ᡩᡝ
ᡳᠰᡳᠨᠠᡶᡳ
ᠮᠠᠵᡳᡤᡝ
ᡨᡝᠶᡝᡶᡳ
ᠪᡠᡩᠠ
ᠵᡝᡶᡳ
ᡩᡝᡵᡝ
ᠣᠪᠣᡶᡳ
ᠵᠠᡳ
ᠵᡳᡴᡳ
you arrive home-DATIVE-GER take a rest-GER, eat food-GER, wash
your face -GER, then come-OPTATIVE "After you have come home, rested a bit, ate and washed your face, come (to me)."
A frozen form is ofi ᠣᡶᡳ"Because" (from ombi ᠣᠮᠪᡳ "will be"):
si tobsere niyalma o-fi
ᠰᡳ
ᡨᠣᠪᠰᡝᡵᡝ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ
ᠣᡶᡳ
you be an upright person-GERUNDIUM
"because you are an upright person ..."
Some verbs form irregular forms: juwambi ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠮᠪᡳ"Open" - juwampi ᠵᡠᠸᠠᠮᡦᡳ, colgorombi ᠴᠣᠯᡤᠣᡵᠣᠮᠪᡳ“ Surpass ” - colgoropi ᠴᠣᠯᡤᠣᡵᠣᡦᡳ, hafumbi ᡥᠠᡶᡠᠮᠪᡳ"Penetrate" - hafupi ᡥᠠᡶᡠᡦᡳ.
There are also forms on -mbifi with a similar meaning ᠊ᠮᠪᡳᡶᡳ: arambifi ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡳᡶᡳ "Having written"
Conditional
The conditional gerund on -ci ᠴᡳis also used temporally:
araci ᠠᡵᠠᠴᡳ“When you write”, “you should write”, “if you write”; si niyalma de nikeneci ᠰᡳ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᠨᡳᡴᡝᠨᡝᠴᡳ"When you rely on other people"; yamun de tucifi tuwaci ᠶᠠᠮᡠᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᡨᡠᠴᡳᡶᡳ
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᠴᡳ "When he went out to the hall and looked ...".
Solidified forms are oci ᠣᠴᡳand seci ᠰᡝᠴᡳ "because".
Concessive / adversative
The concession or adversative gerund on -cibe ᠴᡳᠪᡝforms a structure that can be translated into German as “even if” or “also if”: aracibe ᠠᡵᠠᠴᡳᠪᡝ “Although I like to write”, “even when I write”.
Terminative
The terminative gerund on -tala / -tele / -tolo ᠊ᡨᠠᠯᠠ
᠊ᡨᡝᠯᡝ
᠊ᡨᠣᠯᠣdescribes a subordinate action that occurs simultaneously with the main action; the latter continues until the former is completed.
hūsun moho-tolo ᡥᡡᠰᡠᠨ
ᠮᠣᡥᠣᡨᠣᠯᠣ "Until his strength is exhausted".
In classical Manchurian, this form is no longer very productive. The most common forms are isitala ᡳᠰᡳᡨᠠᠯᠠ "To" (from isimbi ᡳᠰᡳᠮᠪᡳ"Reach") and otolo ᠣᡨᠣᠯᠣ"To" (from ombi ᠣᠮᠪᡳ“ To be”, “to be”):
julge ci te de isitala ᠵᡠᠯᡤᡝ ᠴᡳ
ᡨᡝ ᡩᡝ
ᡳᠰᡳᡨᠠᠯᠠ "From ancient times until now".
Descriptive
The gerund with the suffixes -hai / -hei / -hoi ᠊ᡥᠠᡳ
᠊ᡥᡝᡳ
᠊ᡥᠣᡳor -kai / -kei / -koi ᠊ᡴᠠᡳ
᠊ᡴᡝᡳ
᠊ᡴᠣᡳ, also -tai / -tei / -toi ᠊ᡨᠠᡳ
᠊ᡨᡝᡳ
᠊ᡨᠣᡳ, describes durative, periodic, frequent or intensive actions or processes: alahai ᠠᠯᠠᡥᠠᡳ“Tell again and again”, jonkoi ᠵᠣᠨᡴᠣᡳ“ Keep reminding”, cohombi ᠴᠣᡥᠣᠮᠪᡳ“Be the main thing” - cohotoi ᠴᠣᡥᠣᡨᠣᡳ "Special".
beye be waliyatai
ᠪᡝᠶᡝ ᠪᡝ
ᠸᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᡨᠠᡳ
"With the devotion of the person"
bucetei afambi
ᠪᡠᠴᡝᡨᡝᡳ
ᠠᡶᠠᠮᠪᡳ
"Fight with courage to die"
Gerund on -nggala / -nggele / -nggolo
The gerund on -nggala / -nggele / -nggolo ᠊ᠩᡤᠠᠯᠠ
᠊ᠩᡤᡝᠯᡝ
᠊ᠩᡤᠣᠯᠣDescribes a secondary action before which the main action takes place, i.e. H. an action that has not yet taken place:
aranggala ᠠᡵᠠᠩᡤᠠᠯᠠ"Before I wrote", "before I wrote"; dosing gala asuki isibumbi ᡩᠣᠰᡳᠩᡤᠠᠯᠠ
ᠠᠰᡠᡴᡳ
ᡳᠰᡳᠪᡠᠮᠪᡳ "Before you enter, you make a noise".
A frozen form is onggolo ᠣᠩᡤᠣᠯᠣ "before".
indicative
Verbs in the strict sense, d. H. finite verbs, or predicatives, serve as the most important part of the predicate in a simple sentence or in the main clause of a compound sentence. These finite verb forms can form the predicate of a sentence. Even with these forms, no distinction is made between number and person.
In the indicative there is no distinction between tenses , but rather an aspect distinction.
Past tense
The past tense or the aorist is followed by the suffix -mbi ᠊ᠮᠪᡳ(<-me + -bi) formed. This is also the dictionary form. The meaning of this form is interpreted differently by Manchurists; According to Möllendorff it denotes the simple present, according to Gorelova also the future and according to Haenisch the aorist. Mostly, however, this form is referred to as the finite form of the past tense, e.g. B. at Norman. This imperfect tense denotes usual, frequent, generic actions, concrete actions in the present, actions in the future:
indahūn dobori tuwahiya-mbi coko earth hūla-mbi
ᡳᠨᡩᠠᡥᡡᠨ
ᡩᠣᠪᠣᡵᡳ
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᡥᡳᠶᠠᠮᠪᡳ
ᠴᠣᡴᠣ ᡝᡵᡩᡝ
ᡥᡡᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ
Dog night watch-IMPERFECT Chicken sing early in the morning-IMPERFECT
"Dogs keep watch at night, roosters crow early in the morning."
bi hergen be ara-mbi
ᠪᡳ
ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ ᠪᡝ
ᠠᡵᠠᠮᠪᡳ
I write characters ACCUSATIVELY-IMPERFECT
"I write characters."
si aibi-de gene-mbi
ᠰᡳ
ᠠᡳᠪᡳ ᡩᡝ
ᡤᡝᠨᡝᠮᠪᡳ
you wo-DATIV go-IMPERFKT
"Where are you going?"
i inenggi ji-mbi-o jide-rakū-n
ᡳ
ᡳᠨᡝᠩᡤᡳ
ᠵᡳᠮᠪᡳᠣ
ᠵᡳᡩᡝᡵᠠᡴᡡᠨ
he day will come-IMPERFECT-INTERROGATIVE come-PARTICIPLE (NEGATIVE) -INTERROGATIVE
"Will it come today or not?"
Perfect
The perfect in -habi / -hebi / -hobi ᠊ᡥᠠᠪᡳ
᠊ᡥᡝᠪᡳ
᠊ᡥᠣᠪᡳ(< -ha / -he / -ho + -bi ) denotes an indefinite or incomplete act in the past:
arahabi ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠᠪᡳ "I wrote" (in English more literally: "I have written.")
nimanggi i elden de bithe hūla-habi
ᠨᡳᠮᠠᠩᡤᡳ ᡳ
ᡝᠯᡩᡝᠨ ᡩᡝ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ
ᡥᡡᠯᠠᡥᠠᠪᡳ
Snow GENITIVE Light DATIVE Reading a book-PERFECT
"One read books in the light that the snow reflected."
The second part of the suffix refers to the copula bi- ᠪᡳ᠊back and can also go through kai ᡴᠠᡳbe replaced:
alahabi ᠠᠯᠠᡥᠠᠪᡳ, alaha kai ᠠᠯᠠᡥᠠ
ᡴᠠᡳ "Reported"
imperative
As in Mongolian and numerous Turkic languages , the mere trunk forms the imperative: ala ᠠᠯᠠ"Report!", Te ᡨᡝ"Sit down!", Wa ᠸᠠ "Kill!"
There is also a stronger command form in -kini ᠊ᡴᡳᠨᡳwhich is addressed to a person of lower rank and which is also used as an optative or as an impersonal imperative or for the third person: arakini ᠠᡵᠠᡴᡳᠨᡳ"He's writing!", Okini ᠣᡴᡳᠨᡳ"Be it!", Alakini ᠠᠯᠠᡴᡳᠨᡳ"Report it!", "He report it!", "Let him speak!", Genekini ᡤᡝᠨᡝᡴᡳᠨᡳ "Let him go!"
There is also a milder form of command on -cina ᠴᡳᠨᠠor -kina ᠊ᡴᡳᠨᠠ, which is also used in concessional meaning:
amasi bucina ᠠᠮᠠᠰᡳ
ᠪᡠᠴᡳᠨᠠ"Just give it back"; alacina , alakina ᠠᠯᠠᡴᡳᠨᠠ"Speak (if you want)"; aracina "He write (if he likes)", "he may write (what he wants)".
The past tense participle becomes ume ᡠᠮᡝa prohibitive formed (Chinese mò 莫): ume genere ᡠᠮᡝ
ᡤᡝᠨᡝᡵᡝ“Don't go!” Ume fonjire ᡠᠮᡝ
ᡶᠣᠨᠵᡳᡵᡝ "do not ask!"
Some verbs form irregular commands : baimbi ᠪᠠᡳᠮᠪᡳ“ Seek ”, “request” - baisu ᠪᠠᡳᠰᡠ; bimbi ᠪᡳᠮᠪᡳ“Be there”, “stay” - bisu ᠪᡳᠰᡠ; jembi ᠵᡝᠮᠪᡳ"Eat" - jefu ᠵᡝᡶᡠ; -njimbi ᠊ᠨᠵᡳᠮᠪᡳ"Come to ..." - -nju ᠊ᠨᠵᡠ; ombi ᠣᠮᠪᡳ"Be, will" - osu ᠣᠰᡠ
Optional
The optative on -ki ᠊ᡴᡳexpresses an action that the speaker wishes or intends to carry out (cf. Chinese yào要):
araki ᠠᡵᠠᡴᡳ"I want / will write", alaki ᠠᠯᠠᡴᡳ"I want / will say", bi maju gisun be taciki ᠪᡳ
ᠮᠠᠵᡠ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ ᠪᡝ
ᡨᠠᠴᡳᡴᡳ“I will / want to learn Manchurian”, fa hūbalaki ᡶᠠ
ᡥᡡᠪᠠᠯᠠᡴᡳ"I'll stick paper over the windows," teki ᡨᡝᡴᡳ "please take a seat".
When the optative refers to the second or third person, it comes close to an imperative in meaning. Since the optative expresses an action that has not yet been realized, it also has the meaning of the future.
negation
Neither the finite or indicative verb nor the gerund, only the participle forms positive and negative forms. If a verb or a gerund is to be negated , a participle must be used instead.
Negation with akū
Negative sentences are written with akū ᠠᡴᡡ"Not (to be)" (corresponds to Chinese wú無, bù不, wèi未, méiyǒu沒有) formed:
bi gisurembi akū ᠪᡳ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᡵᡝᠮᠪᡳ
ᠠᡴᡡ "I'm not talking."
The participle suffixes -ra / -re / -ro ᡵᠠ
ᡵᡝ
ᡵᠣmerge with akū ᠠᡴᡡto -rakū ᡵᠠᡴᡡ, -ha / -ho ᠊ᡥᠠ
᠊ᡥᠣto -hakū ᡥᠠᡴᡡand -he ᡥᡝto -hekū ᡥᡝᡴᡡ:
arahaku ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠᡴᡡ"Have not written"; genehekū ᡤᡝᠨᡝᡥᡝᡴᡡ, genehakū ᡤᡝᠨᡝᡥᠠᡴᡡ"Not have gone"; araraku ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᡴᡡ“Not to write (to be)”, generakū ᡤᡝᠨᡝᡵᠠᡴᡡ "Not going (will)"
The negative forms of the perfect participle in -habi / -hebi / -hobi ᠊ᡥᠠᠪᡳ
᠊ᡥᡝᠪᡳ
᠊ᡥᠣᠪᡳaccordingly end in -hakūbi / -hekūbi ᠊ᡥᠠᡴᡡᠪᡳ
᠊ᡥᡝᡴᡡᠪᡳ. There are some irregular shapes:
sambi ᠰᠠᠮᠪᡳ“ To know” - sarkū ᠰᠠᡵᡴᡡ“Don't know”, dabahakū ᡩᠠᠪᠠᡥᠠᡴᡡ“Has not exceeded”, jihekū ᠵᡳᡥᡝᡴᡡ "did not come".
The negative participles are often gerunds of the auxiliary verb bimbi ᠪᡳᠮᠪᡳ" To be", ombi ᠣᠮᠪᡳ" Become " or sembi ᠰᡝᠮᠪᡳ "Say" added:
te gaija-rakū o-ci gūwa gai-ka de sini dolo ume ehe gūni-he
ᡨᡝ
ᡤᠠᡳᠵᠠᡵᠠᡴᡡ
ᠣᠴᡳ
ᡤᡡᠸᠠ
ᡤᠠᡳᡴᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᠰᡳᠨᡳ
ᡩᠣᠯᠣ
ᡠᠮᡝ
ᡝᡥᡝ
ᡤᡡᠨᡳᡥᡝ
take-PARTICIPLE (NEG) become-GERUNDIUM of other take-PARTICIPLE DATIVE you (GENITIVE) Inner NEG think badly-PARTICIPLE
"if you don't take (it) and someone else takes (it), then don't hold it against (him)"
The negative form of the conditional gerund is the construction gaijirakū oci ᡤᠠᡳᠵᡳᡵᠠᡴᡡ
ᠣᠴᡳ ("If ... does not take").
The suffixes -ci ᠴᡳ, -fi ᡶᡳand -ngge ᠊ᠩᡤᡝfollow -akū ᠊ᠠᡴᡡ: ararakūci ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᡴᡡᠴᡳ“If he doesn't write,” ararakūfi ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᡴᡡᡶᡳ"Don't write and ...", ararakūngge ᠠᡵᠠᡵᠠᡴᡠᠩᡤᡝ“The one who does not write”, bisirakūngge ᠪᡳᠰᡳᡵᠠᡴᡡᠩᡤᡝ“Those who are not here” (Chinese bù zài de不在 的).
The word akū ᠠᡴᡡalone can also accept other verb suffixes: bi akūmbi ᠪᡳ
ᠠᡴᡡᠮᠪᡳ"I'm not". Also a double negative on -akūngge akū ᠊ᠠᡴᡡᠩᡤᡝ
ᠠᡴᡡ(Chinese wú bù無不) is possible: serakūngge akū ᠰᡝᡵᠠᡴᡡᠩᡤᡝ
ᠠᡴᡡ “Nothing unsaid”, “he says everything”.
Negative with waka
bi waka aniya kai ᠪᡳ
ᠸᠠᡴᠠ
ᠠᠨᡳᠶᠠ
ᡴᠠᡳ"It's not my fault (it's not my fault), it's the (bad) year", inu ja baita waka ᡳᠨᡠ
ᠵᠠ
ᠪᠠᡳᡨᠠ
ᠸᠠᡴᠠ "It's not an easy thing either"
Negation with unde
The word unde ᡠᠨᡩᡝ“Not yet” is placed after the past tense participle on -ra / -re / -ro ᡵᠠ
ᡵᡝ
ᡵᠣat the end of the sentence: jidere unde ᠵᡳᡩᡝᡵᡝ
ᡠᠨᡩᡝ“(He) has not come yet,” bi sabure unde ᠪᡳ
ᠰᠠᠪᡠᡵᡝ
ᡠᠨᡩᡝ "I have not seen it yet."
umai ᡠᠮᠠᡳ "Not", "not at all"
apprehension
The past tense participle becomes with -hū ᠊ᡥᡡa form is formed that expresses a fear ( participium metuendi ; cf.Mongolian -ujai ᠊ᠤᠵᠠᠢ):
jiderahū ᠵᡳᡩᡝᡵᠠᡥᡡ“If only he doesn't come”, ama eme damu nimerahū seme jobombi ᠠᠮᠠ
ᡝᠮᡝ
ᡩᠠᠮᡠ
ᠨᡳᠮᡝᡵᠠᡥᡡ
ᠰᡝᠮᡝ
ᠵᠣᠪᠣᠮᠪᡳ "I worry that father and mother are just not sick."
Question forms
The interrogative forms are formed from the predicative forms with additional suffixes.
-O ᠊ᠣ, -mbio ᠊ᠮᠪᡳᠣ, -rao / -reo / -roo ᡵᠠᠣ
ᡵᡝᠣ
ᡵᠣᠣ, -hao / -heo / -hoo ᠊ᡥᠠᠣ
᠊ᡥᡝᠣ
᠊ᡥᠣᠣ
minde bureo ᠮᡳᠨᡩᡝ
ᠪᡠᡵᡝᠣ "Will you give it to me?"
si terebe tuwahao, tuwaha ᠰᡳ
ᡨᡝᡵᡝᠪᡝ
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᡥᠠᠣ᠈
ᡨᡠᠸᠠᡥᠠ"Did you see him? - Yes."
si cai omihao ᠰᡳ
ᠴᠠᡳ
ᠣᠮᡳᡥᠠᠣ "Did you drink tea?"
manju bithe hūlambi wakao ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ
ᡥᡡᠯᠠᠮᠪᡳ
ᠸᠠᡴᠠᠣ "Aren't you learning Manchurian?"
The question form of the past tense participle on -rao / -reo / -roo ᡵᠠᠣ
ᡵᡝᠣ
ᡵᠣᠣis also used as an imperative towards older or higher-ranking people.
Question forms in -ni, -mbini, -akūni ᠊ᠨᡳ
᠊ᠮᠪᡳᠨᡳ
᠊ᠠᡴᡡᠨᡳare usually at the end of a sentence:
ainu urunakū aisi be hendumbini ᠠᡳᠨᡠ
ᡠᡵᡠᠨᠠᡴᡡ
ᠠᡳᠰᡳ ᠪᡝ
ᡥᡝᠨᡩᡠᠮᠪᡳᠨᡳ "Why should we talk about profit?"
With nio ᠠᠨᡳᠣ are rhetorical questions formed:
ere sain Aku nio ᡝᡵᡝ
ᠰᠠᡳᠨ
ᠠᡴᡡ
ᠨᡳᠣ "Isn't that nice?"
The question form of akū ᠠᡴᡡreads akūn ᠠᡴᡡᠨ:
suwe sambio sarkūn ᠰᡠᠸᡝ
ᠰᠠᠮᠪᡳᠣ
ᠰᠠᡵᡴᡡᠨ“Do you know or don't you know?”, Si sembi akūn ᠰᡳ
ᠰᡝᠮᠪᡳ
ᠠᡴᡡᠨ "Do you eat it or not?"
auxiliary verbs
With the auxiliary verbs bimbi ᠪᡳᠮᠪᡳ, bi ᠪᡳ“Be there, stay”, ombi ᠣᠮᠪᡳ"Be like that, will be, be possible" and sembi ᠰᡝᠮᠪᡳ“Say, mean, hold for”, acambi ᠠᠴᠠᠮᠪᡳ"To fit, to be befitting", mutembi ᠮᡠᡨᡝᠮᠪᡳ“Can, be able” and hamimbi ᡥᠠᠮᡳᠮᠪᡳ “To approach, be close”, compound verbal forms are formed.
bimbi
Indefinite future tense - past tense participle with optative: genere biki ᡤᡝᠨᡝᡵᡝ
ᠪᡳᡴᡳ "I'll go", "I'll be there"
This form is often used with adverbs like urunakū ᡠᡵᡠᠨᠠᡴᡡ" Certain " or toktofi ᡨᠣᡴᡨᠣᡶᡳ "Definitely" used.
alara bici ᠠᠯᠠᡵᠠ
ᠪᡳᠴᡳ "When I will say"
Certain perfect - perfect participle with bi ᠪᡳ: wajiha bi ᠸᠠᠵᡳᡥᠠ
ᠪᡳ "Is over"
Pluperfect - The past participle of -ha / -he / ho ᠊ᡥᠠ
᠊ᡥᡝ
᠊ᡥᠣforms with bihe ᠪᡳᡥᡝa past perfect :
araha bihe ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠ
ᠪᡳᡥᡝ "I had written", tere bade tehe bihe ᡨᡝᡵᡝ
ᠪᠠᡩᡝ
ᡨᡝᡥᡝ
ᠪᡳᡥᡝ"He had taken his seat in that place," tuwaha bihe ᡨᡠᠸᠠᡥᠠ
ᠪᡳᡥᡝ "He had seen it"
Durative past perfect - perfect participle with bihebi ᠪᡳᡥᡝᠪᡳ
Hypothesis - perfect participle with bici ᠪᡳᠴᡳor with bihe bici ᠪᡳᡥᡝ ᠪᡳᠴᡳ: arahabici ᠠᡵᠠᡥᠠᠪᡳᠴᡳ“If I had written” before niyalma de hajilaha bici ᡝᡥᡝ
ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ ᡩᡝ
ᡥᠠᠵᡳᠯᠠᡥᠠ
ᠪᡳᠴᡳ “If you'd got involved with bad people”.
Past tense - The past tense gerund with bihe ᠪᡳᡥᡝor bifi ᠪᡳᡶᡳdenotes an ongoing action that has come to an end, or a simple past tense:
alame bihe ᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ
ᠪᡳᡥᡝ“He used to say”, alame bifi ᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ
ᠪᡳᡶᡳ "After he said".
Imperative - The synthetic forms of the imperative can be replaced by analytical forms from a gerund and bisu ᠪᡳᠰᡠbe replaced: ala ᠠᠯᠠ- alame bisu ᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ
ᠪᡳᠰᡠ
ombi
Imperative - The synthetic forms of the imperative can be replaced by analytical forms from a gerund and osu ᠣᠰᡠbe replaced: ala ᠠᠯᠠ- alame osu ᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ
ᠣᠰᡠ
sembi
Imperative - The synthetic forms of the imperative can be replaced by analytical forms from a gerund and sereo ᠰᡝᡵᡝᠣbe replaced: alarao ᠠᠯᠠᡵᠠᠣ- alame sereo ᠠᠯᠠᠮᡝ
ᠰᡝᡵᡝᠣ
vocabulary
In addition to the Tungusian hereditary vocabulary, there are loanwords in Manchurian mainly from Mongolian and Chinese.
font
The Manchurian script is derived from the Mongolian script, which in turn derives from the ancient Uighur script, which in turn goes back to the Syrian Estrangelo alphabet. In 1599, Erdeni and Gagai were commissioned to introduce a "state script". They used the Mongolian script to write Manchurian. In 1632, Dahai, who initiated correspondence with China, Korea, and the Mongols, introduced diacritical marks - dots and circles - to make the Mongolian script clearer, especially all vowels, g ᡤ, k ᡴand h ᡥas well as d ᡩand t ᡨto distinguish. The older written form was now tonki fuka akū hergen ᡨᠣᠨᡴᡳ
ᡶᡠᡴᠠ
ᠠᡴᡡ
ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨCalled “without points and circles”, the newer tonki fuka sindaha hergen ᡨᠣᠨᡴᡳ
ᡶᡠᡴᠠ
ᠰᡳᠨᡩᠠᡥᠠ
ᡥᡝᡵᡤᡝᠨ. The newer script also changed its style a little compared to the Mongolian script.
research
Important explorers of Manchurian were among others Hans Conon von der Gabelentz , Erich Hauer , Walter Simon and Erich Haenisch .
literature
General descriptions and grammars
- Liliya M. Gorelova: Manchu Grammar. Brill, Leiden / Boston / Cologne 2002, ISBN 90-04-12307-5 .
- Hans Conon de la Gabelentz: Elémens de la grammaire mandchoue. Comptoir de la littérature, Altenbourg 1832.
- Erich Haenisch: Manchu grammar with reading pieces and 23 text panels. 2nd Edition. Publishing house Enzyklopädie, Leipzig 1986.
- Karl Himly: The department of games in the “mirror of the Manchu language”. Edited, introduced and edited by Oliver Corff. Iudicium, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-86205-667-5 .
- Kyoko Maezono [Maezono Kyōko 前 園 京 子]: Case equivalents of Mongolian and Manchu. Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden 1992, ISBN 3-447-03282-0 .
- Paul Georg von Möllendorff: A Manchu Grammar. With Analyzed Texts. Chinese Customs Service, Shanghai 1892.
- Wáng Qìngfēng 王庆丰: Mǎnyǔ yánjiū «满 语 研究». Mínzú chūbǎnshè 民族 出版社, Beijing 2005, ISBN 7-105-07299-7 .
Textbooks
- Gertraude Roth Li: Manchu. A Textbook for Reading Documents. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu 2001, ISBN 0-8248-2206-4 ; 2nd edition: National Foreign Language Resource Center, 2010, ISBN 0-9800459-5-9 .
Dictionaries
- Hans Conon von der Gabelentz: Manchu-German dictionary . Leipzig, 1864.
- Erich Hauer: Concise dictionary of the Manchu language . Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1952–1955; Concise dictionary of the Manchu language . Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, ²1972, ISBN 978-3-447-05528-4 (around 20,000 keywords).
- Jerry Norman. A Concise Manchu-English Lexicon . Seattle / London: University of Washington Press, 1978.
- Hartmut Walravens and Martin Gimm : German-Mandjurisches vocabulary based on HC von der Gabelentz's Manschu-German dictionary . Stuttgart: Steiner, 1978, ISBN 3-515-02641-X .
- Иван Ильич Захаров: Полный маньчжурско-русскій словарь . St. Petersburg, 1875.
- Вера Ивановна Цинциус (ed.): Сравнительный словарь тунгусо-маньчжурских языков. Материалы к этимологическому словарю . Leningrad: Наука, vol. 1 1975, vol. 2 1977.
- Ān Shuāngchéng 安双成 (ed.): Mǎn – Hàn dà cídiǎn «满汉 大 辞典» / Nikan manju yongkiyangen buleku bithe ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᠶᠣᠩᡴᡳᠶᠠᠩᡝᠨ
ᠪᡠᠯᡝᡴᡠ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ. Shenyang 沈 阳: Liáoníng mínzú chūbǎnshè 辽宁 民族 出版社, 1993 (almost 50,000 headwords). - Hú Zēngyì 胡增益 (ed.): Xīn Mǎn – Hàn dà cídiǎn «新 满汉 大 辞典» / Iche manzhu nikan gisun kamchibuha buleku bithe ᡳᠴᡝ
ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ
ᠨᡳᡴᠠᠨ
ᡤᡳᠰᡠᠨ
ᡴᠠᠮᠴᡳᠪᡠᡥᠠ
ᠪᡠᠯᡝᡴᡠ
ᠪᡳᡨᡥᡝ. Ürümqi: Xīnjiāng mínzú chūbǎnshè 新疆 民族 出版社, 1994 (around 35,000 headwords).
Web links
- Literature by and about Manchurian language in the catalog of the German National Library
- Manc.hu website of the University of Leiden with text corpus, dictionary, concordance, grammars (Norman, Hauer, Clark) and bibliography.
- 栗林均モンゴル諸語と満洲語の資料検索システムside of Tohoku University with dictionaries, text corpora, etc.
- Manchu Studies Group
Individual evidence
- ↑ “Manchu is extinct today” (Carsten Näher: A Note on Vowel Harmony in Manchu. P. 134. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies, Bonn, August 28-September 1, 2000. Otto Harrassowitz, 2004). “The Manchu language is all but extinct” (S. Robert Ramsey: The Languages of China . Princeton University Press, 1987, p. 216). “[T] he Manchu language is either extinct or on the verge of extinction” (Merrit Ruhlen: A Guide to the World's Languages . Volume I, Classification . Stanford University Press, 1991, p. 128).
- ↑ Carsten Näher: A Note on Vowel Harmony in Manchu. S. 134. In: Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies, Bonn, August 28-September 1, 2000 . Otto Harrassowitz, 2004; S. Robert Ramsey: The Languages of China . Princeton University Press, 1987, p. 216; Merrit Ruhlen: A Guide to the World's Languages . Volume I, Classification. Stanford University Press, 1991, p. 128.
- ^ "Identity reproducers beyond the grassroots: The middle class in the Manchu revival since 1980s". Asian ethnicity . 6 .
- ^ "Facing the Decline of Minority Languages: The New Patterns of Education of Mongols and Manchus". The Central European Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities .
- ↑ chinanews: 人民 大学 满 语 培训班 重新 开课 缺 教室 是 最大 难题 - 中新网. Retrieved September 3, 2018 .
- ↑ Alexander Vovin: Koreanic loanwords in Khitan and their importance in the decipherment of the latter . In: Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae . tape 70 , no. 2 , June 2017, ISSN 0001-6446 , p. 207–215 , doi : 10.1556 / 062.2017.70.2.4 ( akademiai.com [accessed September 2, 2018]).
- ↑ Kishik Noh: Recent Research Trends on Jurchen-Manchu Studies in Korea . In: International Journal of Korean History . tape 21 , no. 1 , February 28, 2016, ISSN 1598-2041 , p. 249-258 , doi : 10.22372 / ijkh.2016.21.1.249 ( khistory.org [accessed September 2, 2018]).
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 33.
- ↑ Gorelova, 77; Möllendorf 1892, 1.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 1.
- ↑ Haenisch 1986, 24f.
- ↑ Gorelova, 85.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 1.
- ↑ Haenisch 1986, 24f.
- ↑ Gorelova, 59.
- ↑ Gorelova, 84.
- ↑ Haenisch 1986, 33f.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 235; Haenisch 1986, 51.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 235; Haenisch 1986, 51.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 236; Haenisch 1986, 51.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 236f; Haenisch 1986, 51f.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 125.
- ↑ The word geren ᡤᡝᡵᡝᠨcan also be used pleonastically together with a plural suffix.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 41.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 40.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 40.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 41.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 41.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 41.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 134ff., Möllendorff, 4ff.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 163; see. Haenisch 1986, 41.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 164.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 165.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 42.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 172ff; see. Haenisch 1986, 42.
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 42
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 42
- ↑ cf. Haenisch 1986, 42
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 157; Haenisch 1986, 42.
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 45.
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 45.
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 45.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 6f., Gorelova 2002, 201f.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 6f., Gorelova 2002, 201f .; Haenisch 1986, 45.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 204; Haenisch 1986, 45.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 204f .; Haenisch 1986, 46.
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 46.
- ↑ Manfred Reichardt, Reichardt Shuxin: grammar of modern Chinese . Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie, 1990, ISBN 3-324-00332-6 , p. 262f .; Gregor Kneussel: Grammar of Modern Chinese / Xiàndài Hànyǔ yǔfǎ «现代 汉语 语法». Beijing: Publishing House for Foreign Language Literature / Wàiwén chūbǎnshè 外文 出版社, 2005, ISBN 7-119-04262-9 , p. 37.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 209ff.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 206ff.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 214f .; Haenisch 1986, 42f .; see. Manfred Reichardt, Shuxin Reichardt: Grammar of Modern Chinese . Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie, 1990, ISBN 3-324-00332-6 , p. 26; Gregor Kneussel: Grammar of Modern Chinese / Xiàndài Hànyǔ yǔfǎ «现代 汉语 语法». Beijing: Publishing House for Foreign Language Literature / Wàiwén chūbǎnshè 外文 出版社, 2005, ISBN 7-119-04262-9 , p. 45.
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 43
- ↑ Gorelova, 227f.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 218.
- ↑ Haenisch 1986, 50f.
- ↑ See also Gerhard Doerfer : Der Numerus im Manschu (= treatises of the humanities and social sciences class of the Academy of Sciences and Literature in Mainz. Born in 1962, No. 4).
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 241.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 8.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 242; Haenisch 1986, 51f.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 233, 239f .; Haenisch 1986, 53; see. Manfred Reichardt, Shuxin Reichardt: Grammar of Modern Chinese . Leipzig: Verlag Enzyklopädie, 1990, ISBN 3-324-00332-6 , pp. 76f., “Directional verbs”; Yuen Ren Chao [Zhào Yuánrèn 趙元任]: A Grammar of Spoken Chinese . Berkeley / Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1968, pp. 458f., “Directional complement”; Gregor Kneussel: Grammar of Modern Chinese / Xiàndài Hànyǔ yǔfǎ «现代 汉语 语法». Beijing: Publishing house for foreign language literature / Wàiwén chūbǎnshè 外文 出版社, 2005, ISBN 7-119-04262-9 , p. 218f., “Complement of the direction”
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 233; Haenisch 1986, 53.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 255f., 293; Haenisch 1986, 53; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 255; Haenisch 1986, 60; Möllendorff 1892, 11f.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 224f .; Haenisch 1986, 54; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 256f, 289f .; Haenisch 1986, 54; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 256; Haenisch 1986, 60.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 292; Haenisch 1986, 54; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 263; Haenisch 1986, 54; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 266.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 267ff .; Haenisch 1986, 55.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 273; Haenisch 1986, 55; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 272.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 276ff .; Haenisch 1986, 55; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 276; Haenisch 1986, 60
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 278f .; Haenisch 1986, 55f .; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 284.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 280f .; Haenisch 1986, 56; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 282; Haenisch 1986, 56.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 281; Haenisch 1986, 56.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 283f .; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ^ Haenisch 1986, 56.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 286ff .; Haenisch 1986, 56f .; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 290; Haenisch 1986, 57; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 291.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 296f .; Haenisch 1986, 57; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 301f .; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ↑ Haenisch 1986, 60; Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 293f., 295, 299f .; Haenisch 1986, 58; Möllendorff 1892, 9.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 295.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 262; Haenisch 1986, 58f.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 284
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 261; Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 302f .; Haenisch 1986, 58f.
- ^ Möllendorff 1892, 10.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 294; Haenisch 1986, 61.
- ↑ Gorelova 2002, 292; Haenisch 1986, 61.
- ^ Möllendorff, 3.
- ↑ Haenisch 1986, 21f.