New Zealand English

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

New Zealand English is the variant of the English language spoken in New Zealand . New Zealand English is characterized above all by a noticeably different pronunciation from British and American English , especially with the vowels such as the / W / sound in words such as kit or fish . This is why some Australians joke that New Zealanders pronounce fish and chips like fush and chups . Also the vowel in words like pen or betis different in New Zealand English than z. B. articulated in British and American English, so that it is almost reminiscent of a [ɪ] in kit . This peculiarity occasionally leads to misunderstandings between New Zealanders and English speakers from other countries, because pen sounds more like pin and bet more like bit .

In addition, the New Zealand English vocabulary contains a number of words borrowed from the Māori . The best-known example is undoubtedly Kiwi , which has also found its way into other variants of English and other languages ​​such as German. Other loan words from Maori refer to the unique flora and fauna of New Zealand. Many geographical names also come from Maori, e.g. B. Cape Reinga and Tiwai Point .

history

See also: History of New Zealand

The first inhabitants of New Zealand were the Maori , who came from the Pacific island region of Polynesia and discovered New Zealand around 925 AD. Around 1150 one can assume firmly established Maori settlements in New Zealand. The first European to discover New Zealand was the Dutch Abel Tasman in 1642.

Until the arrival of the English settlers, Maori was the only language spoken on the New Zealand islands. The history of English in New Zealand began with the arrival of Captain Cook in 1769-1770. From 1790, European whalers and traders followed, who settled in New Zealand. However, New Zealand did not become an official colony of Great Britain until 1840 , after the Treaty of Waitangi between the British Crown and Maori chiefs. This was followed by a rapidly increasing immigration of European settlers, from just 2000 in 1840 to 25,000 in 1850. In 1900 there were already 750,000 immigrants.

There are usually three waves of immigration to New Zealand, each of which had an impact on English in New Zealand. The first phase was from 1840 to 1860, during which a number of organizations brought settlers to New Zealand. So established z. B. the New Zealand Company first settlements in what is now Wellington and Nelson , mainly with settlers from London and the south-east of England. In the South Island, Otago was settled by Scottish immigrants, while early settlers in Canterbury were more Anglican. The second phase began in 1860 when gold was found in New Zealand. The gold discoveries were followed by a dramatic increase in the number of immigrants, especially in Otago and on the west coast of the South Island. Many of these immigrants were from Australia. The third wave of immigration began in 1870 when attempts were made to control immigration by the state. Many immigrants from this period came from the south of England. In 1890, the number of New Zealanders born in New Zealand exceeded the number of immigrants. At this point, the influence of native New Zealanders on the English language is believed to be greater than that of immigrants from Great Britain and Australia.

Although there are some statements about the origin of immigrants to New Zealand, it is important to know that these are only rough estimates. Linguists and historians can only use ship records, military records and death records for this. The ship's records are not necessarily reliable either, as it cannot be assumed that all passengers on a ship that started in an English port are necessarily English. There were also no direct shipping lines to New Zealand for a long time, so that many immigrants first landed in Australia.

It is clear, however, that New Zealand was initially populated almost exclusively by the British. The most frequently cited figures for New Zealand immigration are the results of the New Zealand census of 1871. It found that 51% of immigrants were from England (although it is believed that this included Welsh), 27.3% from Scotland and 22% from England Ireland.

The social origins of the early settlers were relatively homogeneous, with many of the immigrants coming from a labor or agricultural background or from the lower middle class. In contrast to Australia, New Zealand was also not a convict colony, so the majority of the immigrants were settlers. Regional differences also emerged in New Zealand English only a few, with the exception of the South Island of New Zealand, where a larger number of Scots settled.

English in Australia and Maori are important historical factors influencing New Zealand English. Due to the close ties between New Zealand and Australia and the immigration of many Australians to New Zealand, New Zealand and Australian English share some similarities. Since the end of the 20th century, however, a clear divergence can be observed.

Maori is believed to be the most important non-European language that influenced New Zealand's English. In contrast to Australia, no pidgin was formed in New Zealand , which served as a means of communication between Maori and New Zealanders of European origin. On the one hand, this was due to the fact that New Zealand had a uniform language and culture, Maori, with which the European settlers were confronted, not a multitude of groups, languages ​​and dialects as in Australia. In addition, the Maori were given early access to the New Zealand education system and learned English, while, conversely, New Zealand officials learned Maori. Due to the close contact between English and Maori, many loan words from Maori entered the English language in New Zealand.

New Zealand English, as distinct from other varieties of English such as British English, was first described in 1912 by Frank Swinnerton, who described New Zealand English as “carefully modulated murmur”. Presumably there were differences before, which arisen early due to the influence of the Māori language on English, especially names for places and for plants and animals, which are unique in New Zealand and therefore had no corresponding designation in English.

Regional and social variation

Regional differences are rather small. Although there is a lay opinion that there are clear regional differences, these have not yet been proven by linguistic research. The only exception is the south of the South Island, where one hears a distinguishable accent, which is characterized by a rolled 'r', the so-called Southland burr . This accent goes back to the large number of Scottish immigrants in the area.

Social class differences are clearly audible in New Zealand English. Linguistics distinguishes between Cultivated New Zealand English , General New Zealand English and Broad New Zealand English , which can be assigned to higher, middle and lower social classes. The differences between these variants are most noticeable in the vowels, with Cultivated New Zealand English being the closest to the British standard pronunciation Received Pronunciation (RP) and Broad New Zealand English being the furthest from it.

Phonetics and Phonology

Consonants

The consonants of New Zealand English roughly correspond to what you know from British English:

bilabial labio-
dental 		dental alveolar post-
alveolar 		retroflex palatal velar uvular phase-
ryngal 		glottal
stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth. stl. sth.
Plosives p b t d k G
Nasals m n ŋ
Vibrants r
Taps / flaps
Fricatives f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ H
Affricates t͡ʃ d͡ʒ
Approximants ɹ j
lateral approximants l

However, there are some phenomena that are characteristic of New Zealand English:

  • New Zealand English is non- rhotic . The exception is the southern region of the South Island, where there are also rhotic variants of English due to the influence of the Scottish English of the immigrants.
  • The phonetic realization of / r / varies, in addition to [r] there are also slightly retroflexe r-sounds [ɹ].

Vowels

Monophthongs

The vowels of New Zealand English roughly correspond to the vowels of British English, but with some deviations in the concrete phonetic realization. The following depictions follow linguist Laurie Bauer and others who adapted the IPA symbols to describe New Zealand vowels:

Monophthongs
Front Central Back
Short Long Short Long Short Long
Closed e iː ʉː ʊ O
medium ɛ ə ɵː ɒ
Open ɐ ɐː

If you measure the vowels acoustically or examine the position of the tongue in the oral cavity, there are differences to British, American and Australian English. The vowels in Broad New Zealand English and also in General New Zealand English are the result of a significant vowel shift, a new development since around 1960 that continues today. This is how the place of articulation of the vowels shifts:

Monophthongs of New Zealand English, from.

One of the most noticeable sound shifts is the shift of the vowel in bit towards Schwa ([ə]). Australians are supposed to joke that New Zealanders pronounce fish and chips like fush and chups , while Australians pronounce it with a very high / i / sound like feesh and cheeps .

The vowel in words like bed , ten or the name Ben is articulated very highly in New Zealand English, so that it sounds almost like a [ɪ] in kit. This peculiarity occasionally leads to misunderstandings between New Zealanders and English speakers from other countries, because letter sounds more like litter , pen more like pin , pet more like pit and bet more like bit . Long vowels like / i: / in fleece and / u: / in goose are sometimes realized in New Zealand English in such a way that they almost sound like diphthongs. In an extremely broad pronunciation, the sound in goose almost sounds like in goat . feet then sound more like fuh-eet [fɪə].

Another characteristic of New Zealand is the pronunciation of the vowel in words like chance and dance . In New Zealand, words like this are pronounced with a long, dark a ([ɑː]) as in car , more like in southern England . In Australia, on the other hand, the vowel is spoken more often like ([æ]) in rat , similar to American or Northern English.

Diphthongs

In addition to the pure vowels, New Zealand English has several diphthongs : / əi, eə, ʊə, aʊ, ei, ai, oʊ /. For many of these diphthongs, however, lip movement is less in New Zealand English than e.g. B. in RP. Sound shifts mean that some words are now pronounced identically, such as chair , which is pronounced the same as cheer (both [ t͡ʃɪə̯ ]), or bear , which is pronounced the same as bear ([ bɪə̯ ]). However, such pronunciations depend on the strength of the accent and the region in New Zealand.

Additional Schwa

As in Australian English, some New Zealanders add a schwa to the pronunciation of some words, such as grown , thrown, and mown , resulting in grow-en [ ˈɡɹɐʉ̯ən ], throw-en [ ˈθɹɐʉ̯ən ], and mo-wen [ ˈmɐʉ̯ən ]. Words like groan , throne and moan [ -ɐʉ̯n ], however, remain unchanged and, unlike British English, these word pairs are therefore distinguishable from one another .

intonation

New Zealanders often raise the pitch towards the end of a sentence , which also makes a statement sound like a question. This intonation contour is called the High Rising Terminal (HRT).

Pronunciation of Māori loanwords

Many Māori loanwords were Anglicized during the 19th and 20th centuries; H. pronounced like English words. Since the awareness of the Māori language increased in the 1980s, more emphasis has been placed on a pronunciation that is as close as possible to the original Maori word. The anglicised pronunciation, however, often persists among locals, so that a pronunciation close to the Maori often recognizes a foreigner.

Examples are:

word Maori pronunciation Anglicized pronunciation
Aotearoa (New Zealand) [aɔ'tɛaɾɔa] [ɐ: ətæeə'ɺo: ə]
katipo (poisonous snake) [kati'pɔ:] ['kɛtipɐʉ]
manuka (tree species) [ma: nʉka] ['mɘ'nʉ: kə]

There is also a tendency among New Zealand English speakers to abbreviate Maori words:

  • Paraparaumu : often just parapram
  • Waimakariri (river): often just Waimak
  • Wainuiomata : often just Wainui

Proponents of the correct Maori pronunciation of such loanwords disapprove of such abbreviations.

grammar

New Zealand English does not have as many quirks at the grammar level as it does at the pronunciation and vocabulary level that are specific to New Zealand English alone. There are some non-standard phenomena like the use of will instead of shall or the use of certain participles, but this is also found in Australian English.

modal verbs

While the British English for the first person I and we tend to be even shall be used is in the New Zealand English as well as in Australian English will be used for all people. Specific to New Zealand English is the occasional use of shall in the sense of shall , possibly a legacy from Scottish English.

Participles and past tenses

New Zealanders tend to use some participles and past tense forms that deviate from British English, e.g. B. come instead of came for past tense , done instead of did or rung as past tense for ring instead of british rang .

pronoun

It is very often used instead of it as the subject of a sentence, especially when such a short sentence begins with that subject. She's right. is a general praise, for example a barbecue , or She'll be right. analogous to that is okay. You can also find expressions such as yous for school children in Canterbury or you guys as forms for the second person plural (dt. 'You').

vocabulary

See also List of New Zealand Words and Phrases

New Zealand English shares its vocabulary with the other variants of English. But there are also a large number of words that only exist in New Zealand English, some only in New Zealand and Australia, but not in British or American English. These are mostly words related to the flora and fauna of New Zealand. The influence of Māori is also noticeable in New Zealand English .

Māori influence

Many names of the native flora and fauna are taken directly from the Māori. The best-known example is probably the kiwi . The Maori influence can also be seen in names for New Zealand birds such as the kea , kaka , a species of parrot , tui or kokako , as well as in names for fish such as the kahawai . Many plants also have names derived from the Māori language, such as the yew species Kahikatea , Rimu and Totara or Manuka , the South Sea myrtle.

The word kiwi has acquired various additional meanings over the years; the most widespread is probably the self-name for New Zealanders and everything New Zealand, for example a bank called Kiwibank or the state pension insurance company called Kiwisaver . The Kiwi , however, is always referred to as such ( kiwi fruit ); a designation only as kiwi can lead to misunderstandings.

Many Maori words and idioms used to describe Māori culture and society have also become part of New Zealand's English vocabulary. These include B. tangi (Eng. 'Funeral, funeral service'), pa (Eng. 'Fortified village') or kai (Eng. With the exception of the big cities, many place names also go back to Maori, e.g. B. Cape Reinga and Tiwai Point . Kia ora is an expression of goodwill and is used e.g. B. used on the phone as a greeting. The term pakeha for 'white New Zealander, non-Maori' has also found its way into New Zealand English.

Many New Zealanders now also pay attention to the fact that they avoid incorrect plural formations when using loanwords from Maori: The plural is Māori , not Māoris . Most of the time, Māori words in the plural remain unchanged, instead the plural is indicated by the article: te for singular (= der / die / das ), ngā for plural.

Since the Māori language has become the official language and, for example, public sector websites have to be bilingual or legal texts have been published in both languages, the influence of the Māori on New Zealand's English has increased.

Word formations

In addition to borrowings from Maori, New Zealand English also contains English-based word formations that describe typical New Zealand conditions. Not all animal and plant species are designated exclusively by Maori words, but there are also examples where word creations from English are preferred. Thus, there are bush hen for a New Zealand Rallenart or cabbage tree instead ti kouka . Other word formations relate to everyday situations in New Zealand such as farm bike (motorcycle on New Zealand farms) or freezing works (place where animals are slaughtered and frozen for export).

A very striking feature that divides the New Zealand English with Australian English is to shorten the tendency words and suffixes - y or - ie to attach, especially in colloquial or slang , z. B. shornie (for a freshly shorn sheep), roughie or roughy for a sheep that has missed shearing , or water joey (driver of a water tank).

Dictionaries

In 1998 Oxford University Press published a Dictionary of New Zealand English , which (according to the publisher) is based on more than 40 years of research.

spelling, orthography

There are numerous differences between the British and American spelling, such as color / color or traveled / traveled . In general, New Zealand spelling follows British conventions. However, there are also examples of universities giving their students a choice of whether to follow British or American spelling, provided it is consistently followed through.

An obvious difference between New Zealand and British spelling can be seen in the ending -ise and -ize : New Zealanders only use the ending -ise , Americans and Canadians use -ize , while the British (and also the Australians) use both.

discourse

It is widespread anyway that is added to the end of the sentence. The eh replaces question tags like isn't it at the end of the sentence, or is it , wasn't it , etc.

Examples

Some audio samples can be found on the IDEA International Dialects of English Archive website.

literature

General descriptions

  • Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 .
  • Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury, Peter Trudgill: New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004, ISBN 0-521-64292-2 .
  • Klaus Hansen, Uwe Carls, Peter Lucko: The differentiation of English into national variants: an introduction. Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-503-03746-2 .
  • Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 .

Dictionaries

  • Harry W. Orsman, Simon Cauchi: The Dictionary of New Zealand English. A dictionary of New Zealandisms on historical Principles. Oxford University Press, Auckland 1997, ISBN 0-19-558347-7 .
  • Harry W. Orsman: A Dictionary of Modern New Zealand Slang. Oxford University Press, Auckland 1999, ISBN 0-19-558408-2 .
  • Harry W. Orsman, Nelson Wattie: The Reed Dictionary of New Zealand English. Reed, Auckland 2001, ISBN 0-7900-0752-5 .
  • John Macalister: A Dictionary of Maori Words in New Zealand English. Oxford University Press, Auckland 2005, ISBN 0-19-558495-3 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ^ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren: New Zealand English: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , p. 39.
  2. ^ David Crystal: English as a Global Language , 2nd edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2003, ISBN 978-0-521-53032-3 , p. 41.
  3. ^ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren: New Zealand English: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , pp. 39-40.
  4. ↑ Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury, Peter Trudgill: New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004, ISBN 0-521-64292-2 , p. 37.
  5. ↑ Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury, Peter Trudgill: New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004, ISBN 0-521-64292-2 , p. 44.
  6. ↑ Elizabeth Gordon, Lyle Campbell, Jennifer Hay, Margaret Maclagan, Andrea Sudbury, Peter Trudgill: New Zealand English: Its Origins and Evolution . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004, ISBN 0-521-64292-2 , p. 51.
  7. ^ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren: New Zealand English: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , p. 40.
  8. ↑ David Blair: The English in Australia and New Zealand . In: Rüdiger Ahrens, Wolf-Dietrich Bald, Werner Hüllen: Handbook of English as a Foreign Language . Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-503-03067-0 , p. 43.
  9. ↑ Klaus Hansen, Uwe Carls, Peter Lucko: The differentiation of English into national variants: an introduction . Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-503-03746-2 , p. 169.
  10. ^ Robert McCrum, William Cran, Robert MacNeil: The Story of English , 3rd edition. Penguin, London 2002, ISBN 0-14-200231-3 .
  11. ↑ Elizabeth Gordon, Margaret Maclagan: Regional and social differences in New Zealand: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , p. 66.
  12. ↑ Elizabeth Gordon, Margaret Maclagan: Regional and social differences in New Zealand: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , pp. 69-71.
  13. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 17.
  14. Jump up ↑ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren, Dianne Bardsley, Marianna Kennedy, George Major: New Zealand English . In: Journal of the International Phonetic Association , 37 (1), volume 2007, doi: 10.1017 / S0025100306002830, pp. 98-100.
  15. Jump up ↑ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren, Dianne Bardsley, Marianna Kennedy, George Major: New Zealand English . In: Journal of the International Phonetic Association , 37 (1), volume 2007, doi: 10.1017 / S0025100306002830, pp. 98-100.
  16. ↑ David Blair: The English in Australia and New Zealand . In: Rüdiger Ahrens, Wolf-Dietrich Bald, Werner Hüllen: Handbook of English as a Foreign Language . Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1995, ISBN 3-503-03067-0 , p. 43.
  17. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 24.
  18. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 23.
  19. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 26.
  20. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , pp. 25-27.
  21. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , pp. 27-28.
  22. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , pp. 72-74.
  23. ^ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren: New Zealand English: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , p. 59.
  24. ^ Laurie Bauer, Paul Warren: New Zealand English: phonology . In: Kate Burridge, Bernd Kortmann (Ed.): Varieties of English 3. The Pacific and Australasia . Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin / New York 2008, ISBN 978-3-11-019637-5 , p. 59.
  25. ↑ Klaus Hansen, Uwe Carls, Peter Lucko: The differentiation of English into national variants: an introduction . Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-503-03746-2 , pp. 166, 174.
  26. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , pp. 47-52.
  27. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , pp. 58-60.
  28. ↑ Klaus Hansen, Uwe Carls, Peter Lucko: The differentiation of English into national variants: an introduction. Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-503-03746-2 , p. 172.
  29. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , pp. 68-69.
  30. ↑ Klaus Hansen, Uwe Carls, Peter Lucko: The differentiation of English into national variants: an introduction. Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-503-03746-2 , p. 172.
  31. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 69.
  32. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 74.
  33. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 74.
  34. ↑ Klaus Hansen, Uwe Carls, Peter Lucko: The differentiation of English into national variants: an introduction. Erich Schmidt, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-503-03746-2 , p. 172.
  35. ^ Dianne Beardsley, Jane Simpson: Hypocoristics in New Zealand and Australian English . In: Pam Peters, Peter Collins, Adam Smith (Eds.): Comparative Studies in Australian and New Zealand English . Benjamin, Amsterdam / Philadelphia 2009, ISBN 978-90-272-4899-2 , pp. 49-51.
  36. ↑ Tony Deverson: The New Zealand Oxford Dictionary. Oxford University Press, Auckland 2004, ISBN 0-19-558451-1 .
  37. ^ Massey University: American vs. British spelling , December 12, 2018, last accessed March 4, 2020.
  38. ↑ Jennifer Hay, Margaret A. Maclagan, Elizabeth Gordon: New Zealand English . Edinburgh University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-7486-2530-7 , p. 26.
  39. ^ New Zealand . International Dialects of English Archive (IDEA), accessed December 3, 2015 (English).