Censorship in the People's Republic of China

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Censorship in the People's Republic of China describes measures to control media, expression of opinion and artistic production in the People's Republic of China (not that of the Republic of China ).

The People's Republic of China (PRC) is subject to media censorship carried out or ordered by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which is the ruling party of the PRC. The most important institutions of political control include, among others, mass propaganda (party-controlled, selective communication of information) against the population and the steering of public opinion with the help of politically controlled media.

Essentially, it censors media that can be used to reach large numbers of people, such as the press, television, radio, film, theater, literature, SMS, short messages, video games, and the Internet. An internal media system allows Chinese officials access to uncensored information.

After Mao Zedong's death in 1976, media censorship was slightly relaxed in the course of reform and opening-up policy . However, since Xi Jinping took office, the situation has worsened again. According to a statement made in February 2016 by party leader Xi Jinping, the Chinese media must serve the party first and foremost. Journalists are trained to uphold the “Marxist journalist ideals” through exams. At the beginning of January 2016, the official news agency Xinhua quoted a saying by Mao in an article: “The party is leading in the party, the government, the army, the people, among the intellectuals and in the east, west, south, north and in the center anything and everything ”.

Reporters Without Borders describes China's press situation as "very serious" and ranks it 176th out of 180 in the ranking of press freedom . The OpenNet initiative classified Internet censorship in China in the areas of politics and conflict in its report of August 9, 2012 / Security as pervasive and in the areas of social (internet) and internet tools as extensive. These are the two highest of their five levels. Freedom House describes China's freedom of the press as "not free", which is the worst ranking. The already limited space for investigative journalism and politically liberal commentary continued to shrink in 2014, a trend of ideological tightening since Xi Jinping took over the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party in 2012. China is a crucial test case of political control of the mass media, it has the world's most modern censorship technology to manipulate online content. China has the largest number of journalists in prison in the world. No country has such a sophisticated Internet surveillance system as China. More than 30,000 police officers are deployed around the clock.

Foreign companies are concerned about the "Great Firewall" that is excluding them from the Chinese market. Chinese internet giants such as Baidu , Tencent , Youku and Alibaba owe their rapid success precisely to the Chinese firewall.

114 journalists are in custody in the PRC (as of August 2019).

Areas of censorship, intentions and their implementation

Censorship in the PRC spans many areas. The reasons for the censorship are varied and some are given by the government itself.

As reported by tagesschau.de, the censors send detailed instructions to chief editors and editorial managers on a daily basis. Many of these orders come from the Internet Authority, which reports directly to the State Council. Media organizations bow to self-censorship or are in danger of being closed.

politics

The People's Republic of China carries out extensive censorship, especially when it comes to political content. Certain content related to the independence movement in Tibet and Taiwan , the Falun Gong religious movement , democracy, the 1989 Tiananmen protests, Maoism , corruption, police brutality, anarchism, gossip, wealth disparities and food scandals is prohibited. State supervisors receive ideological instructions from the Central Propaganda Department ( Zhongxuanbu - ZPA). The European Parliament criticizes the extremely restrictive media environment and the strictly controlled digital area in China, in which foreign web content, including European ones, is blocked, as well as domestic content that is classified as politically threatening is routinely deleted and censored. The China Digital Times , hosted in the United States of America (USA) , maintains a continuously updated list of terms blocked in China.

In the run-up to the Beijing Olympics, the government reportedly issued guidelines for reporting during the Games to the local media: downplaying political issues not directly related to the Games; Topics about pro-Tibetan independence, the East Turkestan movement and food safety, such as carcinogenic mineral water, were not allowed to be published. The government claims there is no such list. After the outbreak of the Chinese milk scandal in September 2008, it became known that the Shijiazhuang authorities were alleged to have learned of it through a written report on August 2, 2008. In order not to overshadow the Olympic Games, the incident was only reported to the next higher administrative level a month later.

Li Dongdong, director of the Chinese Press Council, said on February 13, 2009 that journalists who attract negative attention with their reporting would be blacklisted in the future. Journalists on the black list are said to lose their press cards and be restricted in their work. This measure is intended to protect against false reports. The basis for this are newly introduced rules and regulations by means of which the supervision and administration of news professionals can be better guaranteed. Li Datong, editor at China Youth Daily, criticized this and was fired for criticizing state censorship. He said, "There really is a problem with fake news coverage and reporters, but there are many ways to fix it." Reuters said that although the Chinese Communist Party's Propaganda Department meticulously manages what newspapers and other media outlets report and Not reporting, the government remains concerned about unrest over the economic downturn and the 20th anniversary of the pro-democracy protests of 1989.

In January 2011, CHINA MEDIA PROJECT, A project of the Journalism and Media Studies Center at The University of Hong Kong, published a list from the Central Propaganda Department containing specific instructions for the Chinese media; Among other things, to play down the social tensions on topics such as land prices, political reforms and major disasters or incidents and to ensure that the Communist Party is not portrayed negatively in the reporting.

You can read about censorship in China on the information platform humanrights.ch: In March 2016, an actually secret censorship list was published by the China Digital Times CDT web portal. This exemplarily shows the systematic approach China's rulers use to prevent critical journalism. The list contains 21 commandments of the central propaganda department that prescribe what media professionals are not allowed to report on during the annual meeting of the People's Congress in March 2016. Xi had banned members of his party from any "inappropriate discussion" of political issues. Not only is there no discussion in Congress, but reporting must also be "controlled". According to the list, media professionals are not allowed to report negatively on the economic situation, for example, even though the country's economy is increasingly weak. The smog must not be mentioned either. It is also taboo to report on the wealth of the delegates. In addition, reports about “illegal churches”, the mention of “international civil rights agreements” and information about military spending are prohibited.

moral

With the “Clean Internet 2014” campaign, China's authorities are taking action against pornography, violence and rumors on the Internet.

Culture

After the People's Republic of China was founded in 1949, the party decided what people needed to know. Literature and art had to obey politics, had to serve the masses and see themselves as weapons in the class struggle. During the first two years of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976), the Red Guards destroyed anything that could be considered reactionary. Foreign literature and art forms, religious works and symbols as well as artifacts of ancient Chinese culture were the targets of the destruction of the Red Guards. The newly created literature and art of the Cultural Revolution were to replace traditional and foreign literature and art. Although there is much greater cultural freedom in China today, the ban on foreign cartoons and severe restrictions on foreign films could be seen as a continuation of culturally-minded censorship.

religion

Registered religious communities are allowed to produce religious material for internal use; public dissemination is prohibited. Religious texts and editions of the Bible that are not authorized by the government may be confiscated and unregistered printing plants closed. The only publisher allowed to distribute Bibles is the Nanjing Amity Printing Company (Amity Press). Small communities in the countryside have difficulty getting Bibles and religious texts.

The Falun Gong spiritual movement continues to be suppressed in China, and possession of its books and texts is prohibited, as is materials relating to the persecution and torture of those who practice the practice. Falun Gong websites are not accessible in China.

That the Islam offensive book "Xing Fengsu" (Sexual mores) was banned in China and its authors were in 1989 after protests by Muslim Hui Chinese placed under arrest while the Chinese police granted the protesting Hui Muslims police protection and the Chinese government organized public burns of the book. The Chinese government supported the Hui and gave in to their demands because, unlike the Uyghurs , they are not a separatist movement. Hui Muslim protesters, who rioted violently and damaged property during the protests against the book, got away with impunity while Uighur protesters were jailed.

In 2007, the Year of the Pig, out of consideration for the Muslim minority, advertising with pigs was not allowed on Chinese television. Even slogans like “Golden Pig brings luck” and “Happy Year of the Pig” were forbidden. The relevant censorship authority instructed the state's advertising departments to do so. This should avoid nationality conflicts. In China, 18 to 21 million of the 1.3 billion Chinese are considered Muslims for whom the pig is considered unclean.

In response to the 2015 Charlie Hebdo attack , China's state media attacked Charlie Hebdo for publishing the insulting Muhammad cartoons with state Xinhua advocating restriction of freedom of speech, while another state newspaper, the Global Times , was the attacker "Revenge" for what she described as western colonialism and accused Charlie Hebdo of trying to stir up a clash of cultures.

economy

In recent years, censorship in China has been accused of not only being used for political protectionism, but also for the benefit of the Chinese economy. According to Jörg Wuttke, President of the European Chamber of Commerce in Beijing, censorship also serves the Chinese economy. Chinese Internet companies were able to take off without being bothered by foreign competition. For China, the control of freedom of expression also serves as a means of market manipulation; it has helped build a competitive internet industry. At the moment, protectionism is even increasing , says chamber expert Wuttke. The fact that measurement is carried out with unequal standards is also shown by the fact that Google is accused of providing obscene content, while Baidu and Bing publish pornographic content unfiltered. The 2D version of the most successful film of all time, Avatar - Aufbruch nach Pandora , has been banned from China's cinemas because, as the Hong Kong newspaper Apple Daily reports, it is taking away the income from domestic productions. Chinese citizens, however, hardly feel bothered by the ban imposed on most foreign films, because video piracy represents a very large market in China and enables them to be acquired for little money, which in turn benefits the economy.

According to Reporters Without Borders, the website of the French organization Magazine de la Communication de Crise & Sensible was blocked in the PRC in February 2007 after it published an article about the risks of trade with China. How do you rate an investment opportunity when there is no reliable information about social tensions, corruption or local unions? Internet filtering is not only a problem for political activists, it also affects those who do business with China. This case of censorship, which affects a very specific website with exclusively French-language content, shows that the Chinese government is as much concerned with censoring economic content as it is with censoring political content, the organization was quoted as saying. After a few political mishaps during the years of the severe economic downturn, censorship was tightened further in 2016 with new instructions from the Central Propaganda Department. Reports about the economy should only show its continuous growth. Commentators whose comments or economic outlook contradict the official positive image have been warned by officials, authorities and censors who are trying to stop the disappearance of large amounts of money abroad by creating an environment of “zhengnengliang” (positive energy) .

military

The military is another area that is protected by censorship. Military damage should be prevented and military secrets should be preserved. The censorship of the military is subject to the central military commission .

Media, communication and parenting control

Collective expression

In 2013, the American Political Science Review published an article by Gary King, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E. Roberts. The article states that, in contrast to the US, where there are only a few providers, social media in China is divided into hundreds of local locations. Much of the responsibility for censorship is shifted to these internet content providers, who are fined or shut down if they fail to comply with government guidelines. To comply with government orders, each of these providers employs an army of up to 1,000 censors. The authors conducted an in-depth experiment that analyzed the censorship program in China. The article describes the structure and procedure of your experiment and the overall results, which are documented and presented graphically. The experiment involved computers from around the world to post comments on social media websites in China and then see which would be delayed or removed by the censors. The authors concluded: “Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the communist party. However, despite widespread social media censorship, we find that when the Chinese people write down scathing criticism of their government and its leaders, the likelihood that their post will be censored is no greater as a result. Instead, we find that the purpose of the censorship program is to reduce the likelihood of collective action by impairing social bonds whenever there are indications of collective movements or such movements are to be expected. "

Other experiments conducted by Gary King, Jennifer Pan, and Margaret E. Roberts reveal a lot about the mechanisms of social media censorship. The authors support the recent hypothesis that criticism of the state, its leaders, and its policies can be published, while contributions about real world events with collective potential for action are censored. They found that Chinese software companies were competing with each other to offer better censorship tools and systems as the demand for their services increased. This is because the Chinese state holds the companies that run the social media sites responsible for doing some censorship themselves. This means that censorship in China is promoted through market mechanisms.

Newspapers

On the twentieth anniversary of the Tiananmen massacre in Beijing on June 4, 1989, corresponding newspaper articles were cut out of imported newspapers. Last year, issues of Beijing News were recalled because of a black and white picture from kiosks. The picture showed three young men in blood-stained T-shirts on the back of a three-wheeled cart. The caption read only "The Wounded" and did not contain any references to the crackdown on the student protests. On September 2, 2011, at the staff meeting of the Beijing News and Beijing Times, officials from the Propaganda Bureau announced the takeover of the two papers. Media experts expected that this would lead to a line-loyal reporting of the two newspapers.

watch TV

Chinese state television, CCTV, is one of the largest broadcasters in the world and the only national licensed broadcaster. All local broadcasters must broadcast the evening news from CCTV. CCTV broadcasts over 24 channels. There are also a large number of provincial programs. All broadcasters are subordinate to the state press authorities. The supervisory authorities do not allow television films to be interrupted by advertising or entertainment programs during prime time. In this way, the broadcasters are urged to broadcast the content true to the line, which is made available to them cheaply by the headquarters. Satellite reception systems that enable reception of foreign channels such as CNN , BBC or NTDTV are prohibited.

Foreign and Hong Kong news programs in mainland China, such as TVB, CNN International , BBC World Service and Bloomberg Television, are occasionally censored by being "blacked out" during contentious segments. It has been reported that CNN has reached an agreement to allow their signal to pass through a Chinese-controlled satellite. Chinese authorities can thus censor the CNN segments at any time. CNN broadcasts are only available on certain diplomatic lots, hotels, and apartment blocks in China. Satellite reception systems that enable the reception of foreign channels such as CNN, BBC or NTDTV are prohibited, but are installed anyway, accepting the risk.

Much of the content that was suppressed included reports on the Panama Papers , references to the Tiananmen protests of 1989, the Dalai Lama , the death of Zhao Ziyang, the unrest in Tibet in 2008, the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and the negative developments about the Beijing Olympic Games.

In order to give the censors time to filter out unwanted protests during the Beijing Summer Olympics, all Chinese television stations were ordered to delay live broadcasts by 10 seconds.

Movies

China has a wide variety of various foreign films that are broadcast through the media and sold in markets. China does not have a rating system for motion pictures and films must therefore be judged as suitable by Chinese censors before all viewers are allowed to watch them.

For films made abroad, this sometimes means cutting controversial material before such films can be shown in Chinese cinemas. Examples include the removal of a reference to the Cold War in the James Bond film Casino Royale and in the film Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End the omission of footage that includes actor Chow Yun-fat , which, according to the local magazine The Popular Cinema is in line with Hollywood's tradition of demonizing the Chinese. Before the 2008 Summer Olympics , the government of the People's Republic of China announced that “evil spirits and violent ghosts, monsters, demons and other inhuman depictions” would be banned in audio-visual content.

Having access to the 12,000 movie screens in China is a powerful incentive for filmmakers to consult and cooperate with Chinese censors, especially those who make films like Kung Fu Panda 3 . By bringing in a Chinese partner, as was done in the case of Kung Fu Panda 3 , this quota system can be circumvented. In spite of this, almost all internationally released foreign films in Chinese and English language versions can be obtained through the counterfeit DVD trade.

All audiovisual works with "serious issues" like the Cultural Revolution must be registered before they can be distributed on the mainland. For example, the film Departed: Among Enemies was banned for implying that the government intended to shoot down nuclear weapons in Taiwan. Movies with sexually explicit topics were also banned, including Farewell, My Concubine , Brokeback Mountain, and The Geisha . The film The Dark Knight was never passed on to the censors by Warner Brothers . The reason was "because of cultural sensitivities in some elements of the film" and the appearance of a Hong Kong singer whose sexually explicit photos had been leaked online. Films made by nationals of the People's Republic of China may not be sent to foreign film festivals without government approval. The director, Lou Ye , and the producer, Nai An, have been banned from submitting their film Summer Palace to the 2006 Cannes Film Festival for five years.

On December 16, 2012, the film V for Vendetta was broadcast uncut on the Chinese television channel CCTV-6, which raised hopes that China would ease censorship. However, in August 2014, government officials caused the closure of the Beijing Independent Film Festival, an annual event for independent Chinese filmmakers to showcase their latest works. It was understood by the organizers that the government was concerned that the festival would be used to criticize the government.

In January 2016, the Chinese Wanda Group bought the US studio Legendary Pictures for $ 3.5 billion . And in the same year, the Wanda Group bought Dick Clark Productions, organizer of the Golden Globes, for around 1 billion dollars . These deals turned the Chinese censors into Hollywood's film police. In addition, the Wanda Group already controls the largest US cinema chain, AMC Theaters .

According to Ying Zhu, professor of media culture at the City University of New York, the Chinese censors can act as "world film police" on how China and the Chinese government are portrayed in films. Films critical of China will be absolutely taboo. Foreign filmmakers will be punished for violating China's national dignity, honor and interests.

In February 2019, the film Yi miao zhong (One Second) by Chinese director Zhang Yimou had to be removed from the competition at the 69th Berlinale at short notice . The official justification referred to technical problems in post-production . The film is set at the time of the Cultural Revolution , the theme of which must be treated with caution, which is why there is reason to believe that this is the real reason for the cancellation of the film.

literature

Book censorship in the People's Republic of China (PR China) is implemented or ordered by the ruling party of the People's Republic, the Communist Party of China .

From the beginning of the 1980s to 2013, the Central State Office for Press and Publishing (GAPP) in China was responsible for the ongoing monitoring of the press. In March 2013, GAPP and the State Office for Radio, Film and Television (SARFT) merged to form the State Main Office for Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT). The SAPPRFT is directly subordinate to the State Council and is subordinate to the ideological direction of the Central Propaganda Department (ZPA). The review of all Chinese r literature that is to be sold on the open market, subject to this administration. The SAPPRFT has the legal authority to screen, censor and prohibit any print, electronic or Internet publication. Since all publishers in the PRC must be licensed through the SAPPRFT, this office also has the power to deny a person the right to publish and can completely shut down any publisher that does not obey their orders.

The publishing industry is one of the most heavily controlled industries by the state. There are 580 official book publishers in China (2014), all of which are state-owned, and a large, continuously growing number of private publishers, which are officially not allowed to this day. According to a report in ZonaEurope, there are more than 4,000 underground factories publishing books across China. The ratio of official to unlicensed books is believed to be 40% to 60%. The Chinese government continues to believe that public book burnings are appropriate for unapproved but popular "mental pollution" literature, although critics claim that the resulting attention to individual titles only helps sell those books. According to the applicable customs regulations, the import of printed matter which is harmful to China's politics, economy, culture and ethics is prohibited.

The Himalaya FM audio book platform employs 200 people who listen through all uploads and block unwanted content. Repeat offenders are recognized by using voice detectors.

music

The album Chinese Democracy by the American rock band Guns N 'Roses is banned in China. It reportedly was because of alleged criticism in his title about the government and a reference to the anti-government movement Falun Gong. The government mentioned through a state-controlled newspaper that it is "turning its spearhead on China." The album entitled "Communist China" by the British punk rock group Japan is also banned.

Australian pop singer Kylie Minogue's album X was released as a 10-track edition of the album by EMI Records . Due to strict censorship in the People's Republic of China, three tracks were banned from the album. The titles that were left out were "Nu-di-ty", "Speakerphone" and "Like a Drug."

Video games

On June 2, 2016, the State Central Administration of Press, Publications, Radio, Film and Television (SAPPRFT) published a notice regarding the publication of online games. With effect from July 1, 2016, online games may only be published with the approval of SAPPRFT.

Back in 2004, the Ministry of Culture set up a committee to review imported Internet video games before they hit the Chinese market. It was mentioned that games in China would be banned from imports if they were found to have the following violations:

  • The basic principles of the Constitution hurt
  • Endangering national unity, sovereignty and territorial integrity
  • Disclosure of state secrets
  • Endangering state security
  • To harm the glory of the nation
  • Disturbance of social order
  • Violating the legitimate rights of others

The State General Administration of Press and Publications and anti-porn and illegal publishing offices also played a role in reviewing the Games.

Examples of prohibited games include:

The historic ban on large game consoles in rural areas was lifted in 2014 when the Shanghai Free Trade Zone was established. Consoles had been banned under a regulation enacted in 2000 to address the perceived harmful impact of video games on young people.

Internet

China's internet censorship is considered by many to be the most widespread and most sophisticated in the world. The system for blocking websites and articles is known as the "Great Firewall of China". According to a Harvard study carried out in 2002, at least 18,000 websites are blocked within the country and the number is believed to be growing all the time. Prohibited sites are YouTube (from March 2009), Facebook (from July 2009), Google services (including the search engine, Google+ , Google Maps , Google Docs, Sheets, Slides and Forms , Google Drive , Google Sites and Picasa ), Twitter , Dropbox , Foursquare and Flickr . Certain search engine terms are also blocked. As of April 2009, all versions of YouTube are no longer available in China.

On the Internet, people use proxy websites that allow anonymous access to otherwise restricted websites, services and information. Falun Gong practitioners and others worked to develop anti-censorship software such as Ultrasurf .

Western media reporters have also suggested that China's internet censorship of overseas websites may be a means of forcing mainland users to limit themselves to China's own internet industry in order to protect their own economy. In 2011, Internet users in China who accessed many Google services, such as Google+, noticed that the services were not always completely blocked, but they were throttled anyway. So it could be assumed that users would be frustrated by the frequent interruptions and then switch to faster and more reliable services from Chinese competitors. According to the BBC , local Chinese companies such as Baidu , Tencent and Alibaba.com , some of the largest internet companies in the world, have benefited from the way China locks international competitors out of the market, thus boosting domestic competition.

Frankfurter Allgemeine reported in January 2017: “Apple is sacrificing freedom of the press for its China business. The iPhone manufacturer is blocking the New York Times app in China . In order to make money, foreign corporations in the Middle Kingdom forget many of their otherwise loudly propagated values. ”Five years ago, the New York Times reported something negative about the then Prime Minister Wen Jiabao and his family, and the online version of the newspaper was therefore published locked in China. But Internet visitors in China could still download the Times app; but now this is also censored for them.

Like other companies in the USA, the Apple corporation "sells" American values ​​just to be able to participate in the huge China business and, as it seems, submits to China's censorship for profit. In July 2017, Apple removed VPN programs that are used to bypass Internet blocks from its Chinese app store because, according to a statement, the software violated Chinese laws. VPN programs enable Internet users to surf anonymously and in encrypted form and to gain access to blocked websites. China's central government has ordered state telecommunications providers such as China Telekom, China Mobile and China Unicom to block virtual private networks (VPN) from the beginning of 2019. Foreign VPN providers are asked to register in China if they want to continue operating there.

Instant messaging

Researchers at the Citizen Lab of the University of Toronto reported in April 2017, after conducting a systematic study, that the popular instant messaging service WeChat not only filters out keywords, but also images from the messages that are considered sensitive. The study found that neither the sender nor the recipient of a message received a notification that an image was censored; the picture simply does not appear to the recipient. WeChat is part of the Chinese Internet company Tencent Holdings Ltd. and has more than 800 million users in China.

Short message service

China has over 2,800 short message service (SMS) monitoring centers, according to Reporters Without Borders . As of early 2010, mobile phone users in Shanghai and Beijing run the risk of their SMS services being interrupted if they are found to be sending "illegal or unhealthy" content.

In 2003, during the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome ( SARS ) outbreak , a dozen Chinese people were arrested for allegedly sending text messages about SARS. The Chinese government required Skype to filter words like "Falun Gong" and " Dalai Lama " from short messages, otherwise they would not be allowed to do business in China. After an initial refusal, the management finally agreed, and the Chinese joint venture partner of Skype, TOM Online , filters out the required terms from the short messages.

education

Educational institutions in China have been accused of glossing over the history of the People's Republic of China by downplaying or avoiding mention of controversial historical events such as the Great Leap Forward , the Cultural Revolution, and the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989.

In 2005, customs officials in China confiscated a shipment of school books intended for a Japanese school because cards in the books showed the People's Republic of China and Taiwan in different colors.

In a January 2006 issue of Freezing Point newspaper , a weekly supplement to Yuan Weishi, professor at Zhongshan University, published an article titled "Modernization and History Books," which lists several books used in mainland China middle schools , criticized. In particular, he found that depictions in the books of the Second Opium War failed to mention that Chinese diplomatic errors preceded the war and that depictions of the Boxer Rebellion atrocities committed by the Boxer rebels were covered up. As a result of Yuan's article, Freezing Point newspaper was temporarily shut down and its editors fired.

"New Threads," a website that reports on academic misconduct in China, such as counterfeiting or falsifying data, is banned in China.

In 2006, a new textbook on world history was introduced in Shanghai colleges that allegedly left out several wars. It mentions Mao Zedong , founder of the People's Republic of China, only once.

In a FRONTLINE segment (US TV series), four Peking University students seem unable to provide the context of the photo of the infamous Tank Man of the 1989 riot sparked by Peking University students had been made. Although possible, the students pretended to be ignorant so as not to anger the party official who was watching the interview with a clipboard in hand. The segment indicated that the topic is not addressed in Chinese schools.

On June 4, 2007, a person was able to place a small ad in a newspaper in southwest China to commemorate the anniversary of the protests in Tiananmen Square. The ad read, "Respect for the strong-willed mothers of the June 4th victims." The clerk who took the ad claimed that he was unaware of the event and believed that June 4th was the date of a mining disaster be.

In May 2013, a confidential internal policy was issued and circulated widely within the Chinese Communist Party. It was about the position in the ideological area (關於 當前 意識形態 領域 情況 的 通報) to discuss the ban on the seven topics. Among the list of forbidden topics were: Western constitutional democracy, universal human rights values, Western notions of independence for the media and civil society, pro-market neoliberalism and “nihilist” criticism of the party's past mistakes.

Censorship during the great cultural revolution in China

The goal of the Cultural Revolution was to get rid of the " four old ones ". When newspapers touched on sensitive topics like this, journalists were arrested and sometimes subjected to violence. Libraries that have books that contain "offensive literature" have often been burned. The television was controlled by the government and its aim was to promote the efforts of Chairman Mao Zedong and the Communist Party. The radio was the same, playing songs like, "The great cultural revolution is good indeed."

Other censorship

After the German embassy in Beijing sent out an annual calendar for the following year within China in December 2009, Chinese officials came to her. The reason for the visit was one of the calendar photos with the theme "20 Years of German Unity". In the tangle of graffiti there were two Chinese characters, the numbers "four and six", which were understood to be the date June 4th, the day of the 1989 Tiananmen massacre in Beijing. Every year in advance of the June 4th anniversary, the homes of the Tiananmen mothers and other relatives of the victims are monitored and their phones are tapped.

Answers from society

Self-censorship

Despite being independent of mainland China's legal system and thus of censorship laws, some Hong Kong media outlets have been accused of practicing self-censorship in exchange for permission to expand their media business in the mainland market as well as greater journalistic access in the mainland.

At the presentation of a joint report by the Hong Kong Journalists' Association (HJV) and the UK human rights organization Article 19 in July 2001, the chairman of the HJV said: “More and more newspapers are censoring themselves because they are either controlled by a businessman with close ties to Beijing , or part of a large corporation that has financial interests beyond the border. ”For example, Robert Kuok , who has business interests across Asia, has been criticized for having several China desk employees leaving the company one after another quickly after reading the newspaper South China Morning Post , namely the editor-in-chief Danny Gittings, Beijing correspondent Jasper Becker and the editor of the China pages Willy Lam. Lam in particular left after his reporting was publicly criticized by Robert Kuok.

International companies like Google , Microsoft , MySpace and Yahoo voluntarily censor their content for the Chinese market so that they can do business in the country. In October 2008, the Canadian research group Citizen Lab released a new report saying TOM's Chinese-language Skype software would filter sensitive words and then log them with user information in a file on computer servers that were unsafe. In September 2007, activists in China had already warned about the possibility that the TOM versions already have Trojan capability or will have more. Skype President Josh Silverman said it was “common knowledge” that Tom Online “has put procedures in place that meet local laws and regulations ... so that they can monitor and block internet chatting when it contains certain words that are used by be seen as offensive by the Chinese authorities. "

marketing

Publishers and other media outlets in the western world have sometimes used the phrase “Banned in China” to bring cultural works to market in the hopes that the censored products will be seen as more valuable or attractive. The term was also used by Penguin Books to sell Mo Yan's novels. The book, The Garlic Ballads, was taken from shelves because of its subjects (rioting against the government) because it was published so shortly after a period of real unrest. However, a few years later the book was allowed to sell in China. Political scientist Richard Curt Kraus criticizes Penguin for falsely portraying Mo Yan as a dissident in order to increase his marketability. Also because of the underlying assumption that if the United States bans some work, then it must be genuinely obscene. But when the Chinese government does the same, it is acting purely for political reasons.

See also

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Prof. Dr. Sebastian Heilmann: The Chinese political system , Federal Agency for Civic Education, October 1, 2005, accessed August 26, 2017.
  2. ↑ Michael Bristow: China defends internet censorship , BBC News, Beijing, June 8, 2010, accessed August 26, 2017.
  3. ↑ Axel Dorloff: Everyone must obey Uncle Xi , tagesschau.de, February 26, 2016, accessed on August 26, 2017.
  4. ↑ Xinhua: Official stresses Party's leadership in publicity work , China.org.cn, February 22, 2016, accessed August 26, 2017.
  5. ↑ Peter Acht: "We are absolutely loyal!" , News.ch, February 29, 2016, accessed August 26, 2017.
  6. ↑ China - Barometer China 2016, Reporters Without Borders, accessed August 26, 2017.
  7. ↑ OpenNet Initiative: OpenNet Initiative, China , opennet.net, August 9, 2012, accessed August 26, 2017.
  8. ↑ a b c d Freedom House: FREEDOM OF THE PRESS - China , freedomhouse.org, Report 2015, accessed August 26, 2017.
  9. ↑ Ashley Esarey: SPEAK NO EVIL: MASS MEDIA CONTROL IN CONTEMPORARY CHINA , February 2006, accessed August 26, 2017.
  10. ↑ a b Journalists imprisoned in mortal danger , Reporters Without Borders, August 2, 2019, accessed November 18, 2019.
  11. ↑ Prof. Dr. Ingo Juchler: POLITICS & UNTERRICHT - PR China , State Center for Political Education Baden-Württemberg, Issue 1 2008, PDF page 48, accessed August 26, 2017.
  12. ↑ Felix Lee, Beijing: The Chinese Firewall is Growing , Neue Zürcher Zeitung, February 2, 2015, accessed August 26, 2017.
  13. ↑ euronews: China: Xi Jinping defends internet censorship, euronews.de, December 16, 2015, accessed April 23, 2016.
  14. ↑ Ruth Kirchner, ARD radio studio Beijing: Directives from the Ministry of Truth , tagesschau.de, April 23, 2015, accessed April 23, 2016.
  15. ↑ Federal Foreign Office: Freedom of the Media , Country Information - China - Domestic Policy, March 2016, accessed April 11, 2016.
  16. ↑ Ruven Chu, Daniel Lau, Shane Moriah, Amos Schallich: Communism and Computer Ethics , Stanford University, accessed April 24, 2016.
  17. ↑ Frankfurter Allgemeine: In the realm of sensitive words , faz.net, accessed April 24, 2016.
  18. ↑ Lea Shih: Media and State in the PR China , chinappolitik.de, June 2008, accessed July 26, 2016.
  19. ↑ European Parliament: European Parliament resolution europarl.europa.eu of December 16, 2015, accessed April 8, 2016.
  20. ↑ Sensitive Sina Weibo Search Terms China Digital Times, accessed November 21, 2016.
  21. ↑ Stephen Hutcheon: What China's milk scandal hushed up? , The full list of edicts , The Sidney Morning Herald, September 15, 2008, accessed April 24, 2016.
  22. ↑ Ludwig Wolf: In the stranglehold of tyrants and commerce , medienheft.ch, August 8, 2008, accessed April 24, 2016.
  23. ↑ Richard Spencer, Beijing: China accused over contanimated baby milk , The Daily Telegraph , September 15, 2008, accessed April 24, 2016.
  24. ↑ pfi, Beijing: A milk powder scandal shakes China , Neue Zürcher Zeitung, September 16, 2009, accessed April 25, 2016.
  25. ↑ Kristin Kupfer: Serious Deficiencies in the Chinese Administrative System , Zeit Online, September 24, 2008, accessed April 25, 2016.
  26. ↑ 20 minutes: China plans to blacklist journalists , 20min.ch, February 13, 2009, accessed April 26, 2016.
  27. ↑ Reuters: China to introduce journalist "black list" , reuters.com, February 13, 2009, accessed April 26, 2016.
  28. ↑ David Bandursky: Press policy 2011: one photo says all , CHINA MEDIA PROJECT, January 17, 2011, accessed April 30, 2016.
  29. ↑ a b Repression and censorship in China , information platform humanrights.ch, update May 9, 2016, accessed November 21, 2016.
  30. ↑ Anne Henochowicz: Minitrue: Offshore Havens, onshore Cyber Attack , CHINA DIGITAL TIMES, January 22, 2014 retrieved 29 May 2016
  31. ↑ Frankfurter Rundschau: China starts censorship campaign , fr-online.de, July 23, 2014, accessed May 1, 2016.
  32. ↑ Finn Mayer-Kuckuk: China's fight against "Rumors and Pornography" , Wirtschaftswoche, July 23, 2014, accessed May 1, 2016.
  33. ↑ Yen Minju: The redest of all suns , Neue Zürcher Zeitung, January 24, 2009, accessed May 3, 2016.
  34. ↑ Andin Tegen: As terrible as China could only be , Die Welt, July 20th 2007, accessed May 3, 2016.
  35. ↑ Wi Thiet Tu, Bakk.phil .: thesis - The Literature of the Cultural Revolution - Hao Ran - the tension between politics and aesthetics , University of Vienna, 2010 accessed May 3, 2016th
  36. ↑ Blade41: Too rough: No Deadpool for China , Schnittberichte.com, January 19, 2016, accessed May 3, 2016.
  37. ↑ Björn Becher: Ban instead of box office hit? That is why “Crimson Peak” will probably not be shown in China , filmstarts.de, October 21, 2015, accessed May 3, 2016.
  38. ↑ Nina Trentmann, Shanghai: The Chinese dictate the rules of the game to Hollywood , DIE WELT, October 29, 2014, accessed May 3, 2016.
  39. ↑ China Visa Services: A Briggs Passport & Visa Expeditors ( Memento of September 28, 2007 in the Internet Archive ), web.archive.org, December 10, 2014, accessed May 6, 2016.
  40. ↑ Britta Schmitz: Christians in China - Church growth versus church restriction, KAS AUSLANDSINFORMATIONEN, December 2010, accessed May 6, 2016.
  41. ^ Congressional-Executive Commission on China: Chairman Brown and Cochairman Smith Urge the Chinese Government to End Human Rights Abuses Against Falun Gong , cecc.gov, July 21, 2014, accessed May 6, 2016.
  42. ↑ CHIP Digital GmbH: China blocked this website at the Olympic Games ( Memento from May 6, 2016 in the Internet Archive ), chip.de, August 2008, accessed May 6, 2016.
  43. ↑ Amnesty International: Appeal for Guo Xiaojun , amnesty.de, January 2011, accessed May 6, 2016.
  44. ↑ Lei Zhou, Truthfulness-Compassion-Forbearance - Serious Human Rights Abuses by the People's Republic of China in Persecuting Falun Gong , June 8, 2010, accessed May 10, 2016.
  45. ↑ Schein 2000 , page 154, accessed May 15, 2016. (English)
  46. ↑ Hu, Fan 胡 梵: Islam in Shaanxi: History and Present , uni-bonn.de, 2008, page 125, accessed May 15, 2016.
  47. ↑ Beijing Review, Volume 32 1989 , p. 13, accessed May 15, 2016. (English)
  48. ^ Dru C. Gladney 1991 , page 2, accessed May 15, 2016. (English)
  49. ↑ Uradyn E. Bulag , page 104, accessed May 15, 2016. (English)
  50. ↑ Pál Nyíri, Joana Breidenbach , page 257, accessed May 15, 2016. (English)
  51. ^ Druc C. Gladney 2004 , page 232, accessed May 15, 2016. (English)
  52. ↑ China Today: Religions and Churches in the PR China , China Today No. 1–2 2007, page 17, accessed May 16, 2016.
  53. ↑ Der Standard: No advertising with pigs for the “Year of the Pig” in China , derstandard.at, February 21, 2007, accessed May 16, 2016.
  54. ↑ Advertising week: China: No advertising with pigs in the year of the pig , werbewoche.ch, January 26, 2007, accessed May 16, 2016.
  55. ↑ Mercato Institute for China Studies: China Update ( Memento of May 18, 2016 in the Internet Archive ), merics.org, number 57, pages 4 and 5, January 2015, accessed May 18, 2016.
  56. ↑ Josh Chin: Charlie Hebdo Attack Shows Need for Press Limits, Xinhua Says , The Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2015, accessed May 18, 2016.
  57. ↑ AFP-JIJI: Beijing jumps onto Paris attack to feed state propaganda machine , japantimes.co.jp, January 13, 2015, accessed May 18, 2016.
  58. ↑ a b c REPORTERS WITHOUT BORDERS: French website blocked for warning of risks of investing in China ( memento of June 26, 2007 in the Internet Archive ), March 30, 2007, accessed May 29, 2016.
  59. ↑ Philipp Mattheis: China is trying to digital dictatorship , Economic Week, March 16, 2015, accessed May 23, 2016.
  60. ↑ dwang: Regulators Target Google for Pornographic Content, CCTV Airs Fake Interview, Netizens React , chinadigitaltimes.net, July 20, 2009, accessed May 24, 2016.
  61. ↑ Die Welt: China no longer wants to show “Avatar” , welt.de, January 20, 2010, accessed May 24, 2016.
  62. ↑ FOCUS Online: "Confucius" replaces "Avatar" , focus.de, January 19, 2010, accessed May 24, 2016.
  63. ↑ Duc-Hien Huynh: Video piracy on the Internet: Is the Chinese search engine Baidu an accomplice? , stimmen-aus-china.de February 6, 2014, accessed May 29, 2016.
  64. ↑ Kai Strittmatter, Beijing: China's Secret Censorship List , Süddeutsche Zeitung, March 16, 2016, accessed June 3, 2016.
  65. ↑ Lingling Wei: China Presses Economists to Brighten Their Outlooks , THE WALL STREET JOURNAL, May 3, 2016, accessed June 3, 2016.
  66. ↑ Human Rights in China: State Secrets: China's Legal Labyrinth , HRIC hrichina.org, 2007, accessed June 5, 2016.
  67. ↑ : Censorship: China is tightening the thumbscrews , SPIEGEL ONLINE, January 26, 2000, accessed June 8, 2016.
  68. ↑ : Border with North Korea: Canadians allegedly stole state secrets in China , SPIEGEL ONLINE, August 5, 2014, accessed June 8, 2016.
  69. ^ Gary King, Jennifer Pan, Margaret E. Roberts, How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression , Harvard University, May 2013, accessed June 8, 2016.
  70. ↑ Gary King, Jennifer Pan, Margaret E. Roberts: Reverse-engineering censorship in China: Randomized experimentation and participant observation , Harvard University, August 22, 2014, accessed June 9, 2016.
  71. ↑ Reporters Without Borders Condemns Tiananmen Censorship , Reporters Without Borders, June 5, 2009, accessed August 1, 2016.
  72. ^ "Beijing News" censored because of Tiananmen photos from 1989 , derStandard.at, July 25, 2008, accessed August 1, 2016.
  73. ^ Propaganda Bureau takes over two Beijing newspapers , Epoch Times, September 17, 2011, accessed August 1, 2016.
  74. ↑ Bernhard Bartsch: Dead monkey, scared tiger , stuttgarter-zeitung.de, February 22, 2012, accessed June 29, 2016.
  75. ↑ China censors reports about Panama Papers , CNN, (video) April 2016, accessed June 17, 2016.
  76. ↑ Barbara Demick: Chinese media censor Obama's inaugural speech , Los Angeles Times, January 22, 2009, accessed July 2, 2016.
  77. ↑ TV images from Beijing “really” come live , Focus Online, April 2, 2008, accessed July 2, 2016.
  78. ↑ China sinks Dead Man's Chest , The Guardian, London, July 10, 2006, accessed May 24, 2017.
  79. ^ "Departed" not in China:, n-tv, January 17, 2007, accessed May 24, 2017.
  80. ↑ Dame Judi Dench Discusses Changes In Casino Royale For China , COMMANDERBOND.NET January 25, 2007, accessed May 24, 2017.
  81. ↑ China censors "Pirates of the Caribbean 3" , Spiegel Online, June 15, 2007, accessed May 24, 2017.
  82. ↑ a b Regulators now spooked by ghost stories , Reuters, February 14, 2008, accessed May 24, 2017.
  83. ↑ Michael Ciepli and Brooks Barnes: To Get Movies Into China, Hollywood Gives Censors a Preview , THE NEW YORK TIMES, January 14, 2013, accessed May 24, 2017.
  84. ↑ David Bandurski: China vows to crack down on unauthorized distribution of audiovisual works , cmp - China Media Project, Hong Kong, July 13, 2006, accessed May 25, 2017 (English).
  85. ↑ Oliver Ting: Pirates and the Orient: China, Film Piracy, and Hollywood , Jeffrey S. Moorad Sports Law Journal, 2007, accessed May 25, 2017.
  86. ↑ NICHOLAS D. KRISTOF: China Bans One of Its Own Films; Cannes Festival Gave It Top Prize , NEW YORK TIMES, August 4, 1993, accessed May 25, 2017.
  87. ↑ Chinese censors 'ban' Brokeback and Geisha Film , BBC NEWS, January 28, 2006, accessed May 25, 2017.
  88. ↑ CBC Arts: Dark Knight won't be on big screen in China , CBCnews | Entertainment, December 26, 2008, accessed May 25, 2017.
  89. ↑ Chinese director 'given film ban , BBC NEWS, September 4, 2006, accessed May 25, 2017.
  90. ↑ China anti-censorship hopes rise after state TV airs V for Vendetta , The Guardian, December 20, 2012, accessed May 25, 2017.
  91. ↑ Suspicious authorities shut down independent film festival in Beijing , Beijing Bulletin, August 24, 2014, accessed May 25, 2017.
  92. ↑ Caroline von Eichhorn & Hinnerk Feldwisch-Drentrup: How China Became Hollywood's Film Police, January 18, 2017, accessed May 25, 2017.
  93. ↑ Pascal Blum: China buys Hollywood Tagesanzeiger, November 4, 2016, accessed May 25, 2017.
  94. ↑ CHINA'S STEALTH POWER PLAY IN THE UNITED STATES. CHINA OWNS US (A PROJECT OF THE CENTER FOR AMERICAN SECURITY), accessed June 11, 2017 .
  95. ↑ David Steinitz: The wall has to go. Tages Anzeiger, January 17, 2017, accessed June 11, 2017 .
  96. ↑ Change of program competition 2019. In: berlinale.de. February 11, 2019, accessed February 15, 2019 .
  97. ↑ https://www.dw.com/de/zhang-yimou-und-sein-verh%C3%A4ltnis-zur-macht/a-47484560 , accessed on February 21, 2019
  98. ^ Agencies Responsible for Censorship in China , Congressional Executive Commission on China, accessed July 27, 2016.
  99. ↑ a b Information on the book market in China , BIZ Beijing - Book Market China 2014, April 2014, accessed July 27, 2016.
  100. ↑ a b Lea Shih: Media and State in the PR China: The institutional renewal of state media regulation , chinappolitik.de, June 2008, accessed July 27, 2016.
  101. ^ The Underground Publishing Industry in China , ZonaEuropa.com, accessed July 27, 2016.
  102. ↑ Tom Carter: Naughty CHINA | "Spiritual Pollution" Essential Reading List , Amazon.com, accessed July 27, 2016.
  103. ↑ China Customs Regulations , accessed July 27, 2016 at chinarundreisen.com.
  104. ↑ GERMANY TRADE & INVEST: Leaflet on commercial imports of goods - PR China ( Memento from July 27, 2016 in the Internet Archive ), gtai.de, accessed July 27, 2016.
  105. ↑ Katharina Borchardt: What is allowed and what is forbidden? The spaces for Chinese publishers are tight, but niches remain. In: Neue Zürcher Zeitung. July 15, 2019, accessed December 26, 2019 .
  106. ↑ 內地 封 殺 GN'R 唱片 , NEXT DIGITAL - Apple Daily, November 24, 2008, accessed May 26, 2017 (Chinese).
  107. ↑ Venomous 'Guns N' Roses album slammed in China , archival version of the original dated November 24, 2008, accessed May 26, 2017.
  108. ↑ Christopher Bodeen in Beijing: Rock album 'an attack on China' , November 25, 2008, accessed May 26, 2017 (English).
  109. ↑ Kylie Minogue X China CD ALBUM (436290) , Esprit International Limited, accessed May 26, 2017 (English).
  110. ↑ Tracey Tang: China SAPPRFT Issued Implementation Rules to Streamline the Approval Process of Mobile Games , LEXOLOGY, June 7, 2016, accessed May 26, 2017.
  111. ↑ Censorship on imported online games strengthened , people.com.cn (source: Xinhua), May 31, 2004, accessed May 26, 2017 (English).
  112. ↑ 50 illegal electronic games banned , CHINA VIEW, January 26, 2005, accessed May 26, 2017 (English).
  113. ↑ a b Swedish video game banned for harming China's sovereignty , CHINAdaily (Xinhua), May 26, 2004, accessed May 26, 2017 (English).
  114. ↑ Computer game cracked down on for discrediting China's image , CHINAdaily, March 19, 2004, accessed May 26, 2017.
  115. ↑ Alexa Ray Corriea: China's free trade zone regulations set, ready for video game console sales , Polygon, April 21, 2014, accessed May 26, 2017 (English).
  116. ↑ China lifts the ban on the sale of game consoles , WELT, January 7, 2014, accessed May 26, 2017.
  117. ^ Jonathan Zittrain and Benjamin Edelman, Empirical Analysis of Internet Filtering in China , IEEE Internet Computing. Berkman Center for Internet & Society, Harvard Law School, March-April 2003, accessed January 18, 2017
  118. ↑ Chinese firms to increase censorship of online content , BBC News, November 7, 2011, accessed January 18, 2017
  119. ↑ Emily MacDonald, China's Facebook Status: Blocked ( July 11, 2009 memento on the Internet Archive ), ABC News, July 8, 2009, web.archive.org, accessed January 18, 2017
  120. ↑ Internet censorship in China and bypassing Facebook bans , Deutscher VPN, 2009–2017, accessed on January 18, 2017
  121. ↑ Internet access in Shanghai despite censorship , Shanghai China, 2016, accessed on January 18, 2017
  122. ↑ a b David Bamman, Brendan O'Connor, Noah A. Smith, Censorship and deletion practices in Chinese social media , First Monday, University of Illinois at Chicago, Volume 17, Number 3, March 5, 2012, accessed January 18 2017
  123. ↑ China blocks access to Bloomberg and Businessweek sites , BBC News, June 29, 2012, accessed January 18, 2017
  124. ↑ The Internet Censorship in China ( Memento from January 19, 2017 in the Internet Archive ), The China Blog, May 13, 2011, accessed on January 18, 2017
  125. ^ Tom Carter, The Chinese Internet Crash of 2007 - Calamity or Capitalism? ( Memento of June 2, 2007 on the Internet Archive ), NowPublic.com, May 3, 2007, accessed January 18, 2017
  126. ↑ Charles Arthur, Google+ 'blocked in China' , The Guardian, June 30, 2011, accessed January 18, 2017
  127. ↑ Carrie Gracie, Alibaba IPO: Chairman Ma's China , BBC News, September 8, 2014, accessed January 18, 2017
  128. ↑ a b Hendrick Ankenbrand, Apple is sacrificing freedom of the press for its China business , Frankfurter Allgemeine, January 5, 2017, accessed on January 18, 2017
  129. ↑ Apple is taking VPN programs from its store in China. Frankfurter Allgemeine, July 30, 2017, accessed on August 14, 2017 .
  130. ↑ Sofie Czilwik: China is blocking parts of WhatsApp - and is raising its “Great Chinese Firewall”. WIRED, July 14, 2017, accessed August 14, 2017 .
  131. ↑ Nectar Gan: China's WeChat censoring 'sensitive' photos, not just text, study shows. South China Morning Post, April 13, 2017, accessed August 13, 2017 .
  132. ↑ Li Xinzhu / Cui Xiaohuo: Text message service cut off for 'bad' words , China Daily, January 19, 2010, accessed May 8, 2017.
  133. ^ John R. Schermerhorn Jr .: Introduction to Management , Wiley Verlag, 2011 edition, ISBN 978-0470530511 , accessed May 8, 2017.
  134. ↑ a b Joseph Kahn: Where's Mao? Chinese Revise History Books , The New York Times, September 1, 2006, accessed May 26, 2017.
  135. ^ Matthew Forney: China's Loyal Youth , The New York Times, April 13, 2008, accessed May 26, 2017.
  136. ↑ Beijing AP: Beijing seizes Japanese school books due to Taiwan content , The China Post, June 29, 2005, accessed May 27, 2017.
  137. ↑ 袁伟时: 现代化 与 历史 教科书 , January 11, 2006, accessed May 27, 2017 (Chinese).
  138. ↑ 现代化 与 历史 教科书 , EastSouthWestNorth, accessed May 27, 2017 (Chinese).
  139. ↑ Philip P. Pan: Leading Publication Shut Down In China , Washington Post Foreign Service, January 25, 2006, accessed May 27, 2017.
  140. ↑ David Bamman, Brendan O'Connor, Noah A. Smith: Censorship and Deletion Practices in Chinese Social Media , School of Computer Science Carnegie Mellon University, March 2012, accessed May 27, 2027.
  141. ^ Joseph Kahn: Where's Mao? Chinese Revise History Books. THE NEW YORK TIMES, September 1, 2006, accessed May 27, 2017 .
  142. ↑ a b Tank Man. In: Video. FRONTLINE, accessed on May 27, 2017 (English).
  143. ↑ Young clerk let Tiananmen ad slip past censors: paper. REUTERS, June 6, 2007, accessed on May 27, 2017 (English).
  144. ↑ Chris Buckley: China Warns Officials Against 'Dangerous' Western Values. THE NEW YORK TIMES, May 13, 2013, accessed May 27, 2017 .
  145. ↑ Chris Buckley: China Takes Aim at Western Ideas. THE NEW YORK TIMES, August 19, 2013, accessed May 27, 2017 .
  146. ↑ Living Revolution | Television in China. morningsun, accessed on May 27, 2017 (English).
  147. ^ Mette Newth: The Long History of Censorship. BEACON FOR FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION, 2010, accessed on May 27, 2017 .
  148. ↑ Jonny Erling: Beijing's fear of June 4th continues , DIE WELT, June 4th 2010, accessed July 31, 2016.
  149. ↑ Jonny Erling, Beijing: China is tracking the victims of the massacre to this day , WELT, June 4, 2015, accessed May 26, 2017.
  150. ↑ Till Fähnders: “What should I still be afraid of?” , Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, June 3, 2009, accessed May 26, 2017.
  151. ↑ Zhang Tao (张滔): Media Control and Self-Censorship in Hong Kong. EastSouthWestNorth, November 2006, accessed May 27, 2017 .
  152. ↑ CHRIS BUCKLEY and MICHAEL FORSYTHE: Press Freedom in Hong Kong Under Threat, Report Says. THE NEW YORK TIMES, January 16, 2015, accessed May 27, 2017 .
  153. ↑ a b Freedoms eroded to please Beijing: report. The Standard, July 2, 2001, archived from the original on February 18, 2008 ; Retrieved May 27, 2017 (archived February 18, 2008 in the Wayback Machine).
  154. ↑ a b China 'spying on Skype messages' , BBC NEWS, October 3, 2008, accessed May 28, 2017.
  155. ↑ CARY, NC: Dynamic Internet Technology Inc. Alleges Skype Redirects Users in China to Censorware Version - Ten Days After Users Are Able To Download Freegate Software Through Skype , TMCnet, September 24, 2007, accessed May 28, 2017.
  156. ^ Kraus, Richard Curt (2004). The Party and the Arty in China: The New Politics of Culture. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 130-134.