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Because mushrooms can be grown indoors (namely ''[[Psilocybe cubensis]]'' and ''[[Panaeolus cyanescens]]''), they are generally grown within the same national borders as they are sold. There have been few high-profile cases of mushroom producers and traffickers being caught and prosecuted.
Because mushrooms can be grown indoors (namely ''[[Psilocybe cubensis]]'' and ''[[Panaeolus cyanescens]]''), they are generally grown within the same national borders as they are sold. There have been few high-profile cases of mushroom producers and traffickers being caught and prosecuted.


The potency of mushrooms can vary greatly depending on the growing conditions, such as in cow dung, and buyers of mushrooms run the risk of ingesting a poisonous, mis-identified species, or being cheated by substitutions or [[cutting agent|cutting]] of the mushrooms with other, non-psychedelic varieties, or by non-psychedelic varieties laced with other psychedelics, most often [[LSD]].
The potency of mushrooms can vary greatly depending on the growing conditions and buyers of mushrooms run the risk of ingesting a poisonous, mis-identified species, or being cheated by substitutions or [[cutting agent|cutting]] of the mushrooms with other, non-psychedelic varieties, or by non-psychedelic varieties laced with other psychedelics, most often [[LSD]].


==References==
==References==

Revision as of 20:58, 2 July 2008

"Psychedelic mushrooms" redirects here. For other mushrooms with such properties, see Amanita muscaria.
"Magic mushroom" redirects here. For other uses, see Magic Mushroom.
"Shrooms" redirects here. For the film, see Shrooms (film).
File:Azurescens.jpg
Psilocybe azurescens

Psilocybin mushrooms (also called psilocybian mushrooms) are fungi that contain the psychedelic substances psilocybin and psilocin, and occasionally other psychoactive tryptamines. There are multiple colloquial terms for psilocybin mushrooms, the most common being shrooms[1] or 'shrooms'.[2]

History

Early

Several mesolithic rock paintings from Tassili n'Ajjer (a prehistoric North African site identified with the Capsian culture) have been identified by author Giorgio Samorini as depicting the shamanic use of mushrooms, possibly Psilocybe.[3]

Hallucinogenic mushrooms have a history that dates back as far as 1 million years ago, originating in East Africa. Early hominids such as Homo africanus, Homo boisei, and the omnivorous Homo habilis expanded their original diets of fruit and small animals to include underground roots, tubers, and corms.[4] It is said[who?] that at this particular time, early hominids gathered Psilocybin mushrooms off the African grasslands and ate them as part of their diet. With the domestication of cattle, Hominids found themselves within greater proximity to cattle, and thus, increased contact with the mushrooms because many species commonly grow on cattle dung.[citation needed] The Psilocybin-containing mushrooms that were thought to have grown on the grasslands at that time were the Panaeolus species and Stropharia cubensis, also called Psilocybe cubensis, which is the famous "Magic Mushroom" widely distributed today. As a result of their contact, the codependency between humans and mushrooms was enhanced and deepened.[5]

Hallucinogenic species of Psilocybe have a history of use among the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times up to the present day. Mushroom-shaped statuettes found at archaeological sites seem to indicate that ritual use of hallucinogenic mushrooms is quite ancient. Mushroom stones and motifs have been found in Mayan temple ruins in Guatemala,[6] though there is considerable controversy as to whether these objects indicate the use of hallucinogenic mushrooms or whether they had some other significance with the mushroom shape being simply a coincidence.[citation needed] More concretely, a statuette dating from ca. 200 AD and depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was found in a west Mexican shaft and chamber tomb in the state of Colima . Hallucinogenic Psilocybe were known to the Aztecs as teonanácatl (literally "god's mushroom" or, more properly, "flesh of the gods" - agglutinative form of teó (god) and nanácatl (mushroom) in Náhuatl) and were reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma II in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English.[7] Bernardino de Sahagún reported ritualistic use of teonanácatl by the Aztecs, when he traveled to Central America after the expedition of Hernán Cortés.

After the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned against the "pagan idolatry," and as a result, the use of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, like other pre-Christian traditions, was forcibly suppressed.[6] The Spanish believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with "devils". In converting people to Catholicism, the Spanish pushed for a switch from teonanácatl to the Catholic sacrament of the Eucharist. Despite this history, in some remote areas the use of teonanácatl has remained.[citation needed]

The first mentioning of hallucinogenic mushrooms in the Western medicinal literature appeared in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: a man had served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms that he had picked for breakfast in London's Green Park to his family. The doctor who treated them later described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or mother refrain him." [8]

Modern

Psilocybe zapotecorum in Jalisco, Mexico

By the twentieth century, hallucinogenic mushroom use was thought by non-Native Americans to have disappeared entirely[citation needed]. Some authors even held that Mesoamerican cultures did not use mushrooms as hallucinogens at all and that the Spanish had simply mistaken peyote for a mushroom[citation needed]. Later investigations by Blas Pablo Reko, Richard Evans Schultes, and R. Gordon Wasson demonstrated that hallucinogenic mushrooms were still widely used by several indigenous Mesoamerican peoples, particularly the Mazatecs of Oaxaca.

In 1955, Valentina and R. Gordon Wasson became the first Westerners to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their discovery, even publishing an article on their experiences in Life in 1957.[9] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the hallucinogenic mushroom that the Wassons had brought back from Mexico as Psilocybe and in 1958, Albert Hofmann first identified psilocin and psilocybin as the active compound in these mushrooms.

Inspired by the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience hallucinogenic mushrooms firsthand. Upon returning to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Project, promoting psychological and religious study of psilocybin and other hallucinogenic drugs. After Leary and Alpert were dismissed by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attention toward evangelizing the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.

The popularization of entheogens by Wasson, Leary, and others has led to an explosion in the use of hallucinogenic Psilocybe throughout the world. By the early 1970s, a number of psychoactive Psilocybe species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely collected. Books describing methods of cultivating Psilocybe cubensis in large quantities were also published. The relatively easy availability of hallucinogenic Psilocybe from wild and cultivated sources has made it among the most widely used of the hallucinogenic drugs.

At present, hallucinogenic mushroom use has been reported among a number of groups spanning from central Mexico to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others. There has not, however, been any confirmed observations of hallucinogenic mushroom use among the Maya peoples, either in the pre-Columbian or post-Contact eras[citation needed].

Effects

Psilocybin mushrooms are non-toxic and non-addictive although they do create short term increases in tolerance of users.[10] Oral ingestion can produce nausea, dizziness, and sometimes vomiting. The greatest danger from recreational use is a "bad trip" which can cause severe emotional and psychological distress. Also, extremely poisonous wild picked mushrooms can be easily mistaken for psilocybin mushrooms.[11] Mushrooms should be identified by a professional mycologist if ingestion is deemed appropriate. When psilocybin is ingested, it is broken down to produce psilocin, which is responsible for the hallucinogenic effects.[12]

As with many psychoactive substances, the effects of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and unpredictable. A common misconception, even seen in the professional environment, is that the effects experienced from psilocybin are due to a poisonous nature of the compound, yet the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, a branch of the Center for Disease Control, rated psilocybin less toxic than aspirin.[13] The intoxicating effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last anywhere from 3 to 7 hours depending on dosage, preparation method and personal metabolism.[14][15]

The experience is typically inwardly oriented, with strong visual and auditory components. Visions and revelations may be experienced,[14] and the effect can range from exhilarating to distressing. There can be also a total absence of effects, even with large doses. This depends on the species (and to a much lesser degree the strain) of mushroom, substrate they grew from, the quality of the yield and conditions of growth.

A single dried mushroom of one of the common Psilocybe cubensis variety. When bruised, it will often turn a bluish color; however, this is not a suitable indicator of the presence of psilocin, seeing as a number of poisonous mushrooms also have cyanic reactions to bruising.

Physical

Typical doses may cause a number of small effects, such as loss of appetite.[16] Higher doses (typically 2½ dry grams and above) cause numerous effects such as feelings of coldness,[14] numbness of the mouth and adjacent features,[16] nausea, weakness in the limbs (making locomotion difficult),[16] excessive yawning which usually occurs during the comedown, swollen features and pupil dilation.[14][16]

Sensory

As with many hallucinogens, the sensory effects are often the most dramatic of the experience. Common doses cause effects such as a noticeable feeling of heaviness, relaxation, enhancement and contrasting of worldly colors,[15] strange light phenomena (such as auras around lights sources),[14] surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe,[15] and other such visual hallucinations.[1] The sense of smell too can become heightened.

Higher doses elicit a variety of intensified and distinct perceptual changes: complex open and closed eye visuals of form constants or images,[16] objects that warp, morph, or change solid colors (juxtaposed with the free-flowing colors of LSD), a sense of melting into the environment, trails behind moving objects, and auditory hallucinations.

Sounds seem to be heard with increased clarity; music, for example, can often take on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[15][16] Some users speak about the feeling of their senses overlapping or synesthesia, a rather interesting experience wherein the user perceives, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound. The surface detail of everyday objects is viewed with increased acuity.[15] Unusual natural designs, such as wood grain, flow like rivers. Interesting textures can be quite stimulating to some users. A simple action such as pouring water into a glass can be extremely visually stimulating.

Dr. Frank van der Heijden at the Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry in the Netherlands claims brief psychotic disturbances, such as transient hallucinations and dysperceptions are more common in psilocybin mushroom users than in nonusers.[17]

Emotional

Feelings of bliss, relaxation, wonder, anxiety, sadness, curiousness or fear have all been reported.[14] Some users may experience intense episodes of hilarity, such as laughing for the duration of the psychedelic experience.[1][16] Emotions can be experienced with increased sensitivity.[14]

Higher doses carry the increased possibility of a surreal event known as ego death,[15] whereby the user loses the sense of boundaries between their self and the environment, creating a sort of perceived universal unity. Users may experience intense feelings of connectivity with a higher power. Contradictory emotions, such as euphoria and despair, can be experienced simultaneously.[15]

As with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or "trip," is strongly dependent upon set and setting. A negative environment could likely induce a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar environment would allow for a pleasant experience, although neither side of this binary is without exception. [18]

In 2006, the U.S. government funded a randomized and double-blinded study by Johns Hopkins University[19] which studied the spiritual effects of psilocybin mushrooms. The study involved 36 college-educated adults who had never tried psilocybin nor had a history of drug use, and had religious or spiritual interests; the average age of the participants was 46 years. The participants were closely observed for eight-hour intervals in a laboratory while under the influence of psilocybin mushrooms. One-third of the participants reported that the experience was the single most spiritually significant of their lives and more than two-thirds reported it was among the top five most spiritually significant experiences. Two months after the study, 79 percent of the participants reported increased wellbeing or satisfaction; friends, relatives, and associates confirmed this. The study also found "about a third of subjects reported significant fear, with some also reporting transient feelings of paranoia."

Psychological

Common experiences typically exhibit changes such as an increased ability to concentrate on memories,[14] feelings of time dilation,[14][15] abstract and distractive thought patterns (can cause indecisiveness),[15] phonetic experimentation with vowels, consonants, or click consonants (known as glossolalia), and epiphanies about life [dubious – discuss].[14] In a way, mushrooms allow what would typically be bypassed by the brain's own natural filters to be magnified, along with the ideas and emotions that may accompany such thoughts. This can be seen as both good and bad, as it may allow for an ease of the ability to focus on stressful matters, or it could also lead to a bad trip.[citation needed]

As dose increases, so do the alterations in perception and consciousness. Significant amounts of time can be spent in deep philosophical or introspective silence.[1] This introspective mindset, if negative, can often be painful and uncomfortable for the user to experience.

Medicinal use

There have been calls for medical investigation of the use of synthetic and mushroom-derived psilocybin for the development of improved treatments of various mental conditions, including chronic cluster headaches,[20] following numerous anecdotal reports of benefits. There are also several accounts of psilocybin mushrooms sending both obsessive-compulsive disorders ("OCD") and OCD-related clinical depression (both being widespread and debilitating mental health conditions) into complete remission immediately and for months at a time, compared to current medications which often have both limited efficacy[21] and frequent undesirable side-effects.[22] One such study states:

"Developing drugs that are more effective and faster acting for the treatment of OCD is of utmost importance and until recently, little hope was in hand. A new potential avenue of treatment may exist. There are several reported cases concerning the beneficial effects of hallucinogenic drugs (psilocybin and LSD), potent stimulators of 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors, in patients with OCD (Brandrup and Vanggaard, 1977, Rapoport, 1987, Moreno and Delgado, 1997) and related disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder (Hanes, 1996)" [22]
"[I]f it can be estab\lished that this class of drug can indeed lead to rapid and substantial reduction in OCD symptoms, then it opens the way for a variety of future studies with new drugs that might possibly have the anti-OCD but not the psychedelic effects. [...] Psilocybin, LSD, and mescaline are extremely potent agonists at 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors and their binding potency to these receptors is correlated with their human potency as hallucinogens (Glennon et al., 1984). The acute improvement in symptoms described in the published case reports (Brandrup and Vanggaard, 1977, Rapoport, 1987, Moreno and Delgado, 1997) suggests that interactions with 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors may be an essential component of anti-OCD drug action. The observations that administration of the non-selective 5-HT antagonists metergoline or ritanserin exacerbate OCD symptoms further supports this view." [22]

Dosage

Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the potency of the mushroom (the total psilocybin and psilocin content of the mushrooms), which varies significantly both between species and within the same species, but is typically around 0.5-2% of the dried weight of the mushroom. A typical dose of the rather common species, Psilocybe cubensis, is approximately 1 to 2 grams,[23] corresponding with 10 to 25 milligrams psilocybin and psilocin, while about 2½ to 5 grams[23] dried material or 25 to 50 milligrams of psilocybin/psilocin is considered a heavy dose. Fresh mushrooms are approximately 90% water. Exposure to heat generally breaks down the psychoactive ingredients. When eaten dry, 1 to 1.5 grams of mushrooms provide a small "trip" that can last up to 3 hours. The effects then are relatively mild, depending on the tolerance of the subject. With 3 to 3.5 grams one experiences a strong and solid trip which can last more than 5 hours.

Legality

Main article: Legal status of psilocybin mushrooms

Psilocybin and psilocin are listed as Schedule I drugs under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.[24] Schedule I drugs are drugs with a high potential for abuse that have no recognized medical uses. The classification of psilocybin mushrooms as a schedule 1 drug has come under criticism because "shrooms" are considered soft drugs with a low potential for abuse. Parties to the treaty are required to restrict use of the drug to medical and scientific research under strictly controlled conditions. Some national drug laws have been amended to reflect this convention (for example, the US Psychotropic Substances Act, the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 and Drugs Act 2005, and the Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act), with possession and use of psilocybin and psilocin being prohibited under almost all circumstances, and often carrying severe legal penalties. Magic Mushrooms in their fresh form still remain legal in some countries including Spain and Austria. On April 25, 2008, The Netherlands outlawed cultivation and use of psilocybin containing fungi.[25] The UK ban introduced in 2005 came under much criticism, however was rushed through at the end of the 2001-2005 Parliament. Before 2005 Magic Mushrooms were sold in hundreds of shops and on internet web sites throughout the UK.

Because mushrooms can be grown indoors (namely Psilocybe cubensis and Panaeolus cyanescens), they are generally grown within the same national borders as they are sold. There have been few high-profile cases of mushroom producers and traffickers being caught and prosecuted.

The potency of mushrooms can vary greatly depending on the growing conditions and buyers of mushrooms run the risk of ingesting a poisonous, mis-identified species, or being cheated by substitutions or cutting of the mushrooms with other, non-psychedelic varieties, or by non-psychedelic varieties laced with other psychedelics, most often LSD.

References

  1. ^ a b c d Kuhn, Cynthia (1998 & 2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton & Company Inc. pp. pg. 83. ISBN 0-393-32493-1. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ "Taking care of ourselves". Cornell University: Women's Resource Center. Retrieved 2007-04-04. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  3. ^ "The oldest Representations of Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in the World". www.samorini.net/. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |awhoreccessdate= ignored (help)
  4. ^ McKenna, Terrence. Food of the Gods: the Search for the original Tree of Knowledge. p. 336. ISBN 0553371304. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ McKenna, Terrence. Food of the Gods: the Search for the original Tree of Knowledge. p. 336. ISBN 0553371304. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ a b Stamets, Paul. Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. p. 11. ISBN 0898158397. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Stametspg11" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ Stamets, Paul. Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. p. 7. ISBN 0898158397. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ Everard Brande (1799). "On A Poisonous Species of Agaric". London Medical and Physical Journal. 11 (November 16): 41–44.
  9. ^ Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life (June 10). article reproduced online
  10. ^ Psilocybin Fast Facts
  11. ^ Psilocybin Fast Facts
  12. ^ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Center. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
  13. ^ The Good Drugs Guide. "Magic Mushrooms – Frequently Asked Questions" (htm). Frequently Asked Questions. The Good Drugs Guide. Retrieved 2007-01-04.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Erowid and contributors (2006). "Effects of Psilocybin Mushrooms" (shtml). Erowid. Retrieved 2006-12-01. {{cite web}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i The Good Drugs Guide. "Psychedelic Effects of Magic Mushrooms" (htm). The Good Drugs Guide. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Soochi (2003). "Physical Effects of Mushrooms". Shroomery. Mind Media. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
  17. ^ Witchalls, Clint (2006-06-16). "Trip down the high street". The Independent (reproduced on LookSmart Find Articles). Retrieved 2007-04-016. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); External link in |publisher= (help)
  18. ^ Stamets, Paul. Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. ISBN 0898158397. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |Publisher= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ "Hopkinds scientists show hallucinogen in mushroom creates universal "mystical" experience". Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 2007-04-04.
  20. ^ Clusterbusters. "Psilocybin Mushrooms" (html). Retrieved 2006-12-01.
  21. ^ "Effects of Psilocybin in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder" (html).:"In spite of the established efficacy of potent 5-HT reuptake inhibitors in the treatment of OCD ... the length of time required for improvement of patients undergoing treatment with 5-HT reuptake inhibitors appears to be quite long ... and the percentage of patients having satisfactory responses may only approach 50%, and most patients that do improve only have a 30 to 50% decrease in symptoms (Goodman et al., 1990)"
  22. ^ a b c "Effects of Psilocybin in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder" (html).
  23. ^ a b Erowid (2006). "Dosage Chart for Psychedelic Mushrooms" (shtml). Erowid. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
  24. ^ "List of psychotropic substances under international control" (PDF). International Narcotics Control Board. August 2003. Retrieved 2007-06-25.
  25. ^ "APF:Netherlands to ban 'magic mushrooms'". Agence France-Presse. April 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-01.

Sources

  • Allen, John W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen. ISBN 1-58214-026-X.
  • Letcher, Andy (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber Limited. ISBN 0-060-82828-5.
  • Nicholas, L. G (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN 0-932551-71-8. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Stamets, Paul (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 1-58008-175-4.
  • Stamets, Paul (1983). Mushroom Cultivator, The. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Stamets, Paul (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the World. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0-9610798-0-0.
  • Kuhn, Cynthia (1998 & 2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc. ISBN 0-393-32493-1. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • R. Gordon Wasson, The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica
  • Alvaro Estrada, Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants
  • Terence McKenna, Food of the Gods
  • Ole Högberg, Flugsvampen och människan. Section concerning the berserker myth is published online [1] (In Swedish and PDF format) ISBN 91-7203-555-2

See also

External links

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