Concrete

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Concrete
Real betony (betonica officinalis)

Real betony ( betonica officinalis )

Systematics
Asterids
Euasterids I
Order : Mint family (Lamiales)
Family : Mint family (Lamiaceae)
Subfamily : Lamioideae
Genre : Concrete
Scientific name
Betonica
L.
Montane form of the late betony

The betonias ( betonica ) are a genus of plants within the lip flower family (Lamiaceae). The genus already established by Linnaeus was often taken as a synonym for the Zieste ( Stachys ). Revived as a valid name in 2010, Betonica is now finally a genus that has also been genealogically secured. The species-poor genus is distributed across Europe, Western Siberia, Asia Minor, Northern Iran to the Tien Shan. Only one species, the real betony , has a larger contiguous European-West Siberian area and was introduced as a cultivated plant to the New World and China.

Description and ecology

Betonica betoniciflora shows the opposite leaves of the genus. It occurs in a wide area of ​​Central Asia. All betonias have square stems as a characteristic of all mint family.

Vegetative characteristics

The Betonica species are perennial herbaceous plants . They form nodular rhizomes as persistence organs. Sterile leaf rosettes are usually available. The foliage leaves are arranged in a basal rosette and are arranged opposite on the stem. The petiole of the basal leaves is up to four times as long as the blade. The uppermost stem leaves are sessile.

Generative characteristics

The flowers stand together in pseudo whorls . The hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic with a double flower envelope . They are practically odorless ( see the sweet smelling flowers of Betonica grandiflora ). The calyx is irregularly five-toothed. The corolla tube has a strongly varying curvature. The petals are fused into a corolla tube, this is often without a hair ring inside (except for Betonica alopecuros ). The crown upper lip is almost flat, seen from the side more or less straight, with entire margins or in two parts, rarely in three parts; outside it is hairy. The lower lip is in three parts, with a full-edged or two-part middle section that is larger than the side sections. The stamens are stretched straight forward; the anthers have separate, almost parallel halves.

The color of the corolla is next to the shape of the corolla (especially the upper lips) a clear morphological distinguishing feature for the clans: the deviations in the hue of the purple flowers are slight and taxonomically useless. In addition, the flowers increasingly fade towards the end of the flowering period.

  • Betonica alopecuros s. l. yellow
  • Betonica officinalis s. st. purple, rarely white
  • Betonica hirsuta purple in color
  • Betonica haussknechtii ivory colored
  • Betonica scardica white, pink in color
  • Betonica grandiflora purple in color

The pollination is usually by bees .

The partial fruits are brown, egg-shaped, triangular.

Heyday

The earliest flowering European species is Betonica alopecuros (due to its high mountain location in July to August). Late betony ( Betonica serotina ) flowers at the latest (from July to September, rarely in October). The other species bloom between June and August ( Betonica officinalis s. Str., Betonica stricta , Betonica hirsuta - rarely in September), June and September ( Betonica scardica ) and July and August ( Betonica haussknechtii ). The Caucasian Betonica grandiflora blooms in June and July.

Chromosome set

The Betonia investigated up to now have a uniform diploid chromosome set of 2n = 16. The representatives of Betonica differ cytologically by the chromosome base number of x = 8, which is only rarely found in Stachys . In addition, Betonica (predominantly over 3 μm) has large meta- or submetacentric ones Chromosomes, whereas Stachys has small chromosomes (mostly smaller than 2 μm) with centromeres that are difficult to see .

Phytochemical components

Ingredients of the secondary metabolism

The real betonia in particular is an ancient medicinal plant , the ingredients of which have been checked for their pharmacological effects in medical tests since the work of Jeker (1993). Phytochemically, however, the individual species of the genus differ little. The iridoids allobetonicoside, 6-0-acetylmioporoside and acetylharpagid as well as the phenylpropanoid glycosides forsythoside B and acteoside are detected for most of the concrete. Allobetonicoside is the main ingredient in Betonica , an iridoid that was first isolated by Jeker. This particular main ingredient of the secondary metabolism has only been proven for Betonica .

For real betony, the following ingredients were specified in the older literature: essential oil, bitter substances, the alkaloids betonicin and stachydrin, as well as choline and turicin. The iridoids harpagid and acetylharpagid, identified several times in more recent works using paper-chromatographic methods, led to false reports due to their confusion with allobetonicoside. The main ingredient of Betonica officinalis L. - allobetonicoside - behaves very similarly on paper and thin layer chromatography to the harpagid, which shows the same dark brown color reaction in a special reagent. Allobetonicoside was not recognized as a separate substance before Jeker's investigations.

Chemotaxonomic studies on Stachys recta L. and Stachys anisochila Vis. & Pančić have led to the isolation of the iridoids acetylharpagid, ajugol, ajugoside, harpagid and melittoside; in addition, six flavonoid glycosides were found which contained allose . The six scutellarin compounds and five iridoids - apart from the widely used iridoid acetylharpagid - which were isolated from Stachys could not be detected in Jeker's HPLC analyzes . These phytochemotaxonomic analyzes therefore underline great chemical differences in the flavonoid and iridoid pattern to the Stachys recta group and confirm the taxonomically made delimitation of the two genera. Derivatives of the flavonoid tricetin, which is not found in ziesten, are also suitable as chemotaxonomic markers.

Pharmacological effect of the ingredients

In medical tests, Jeker examined the effects of the ingredients on sedative effects , calcium antagonistic and antibacterial activity. As a natural sedative, "Herba Betonicae" was used as a sleep aid in ancient times and in the Middle Ages. However, the crude extract showed no effect. The isolated ingredient L-tryptophan was temporarily in circulation as a sleep-inducing drug, but was withdrawn from the market due to major side effects. The crude extract shows weak activity against Bacillus subtilis and Micrococcus luteus . Tests of the small amounts of essential oils from Betonica divulsa (as Stachys alopecuros subsp. Divulsa ) showed a strong cytotoxic activity. Growth-inhibiting effects were observed both on lines with breast cancer cells and on skin cancer melanomas. Strong activity was found in skin cancer melanoma in particular. The heads of the study hope that the preliminary results and further clinical tests will show the potential suitability of the essential oils of Betonica divulsa in chemopreventive therapies .

Systematics and distribution

The genus Betonica was placed by numerous authors as a separate section in the genus of the Zieste ( Stachys ), for example in the Flora Europaea . According to the classification of Bhattacharjee (1980), Betonica and Stachys are due to large morphological differences (the flowers in Betonica are sessile, in Stachys stalked, anatomically, in all representatives in Betonica there is an adaxial phloem in the petiole , as well as the cusps , without this scarred thickenings occur in the sclerenchyme , while none of these features are found in Stachys ), independent genera of the mint family. Chemotaxonomic and molecular biological features have confirmed this. Concrete are thus only distantly related to the Ziest and do not even belong to the same tribe Stachydeae , but have turned out to be a sister group of the hollow teeth ( Galeopsis ). The phylogenetic data could not yet determine which tribe the betonia belong to.

Taxonomy and Etymology

The genus Betonica was set up by Carl von Linné in Species Plantarum in 1753 .

The name "Betonien" comes from the Latin : bētōnica , which can be found, for example, in Pliny Natural History or Scribonius Largus ; the term vettōnica also seemed common, which Pliny also mentions, or which can be found in Pelagonius De re veterinaria . The names go to the Celtic tribe of the Vectōnēs or Vettōnēs , who lived in Lusitania on the Iberian Peninsula . The Romance forms, such as Italian bettonica , Spanish betónica or French bétoine have mixed in some dialects with britannicus (= British). An origin from the Celtic bentonic , as for example Georg Christoph Wittstein claims, is excluded.

Systematics

The status of the genus has long been controversial. George Bentham divided the genus in "Labiatarum Genera et Species" into two groups in Stachys : Betonica and Alopecuros . Pierre Edmond Boissier considered Betonica in the "Flora Orientalis" as an independent genus from Stachys . John Isaac Briquet followed Bentham's view in Adolf Engler's "The Natural Plant Families " and again incorporated Betonica into Stachys . Reba Bhattacharjee then highlighted the genus for the first time as a subgenus in Stachys. This distinction, made on a morphological basis, of the genus Stachys into the Subgerera Stachys and Betonica led to a further distinction within the subgenus: The distinction between the sections is based on the presence of star hairs on the leaves and flowers as well as the shape, length and width of the leaf blades .

  • Section Betonica with the species Betonica alopecuros (as Stachys alopecuros ), Betonica grandiflora (as Stachys macrantha ), Betonica hirsuta (as Stachys monieri ), Betonica officinalis (as Stachys officinalis ) and Stachys serbica .
  • Section Macrostachya with the species Betonica betonicifolia (as Stachys betonicifolia ), Betonica nivea (as Stachys discolor ), Betonica orientalis (as Stachys macrostachya ) and Betonica scardica (as Stachys scardica ).

Species and their distribution

Blossom whorl of the large-flowered betonia ( Betonica grandiflora ) from the wild habitat in Georgia at an altitude of around 2070 meters

12 to 17 species distributed in Europe , Southwest and Central Asia are counted to the genus of betonias . Nine of them are native to Europe. To the east, the area of ​​the genus extends into the Tienshan . One of the main areas of distribution is in the Alps, the Balkans and the Caucasus.

European species groups

Two European taxa form closely related groups of species: Betonica officinalis s. l. and Betonica allopecuros s. l. The Swiss Marianne Jeker devoted a morphological-chemotaxonomic-systematic dissertation to the sometimes complex relationships. Based on the statistical evaluation of the morphological characteristics of cultivated and herbarized plants as well as cross-breeding attempts, she worked out a revision of the species status of all previously described European Betonien based on univariate and multivariate statistical results. Since no genetic relationship diagnosis was published within the genus boundaries (as of March 2015), this work is currently the only modern plant monograph for the European representatives of the genus.

In relevant flora works (Hegi - Illustrated Flora of Central Europe , Hess - "Flora of Switzerland and Adjacent Areas"), Betonica officinalis was also understood as a group of species which, depending on the flora or author, breaks down into a different number of taxa.

According to Jeker, Betonica officinalis s differentiate . st. and Betonica serotina very good in many characteristics. Betonica stricta and Betonica haussknechtii can also be separated from Betonica officinalis , although the separation between Betonica haussknechtii and Betonica stricta causes difficulties with one another, but not with the other two. Jeker completed the earlier view that Betonica stricta was predominantly a high-montane form of the Vosges with further findings from the Pyrenees and the Alpes-Maritimes.

  • Betonica allopecuros s. l. according to Jeker breaks down into: Betonica alopecuros L. s. str., Betonica divulsa Ten. and Betonica jacquinii Gren. & Godr. . This taxonomic division coincides with the geographical one: Betonica alopecuros s. st. can be found in the western area, Betonica divulsa in Abruzzo and Betonica jacquinii in Eastern and Southeastern Europe.

Caucasian species group

There is also a specialized group of species in the Caucasus-Elburs area, which forms a complex of high mountain forms around Betonica nivea : the Betonica ossetica and Betonica abchasica , which used to be considered subspecies of Betonica nivea , are now valid species.

Complete list of species

  • Betonica abchasica (NPPopov ex Grossh.) Chinth. : The home is the limestone mountains in the West Caucasus and Transcaucasia.
  • Yellow betony , yellow ziest, foxtail ziest ( Betonica alopecuros L. ): The home is the alpine regions of Western Europe. In addition to the nominate form, there are two more varieties:
    • Betonica alopecuros var. Divulsa Ten. : The home is the Apennine Peninsula.
    • Betonica alopecuros var. Jacquinii Gren. & Godr. : The homeland are the Dinaric countries.
  • Betonica betoniciflora (Rupr. Ex O.Fedtsch. & B.Fedtsch.) Sennikov : The home is Central Asia.
  • Dense bloom concrete , Alpine concrete ( Betonica hirsuta L. ): Home is the Alps.
  • Large-flowered betonia ( Betonica grandiflora Willd. ): The home is the Caucasus.
  • Betonica nivea Stev. : The homeland is the Caucasus.
  • Real Betonie , Heil-Ziest ( Betonica officinalis L. ): The home is Europe and West Siberia . As a species group with closely related species:
    • Betonica haussknechtii (Nyman) Hausskn. : The home is the southern Balkan Peninsula.
    • Late betony ( Betonica serotina host ): The home is the southern Alps , the coastal countries of the eastern Adriatic: Slovenia, Croatia and Montenegro.
    • Betonica stricta Aiton : Vosges, Pyrenees.
  • Betonica orientalis L .: The distribution area ranges from eastern Turkey to northwestern Iran.
  • Betonica ossetica (Bornm.) Chinth. : The homeland is the eastern Caucasus.
  • Betonica scardica Griseb. : The home is the central and southern Balkan Peninsula: Serbia , Macedonia , Albania , Greece .

distribution

The family group of the Betonia develops mostly in the higher montane level of the submeridional mountains from the western Mediterranean ice to the Tienschan ( Betonica betoniciflora ) with a center in the Greater Caucasus and Transcaucasia ( Betonica orientalis , Betonica grandiflora , Betonica nivea , Betonica abchasica , Betonica ossetica ) . As an element of the Mediterranean hard-leaved vegetation, the late betonia is observed in Mediterranean garigues in the plant-sociological association Cisto-Ericion such as in Istria , the Kvarner gulf , Dalmatia and the Pelješac peninsula in Croatia . The real betony clan, which is divided into different races, is the only one that inhabits an extensive temperate area that extends from the Atlantic to the Urals (with an exclave in Kabylia in North Africa). Betonica betonicifolia, which is widespread in Central Asia , also occurs over a large area, while high mountain species often only have regional centers of distribution. The Caucasian species Betonia abchasica and in particular Betonica ossetica have a discontinuous area with only regional occurrences. Betonica nivea, on the other hand, colonizes a more extensive but incoherent area from the East Caucasus to the Elburs.

Cultural history

Aesculap discovers the real betony - anonymous medical code according to Pseudo-Apuleius ( Herbei de Pseudo Apuleius ). Carolingian period , mid-9th century. Folio with illustration of plants and illustrations for harvesting the drug of the real betonia. French National Library , Paris

Antiquity

Since Dioscurides materia medica (fourth book with the treatise on betony), betony was an important medicinal plant in the medicinal treasure of antiquity. Also Pliny the Elder discussed the Betonie in his natural history work Naturalis Historia in the volumes 26 and 27. But in particular Antonius Musa , physician to Emperor Augustus , wrote a separate treatise, which in the Latin source version of a letter to Marcus Agrippa is received and 47 medical Applications ( Antonii Musae de herba vettonica liber ). These works remained important for the pharmaceutical indication of medieval and modern authors.

Monastery gardens of the Middle Ages

Real concrete has been an integral part of the monastery gardens since the Middle Ages . Inventory lists of the imperial gardens of Charlemagne contain the betony from the year 812. This was still missing in the Capitulare de villis . Walahfrid Strabo was probably responsible for the inclusion in the plant list of the St. Gallen monastery plan of 840 of the abbey of St. Gallen through the description of the real concrete in 827 in the didactic poem of Hortulus . Since then, this has been practically not missing in any monastery or pharmacy garden (didactic poem Walahfried Strabo - vettonica):

Heil-Ziest / vettonica, Betonie ( Betonica officinalis )

 Even in mountains and forests, in meadows and valley bottoms all around,
 almost everywhere, Betonie
 often grows wildly in a delicious abundance , but it also has our garden,
 And in the cultivated land it is used them to become demure.
 She has already garnered so much praise from everyone's lips
 that my muse, if she wanted to add anything else,
 soon realized, failing in vain efforts, that whatever
 she could bring forward, everything was completely useless .
 If you undertake to pluck them and use them green,
 Or to keep them dry for the creeping winter,
 Whether the cups of foaming must please your throat,
 Or you rather like patiently clarified gifts -
 the amazing power of this herb will correspond to all.
 So extraordinarily high, we know it, some value them,
 That they believe that they can protect themselves through their healing power
 against any hardship that attacks the body internally.
 That is why they habitually drink
 this powerful variety of healing medicine daily .
 Besides, if your head
 suffers
 and becomes sick with an enemy wound , then lay the sacred plant, grated, diligently on you as an envelope, and at once you will admire
 its healing power, for the wound will close tightly.

Vettonica, Betonica officinalis

 Montibus et silvis, pratis et vallibus imis
 Vettonicae pretiosa licet collectio cunctis
 Paene locis superest passim, tamen hanc quoque noster
 Hortus habet cultaque docet mansuescere terra.
 Haec tantum meruit generali nomine laudis,
 Ut si quid mea Musa velit superaddere, tandem
 Mole operis devicta sui, iam sentiat, illa
 Utilitate minus quicquid deprompserit esse.
 Hanc viridem si forte tuos coneris in usus
 Carpere, siccatamve hiemi deponere pigrae,
 Turbida sive tuas oblectant pocula fauces,
 Seu potius longo tibi defaecata laboratories
 Dona placent, huius virtus mirabilis herbae Omantii
 sufficiet
 , ut
 Impetit interius, muniri viribus eius
 Sese posse rati, soleant haurire diebus
 Continuis hoc acre genus medicaminis almi.
 Praeterea caput infesto si vulnere fractum
 Tabuerit, tum crebra terens imponito sacrae
 Tegmina vettonicae, statim mirabere vires
 Illius, in solidum fuerit dum clausa cicatrix.

Even today this use is found in historically modeled monastery gardens.

Ornamental plants

As an ornamental plant, the robustly growing B. grandiflora can also be found in public places (here in Munich-Thalkirchen). The 'Superba' variety used here, with its dense pseudo-whiskers, corresponds to the actual nominate form, the var. Macrantha with only simple pseudo-whorls is less valuable from a horticultural perspective. The long-lived perennial can thrive in its planting place for over 30 years.

Some Betonien have established themselves as attractive ornamental plants in gardening and gardening. The real betony, the large-flowered betony, the Caucasus betony ( Betonica nivea , as Stachys discolor ) and in particular the "Humelo" variety of the alpine betony ( Betonica hirsuta as Stachys monieri ) were examined by the Chicago Botanical Garden in a comparative inspection test attractive flowers and the long flowering time as recommended.

swell

literature

  • Reba Bhattacharjee: Taxonomic studies in Stachys: II. A new infrageneric classification of Stachys L. In: Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Volume 38, No. 1, 1980, pp. 65-96.
  • Petar D. Marin, Renee J. Grayer, Slavica Grujic-Jovanovic, Geoffrey C. Kite, Nigel C. Veitch: Glycosides of tricetin methyl ethers as chemosystematic markers in Stachys subgenus Betonica. In: Phytochemistry . Volume 65, No. 9, 2004, pp. 1247-1253, doi: 10.1016 / j.phytochem . 2004.04.014 .
  • Andreas Kleinsteuber: Lamiaceae, Labiatae. In: Oskar Sebald, Siegmund Seybold, Georg Philippi, Arno Wörz (eds.): The fern and flowering plants of Baden-Württemberg . tape 5 : Special part (Spermatophyta, subclass Asteridae): Buddlejaceae to Caprifoliaceae . Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart (Hohenheim) 1996, ISBN 3-8001-3342-3 , 10. Betonica L. 1753 , p. 178-180 .
  • Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical studies in the genus Betonica L . Dissertation No. 10312, ETH Zurich 1993 page of the ETH library

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Anne-Cathrine Scheen, Mika Bendiksby, Olof Ryding, Cecilie Mathiesen, Victor A. Albert, Charlotte Lindqvist: Molecular phylogenetics, character evolution, and supAGENeric classification of Lamioideae (Lamiaceae). In: Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. Volume 97, No. 2, 2010, 191-217, doi: 10.3417 / 2007174 , online .
  2. ↑ a b Mika Bendiksby, Lisbeth Thorbek, Anne-Cathrine Scheen, Charlotte Lindqvist, Olof Ryding: An updated phylogeny and classification of Lamiaceae subfamily Lamioideae . In: Taxon. Volume 60, No. 2, 2011, pp. 471-484 (abstract) .
  3. ^ A b c Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 51.
  4. ^ A b Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 26.
  5. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 52.
  6. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 60.
  7. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 58.
  8. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 62.
  9. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical studies in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 66.
  10. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 68.
  11. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 64.
  12. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 70.
  13. ^ Matthias Baltisberger, Alex Widmer: Betonica. In: Karol Marhold (Ed.): IAPT / IOPB chromosome data 11. In: Taxon. Vol. 60, No. 4, pp. 1220, E3-E4 (on-line) .
  14. ↑ Matthias Baltisberger: Etudes biosystématiques du genre Betonica. Nombres chromosomiques. In: Biocosme Mésogéen. Vol. 6, No. 1-2, 1989, pp. 1-19.
  15. ↑ a b c d Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical studies in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 147.
  16. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 155.
  17. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 156.
  18. ↑ Marianne Jeker, Otto Sticher, İhsan Çaliş, Peter Rüedi: Allobetonicoside and 6-O-Acetylmioporoside: Two new iridoid glycosides from Betonica officinalis L. In: Helvetica Chimica Acta . Volume 72, No. 8, 1989, pp. 1787-1791, doi: 10.1002 / hlca.19890720814 .
  19. ^ A b Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 148.
  20. ^ A b Petar D. Marin, Renee J. Grayer, Slavica Grujic-Jovanovic, Geoffrey C. Kite, Nigel C. Veitch: Glycosides of tricetin methyl ethers as chemosystematic markers in Stachys subgenus Betonica. In: Phytochemistry. Volume 65, No. 9, 2004, pp. 1247-1253, doi: 10.1016 / j.phytochem . 2004.04.014 .
  21. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, pp. 150–151.
  22. ↑ Marianne Jeker: Taxonomic and phytochemical investigations in the genus Betonica L. 1993, p. 152.
  23. ↑ Alessandro Venditti, Armandodoriano Bianco, Marcello Nicoletti, Luana Quassinti, Massimo Bramucci, Giulio Lupidi, Luca Agostino Vitali, Dezemona Petrelli, Fabrizio Papa, Sauro Vittori, Domenico Lucarini, Laura Maleci Bini, Claudia Giuliani, Filippo Maggi biological evaluation : Phytochemical analysis, Filippo Maggi and micromorphological study of Stachys alopecuros (L.) Benth. subsp. divulsa (Ten.) Grande endemic to central Apennines, Italy. In: Fitoterapia . Volume 90, 2013, pp. 94-103 (here: p. 97), doi: 10.1016 / j.fitote.2013.06.015 .
  24. ↑ PW Ball: Stachys L. In: TG Tutin, VH Heywood, NA Burges, DM Moore, DH Valentine, SM Walters, DA Webb (eds.): Flora Europaea . Volume 3: Diapensiaceae to Myoporaceae . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1972, ISBN 0-521-08489-X , pp. 151–157 (English, limited preview in Google Book Search).
  25. ↑ Yasaman Salmaki, Shahin Zarre, Olof Ryding, Charlotte Lindqvist, Christian Bräuchler, Günther Heubl, Janet Barber, Mika Bendiksby: Molecular phylogeny of tribe Stachydeae (Lamiaceae subfamily Lamioideae). In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. Volume 69, No. 3, 2013, 535-551, doi: 10.1016 / j.ympev.2013.07.024 .
  26. ↑ Carl von Linné: Species Plantarum. Volume 2, Lars Salvius, Stockholm 1753, p. 573, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.biodiversitylibrary.org%2Fopenurl%3Fpid%3Dtitle%3A669%26volume%3D2%26issue%3D%26spage%3D573%26date%3D1753~GB%3D~ IA% 3D ~ MDZ% 3D% 0A ~ SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  27. ↑ Helmut Genaust: Etymological dictionary of botanical plant names . 3. completely revised and exp. Aufl. Nikol, Hamburg 2005, ISBN 3-937872-16-7 , pp. 99 (reprinted 1996).
  28. ^ Reba Bhattacharjee 1980: Taxonomic studies in Stachys: II - A new infrageeric classification of Stachys L. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. 38 (1): 65-96. See pages 68-69.
  29. ^ Reba Bhattacharjee 1980: Taxonomic studies in Stachys: II - A new infrageeric classification of Stachys L. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. 38 (1): 68-70.
  30. ^ Reba Bhattacharjee 1980: Taxonomic studies in Stachys: II - A new infrageeric classification of Stachys L. Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Volume 38, Issue 1, p. 74.
  31. ↑ a b c d e Xi-wen Li, Ian C. Hedge: Lamiaceae. In: Wu Zheng-yi, Peter H. Raven (Ed.): Flora of China . tape 17 : Verbenaceae through Solanaceae . Science Press / Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing / St. Louis 1994, ISBN 0-915279-24-X , Betonica , pp. 177 (English, online - PDF file ).
  32. ↑ a b c d e Marianne Jeker 1993: Taxonomic and phytochemical studies in the genus Betonica L. Dissertation ETH Zurich, No. 10312, Geobotanical Institute, Ernst Rübel Foundation (summary as PDF file) .
  33. ↑ Armen Tachtajyan 1987: Флора Арменӣӣ. Том 8, Verbenaceae-Lentibulariaceae, Akademii Nauk Armejanckoi CCP, Erevan. Pp. 101-104
  34. ↑ Flora of the USSRBK Shishkin (Edt.): Labiatae , Vol. 21, pp. 174-175. Komarov Botanical Institute, Akademiya Nauk SSSR. Original Soviet publication 1954, English translation from Russian by the Israel Program for Scientific Translation, Jerusalem 1977. [1]
  35. ↑ a b c Rafaël Govaerts, 2003: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families Database in ACCESS: 1-216203. The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Rafaël Govaerts (Ed.): Betonica. In: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP) - The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew . Retrieved April 24, 2020.
  36. ↑ Alexander N. Sennikov, Georgy A. Lazkov: Taxonomic corrections and new records in vascular plants of Kyrgyzstan, 2. In: Memoranda Societatis pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. Volume 89, 2013, pp. 129-135 (PDF file) .
  37. ^ Hermann Meusel, Eckehart Jäger, Stephan Rauschert, Erich Weinert: Comparative chorology of the Central European flora. Volume II (text volume), Gustav Fischer, Jena 1978, p. 105.
  38. ↑ Horvat, Glavač, Ellenberg 1974, p. 138.
  39. ↑ Michael Verhoeven: Stachys officinalis - A great medicinal plant of traditional European medicine. Their historical status and their current evaluation. Dissertation at the Julius-Maximilians University of Würzburg. Wuerzburg 2011.
  40. ↑ Verhoeven 2011, p. 63.
  41. ^ Antonius Musa: De herba Vettonica liber, Pseudoapulei Herbarius, Anonymi De taxone liber, Sexti Placiti Liber medicinae ex animalibus (= Corpus medicorum latinorum. Volume 4). Edited by E. Howald and HE Sigerist. Teubner, Leipzig / Berlin 1927, digitizedhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fcmg.bbaw.de%2Fepubl%2Fonline%2Fcml_04.html%3Fp%3D2~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ% 3D ~ double-sided% 3D ~ LT% 3D ~ PUR% 3D .
  42. ↑ Verhoeven 2011, p. 91.
  43. ↑ Lorenz Jäger: The cultivated useful plants of the fields and gardens of German museums. In: Writings of the association for the preservation of crop diversity. Volume 4, 2005, pp. 1–140 (here: pp. 16–17) PDF file .
  44. ↑ Gunter Krebs: The Hortulus of Walahfried Strabo von der Reichenau. (online) .
  45. ↑ Concrete in the monastery garden of the Museumshof Roßtal in an echo of Hortulus .
  46. ^ Richard G. Hawke: A comparative study of cultivated Stachys. In: Plant Evaluation Notes. Volume 27, 2005, pp. 1-4 (PDF file) .

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