European Nationalities Congress

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The European Nationalities Congress (ENK - English: Congress of European Nationalities ; French: Congrès européen de la nationalité ; Spanish: Congreso Europeo nacionalidad ) was a non-governmental organization that was founded in 1925 by representatives of national minorities in Europe and existed until 1938. During this time, annual meetings took place under the same name , at which delegates from up to 33 European countries gathered. The aim of the interest group was the protection and recognition under international law of ethnic minorities as legal subjects . The ENK had observer status with the League of Nations . Its headquarters and secretariat were initially in Geneva and were relocated to Vienna on April 1, 1927 .

The official successor organization is the Federal Union of European Nationalities , which today has a participating status at the Council of Europe and a consultative status at the United Nations .

Foundation and structure

Ewald Ammende at a Basque rally in Donostia-San Sebastián in 1933

The founding congress took place in Geneva on October 15 and 16, 1925 with 45 delegates from twelve European countries. The Slovenian- Italian Josip Wilfan was elected President and the Baltic German Ewald Ammende was elected General Secretary . Other members of the Presidium were temporarily the Hungarian-Czechoslovak Geza von Szüllö, the Zionist Jitzchak Gruenbaum , the Baltic German Paul Schiemann and Stanislaus Graf von Sierakowski from the Union of Poles in Germany . The ENK saw its main task in promoting the amicable coexistence of peoples and in maintaining peace. The founding statute stipulated:

“In the states of Europe, in whose borders other national ethnic groups also live, each national ethnic group should be entitled to maintain and develop its nationality in its own public corporations, depending on the particular circumstances, territorially or personally organized. In this right of self-government, the delegates see a way to smoothly shape the loyal cooperation of all, minorities and majorities, and to improve relations between the peoples of Europe. "

By 1926 alone, minority groups from 20 countries joined the association as permanent members, which represented the interests of 40 million members of national minorities in Europe. Until 1930, more than 200 representatives regularly took part in the annual congresses, including 74 German and 25 Jewish representatives. The next largest groups were the Catalans and the Ukrainians , each with 17 delegates, followed by the Hungarians (16), Russians (13), Poles (11) and Czechs (8). The remaining ethnic groups had between one and six delegates. However, in the plenary sessions of Congress, each national group had only one vote. Numerous foreign journalists always took part in the meetings. The congress reached its climax in 1929 with participants from 33 European countries.

From the beginning, Jewish organizations participated in the work of the Nationalities Congress. The Comité des Délégations Juives represented in the ENK explicitly understood members of Judaism as an ethnic group and fought for the recognition of the Jews as an independent nation. Mostly Polish and other Eastern European Jews took this view, British and French Jews largely rejected such national claims. The majority of German Jews did not see themselves as a national ethnic group, but as Germans at all times . Even in 1933, when the ENK publicly expressed its dismay at the treatment of Jews in Germany and suggested that German Jews see themselves as a national minority from now on, German Jews refused to demand appropriate minority rights.

In addition to lobbying for the League of Nations and in individual countries, the ENK financially supported newspapers and magazines for minority groups in various European countries. In addition, he developed memoranda on minority rights in the states in east-central, south-east and eastern Europe that were newly established after the First World War or, in some cases, greatly changed in their borders. This laid down the principle of cultural nationality law based on group autonomy. A great deal of energy was devoted to enshrining minority rights in the respective constitutions of the individual states. For example, the ENK was able to enforce the legal recognition of the Sabbath , the running of their own schools, or the possibility for Jews to work on Sundays for Jewish minorities in several countries . Estonia and Latvia were regarded as model states , which in their constitutions granted national minorities extensive linguistic and cultural autonomy. The German minority in Denmark was also able to record successes, of which Johannes Schmidt-Wodder was represented as a German MP for the Schleswig party in the Danish Folketing . Only the creation of the minority status and the associated recognition of cultural peculiarities represented progress for the ENK representatives.

To enforce minority rights, the Nationalities Congress had considerable financial resources at its disposal for a long time, which were raised from membership fees of the individual national minority associations. The minorities received no financial support from the “host countries”, but all the more from the respective national “mother countries”. As a result, some states that were not (yet) members of the League of Nations were able to influence the decisions of the League of Nations Council, which predominantly represented the interests of the peoples according to the nation-state principle .

Assimilation or denationalization

Several European governments tried to influence the ENK politically. For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Warsaw regularly prepared the congress participants of Polish minority groups carefully. Their tactics consisted of preventing all projects that were to be viewed as unfavorable for the Polish state, primarily on the question of the cultural autonomy of the German and Russian minorities. For example, Polish delegates contributed to the refusal of requests for situation discussions or the renaming of the ENK to “Association of National Minorities in Europe” as well as the submission of certain minority statistics.

There is evidence that such interference also took place on the part of the German, Czechoslovak and Soviet governments. As early as 1924, under Gustav Stresemann , Germany declared itself the protective power of the German minorities abroad. The Foreign Office tried to influence the ENK through the Association of German Minorities in Europe , but this was averted by 1932. The Association of German Minorities in Europe was renamed the Association of German Ethnic Groups in Europe in 1929 at the instigation of the Foreign Office . This association is to be distinguished from the association of national minorities in Germany , whose interests the ENK also represented.

In fact, from 1928 at the latest, the cultural and economic oppression of minorities increased extremely in many countries. Ewald Ammende declared in September 1931 on the VI. European Nationalities Congress that a distinction can be made between "three types of impairment":

  1. The consistently implemented and openly admitted denationalization, which aims to exterminate minorities or otherwise destroy them.
  2. The theoretical recognition of minority rights, which are formally expressed in several constitutions of European states, but are not actually implemented in practice.
  3. The complete negation of the existence of minorities.

According to ENK studies, each of the three types was represented in most countries. The ENK repeatedly cited Czechoslovakia (ČSR) as an example of the denationalization policy . This state, artificially created in 1918 by the victorious powers of World War I , was de facto a multiethnic state . Politically as well as denominationally, it represented a heterogeneous structure consisting only of minorities. In a census in 1922, the population was Czechs (37.3%), Sudeten Germans (23.4%), Slovaks (14.7%), Moravians (13.5%); Hungarians (5.6%), Ruthenians (3.5%), Poles (0.6%) as well as Romanians , Ukrainians and Jews were determined. The forced assimilation was in Czechoslovakia a state doctrine anchored in the constitution. In this way all ethnic groups were suppressed and subjected to a Czechoslovakism , without which there would have been no state nation in Czechoslovakia. A similar procedure took place, for example, in the newly formed SHS state and in Germany from 1936 onwards towards minorities such as the Sorbs , which the ENK also strongly condemned.

Education and campaigns

Initially, the ENK explicitly praised the Soviet Union for the model of Union republics enshrined in its constitution . It quickly became clear, however, that the peoples concerned were far from real autonomy . In Russia in particular, the Nationalities Congress increasingly found denationalization aimed at exterminating minorities or destroying them in some other way. As early as 1926, Otto Junghann named the Ukraine in a lecture manuscript as one of the most dangerous “hot spots for European minority conflicts”. The ENK representatives learned very early about the procedure and the extent of the famine in the Soviet Union in 1932/33, especially from members of the Ukraine. They also learned about the preparation and implementation of the Nasino deportations , but were careful with the naming of specific figures because, before the introduction of the domestic passports, even the Soviet government did not know the exact number of residents. From mid-1932 the ENK spoke of "systematic murder through hunger in Russia" and organized hunger aid. The congress tried with all means to bring the topic into the world public, but was massively obstructed by various governments.

Everyday life in Kharkov; Image from the Ammende collection in today's Innitzer archive in Vienna
Everyday life in Kharkov; Image from the Ammende collection in today's Innitzer archive in Vienna

The ENK used newspapers, publications and forums to draw attention to the "annihilation of peoples in the Soviet Union" and directly accused the USSR of "exterminating the cultural aspirations of all ethnic groups and peoples for ideological reasons". At that time, the Soviet government tried to join the League of Nations and actively tried to hide what was happening in Russia from the world community. Independently of this, several Western states were in favor of establishing diplomatic and economic relations with the Soviet Union at this point. The USA in particular tried to avoid negative reporting on Russia from mid-1932. With the diplomatic recognition of the Soviet Union, which previously annexed Outer Mongolia , the US violated the Briand-Kellogg Pact and its self-made Stimson doctrine . Other western countries such as France or Great Britain followed the USA and established diplomatic and economic relations with the USSR in early 1933. Against this background, several states viewed the publications of the European Nationalities Congress on the consequences of so-called starvation exports and those who died from starvation as agitation and propaganda.

Evidently, the ENK had been in contact with the American Friends Service Committee and other minority associations in the USA and Canada since 1931 in order to convince their representatives to found a global nationality congress. Between 1933 and 1936 Ewald Ammende tried on various trips to win other circles in North America for closer cooperation and aid measures for the Soviet Russian famine areas. This mainly brought him and the ENK into conflict with the US government. The Soviet government was well informed of the ENK's efforts through its moles . The GPU managed to prevent or discredit planned actions and publications in advance .

Among other things, the ENK had already acquired around 600 Leica recordings from Russian famine regions in 1932 and had secured the exploitation rights. However, it was not until 1935 that a publisher was found that was ready to publish some of the pictures. On behalf of the ENK, Ewald Ammende wrote the book Must Russia Hunger? The fate of people and nations in the Soviet Union. , which contained 22 partly shocking photos of starvation deaths. Only the Braumüller publishing house in Vienna was ready to publish the book. In fairness, Ammende informed the Austrian government before the print was approved. The head of the political department in the Foreign Office, Theodor Hornbostel , found the matter too sensitive. He feared "inconveniences with Soviet Russia" such as "repression against Austrian citizens in the USSR or trade barriers" - and pleaded for publication abroad. This is exactly what the ENK had already received in response from other governments.

In the meantime, however, Ewald Ammende, who was also the honorary managing director of the “Interdenominational and supranational aid organization of his Eminence the Cardinal Archbishop of Vienna”, had come into contact with Cardinal Theodor Innitzer , who advocated the publication. In November 1935, Braumüller-Verlag, which was very close to the Vatican at the time, published the book. An extremely positive review of the book in the Viennese daily newspaper Reichspost then ensured its distribution. In an official note to the Austrian Foreign Office, the Soviet embassy immediately criticized the fact that Vienna had “become a center of anti-Soviet propaganda” and called for “necessary measures” against the distribution of the book. However, it was too late for that, the book and the pictures were distributed throughout the German-speaking area and were presented in newspapers close to ENK throughout Europe. In 1936 it was published by George Allen & Unwin in English under the title: Human life in Russia - and later in several new editions by John T. Zubal Books in Cleveland (Ohio) .

In terms of content, the book is still highly controversial today because of its contemporary description of what is known as the Holodomor . Ammende presented the systematic extermination of various minorities in the Ukraine, such as the Poles, Hungarians, Romanians, Jews, Belarusians and Crimean Germans . Although Ewald Ammende was already aware of his negative attitude towards the National Socialists at the time of publication, the Soviet authorities insinuated that the ENK was the work of National Socialist propaganda. This representation was adopted by GDR historians, among others, in the post-war period and has found its way into contemporary literature. Some historians go so far as to describe the entire international campaign of the ENK on the starvation deaths as part of the anti-Comintern policy of the Nazi regime . Regardless of this, almost all of the images that are used in publications on the Holodomor today come from this book or the Ammende collection in today's Cardinal Innitzer Archive .

Five months after the book was published, Ewald Ammende died on April 15, 1936 under unexplained circumstances in Beijing , where he wanted to meet representatives of Jewish minorities from Waldheim (Jewish National Oblast Far East ). The only thing that is certain is that he died in the German Hospital in Beijing . Obituaries appeared in many European newspapers, in which the information about the cause of death ranged from murder, suicide, heart attack, stroke to sugar shock. After his death, his brother and his right-hand man, Erich Ammende, took over the management of the ENK for a short time as interim chargé d'affaires. He only survived his brother for seven months and died in Vienna, also under unexplained circumstances. The successor to the Ammende brothers and the last general secretary of the European Nationalities Congress was Baron Ferdinand von Uexküll-Güldenband (* 1890; † 1939). He continued the clarification of the incidents in Russia on behalf of the ENK with special works such as The question of nationalities in the Soviet Union or The death path of the Germans in the Soviet Union .

Decline and dissolution

The fact that the decline of the ENK can be traced back to the increasing influence of the German Foreign Office is viewed differently in recent research. Just as it is today, the German government subsidized the German minority associations abroad almost entirely and one hundred percent from tax revenues . It is undisputed that the German Empire and Austria-Hungary had to cede the largest areas after the First World War . As a result, around 1.1 million Germans found themselves within the borders of Poland, 3.3 million in Czechoslovakia, 250,000 in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, 477,000 in Hungary, 745,000 in Romania and 500,000 in Yugoslavia. In this respect, German minorities always represented the largest ethnic group to be represented from 1925 to 1937 with an average of one third of the total representation of the Congress, which from the beginning also raised the vast majority of the financial resources for the ENK.

In addition to the German and Soviet influence, the more recent historiography particularly judges Polish politics negatively at the forum of the Nationalities Congress. Since 1930 the Polish government has shown no further interest in the ENK. It even refrained from sending observers to Geneva and tried successfully to blow up the Congress from within. Thus began the struggle of many minority associations against loss of membership in their own ranks. On the one hand, the process of assimilation of several minorities like that of the Ruhr Poles became almost uncontrolled. On the other hand, many minorities emigrated to their “motherland” or other states for political or economic reasons. This affected Germans, Russians, and Jews living in Poland on a large scale. A third of the population in Poland was not Polish-speaking and from 1930 was exposed to an intensification of assimilation efforts aimed at a Polonization of the formerly Prussian areas in particular. Several hundred thousand people from the German minority in Poland had already emigrated to Germany by 1933, which in turn also led to the loss of members of the German minority associations in Poland. Following the example, a large part of the North Frisians or the Prussian-Lithuanians , among others, increasingly regarded themselves as Germans, or Alsatians and German-Lorrainers as French . Several Jewish organizations, especially in Poland, stayed away from the congress before 1933 and founded an independent association in 1936, the World Jewish Congress .

Previously, the ENK had given the Jewish associations significant support in the debate on the Bernheim petition in the League of Nations, which brought Ewald Ammende and Paul Schiemann, who are expressly known to the international minority organizations - not just the German - into disrepute among the National Socialists . Only a small group in the ENK behind Werner Hasselblatt was extremely close to the National Socialists; this group accepted the departure of Jewish delegates with approval. The majority of Congress officials supported Jewish members and hoped to prevent the break. Ultimately, the efforts were unsuccessful. To the XIII. European Nationalities Congress , which took place in London in mid-July 1937, only 30 representatives of national minorities from ten countries (Denmark, Estonia, Italy, Yugoslavia, Latvia, Austria, Poland, Romania, Spain, Czechoslovakia) attended. With the exception of Austria and Spain, most of these were representatives of German ethnic groups. The Presidium pointed out that "the minorities in almost all countries are economically severely disadvantaged, in the meantime politically disenfranchised almost everywhere and are exposed to an intensive policy of denationalization, and a policy of détente is urgently needed".

After the Évian conference and the looming outcome of the Sudeten crisis , the ENK representatives realized that their policy and "idea of ​​a Europe without conflict between nationality and ethnicity" had failed. The last congress took place in Stockholm in August 1938. After that, the delegates stopped their work. The last General of the European Congress of Nationalities, Baron Ferdinand von Uexküll-Güldenband, chose at the start of the Hitler-Stalin pact agreed forced displacement of minorities, of which he was involved as a Baltic German himself, on December 8, 1939 in Vienna suicide.

Minority newspapers (selection)

The ENK did not have a press organ. Although the delegates decided at the second nationality conference in Geneva in 1926 to publish a bulletin as a periodical in several languages, ultimately this could never be realized due to the high production and distribution costs. Previously, various national minority organizations published their own magazines for their ethnic groups. Fundamental minority issues, reports on the situation of the individual minorities, articles on minority movements, recommendations from books and magazines were published in it, some of them in academic form. The Nationalities Congress supported the editing of these publications editorially as well as partially and temporarily financially. The most famous newspapers that reflected the official standpoint of the ENK were:

  • Nation und Staat : Published in German as a 20-page booklet once a month from 1927 to 1944 in all European countries with German minorities; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Vienna, from 1933 Berlin; Editors: Jakob Bleyer , Paul Schiemann, Jacob Robinson , Johannes Schmidt-Wodder u. a., from 1933 Association of German Ethnic Groups in Europe , from 1942 Werner Hasselblatt
  • Glasul Minorităților ( The Voice of the Minorities ; La Voix des Minorités ): appeared from 1923 to 1942, first in Romanian, from 1925 in three languages ​​(one Romanian, French and German edition) as a 12-page magazine for minorities in the divided Banat ; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Lugoj ; Publisher: Jakabffy Elemér, later the Association of Magyars in Romania
  • Kulturwille (from 1926 Kulturwehr ): was published once a month from 1925 to 1939 as a 12-page magazine in two languages ​​with Polish and Danish articles for minorities in Germany; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Berlin; Publisher: Stanislaus Graf von Sierakowski, Jan Skala, from 1935 Association of National Minorities in Germany
  • Natio : appeared in four languages ​​(one Polish, German, French and English edition) once a month from 1927 for all minorities in Poland, was banned by the Polish government in spring 1929; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Warsaw; Editors: Michael Czerkowski (Ukrainian MP), Jitzchak Gruenbaum (Jewish MP), Erwin Hasbach (German MP), Fabian Jeremicz (Belarusian MP), Daniel Olseyko (Lithuanian MP) from the Association of National Minorities in Poland
  • Sprawy Narodowościowe (German: Affairs of the Nationalities): appeared in Polish as a multi-page booklet once in the quarter from 1927 to 1939 in all European countries with Polish minorities; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Warsaw; Editor: Stanisława J. Paprockiego from the Instytutu Badań Spraw Narodowościowych (German Institute for Research on Nationalities)
  • Bulletin du Comite des Delegations Juives (German announcement of the Jewish delegation committee): appeared in French as a multi-page booklet once in the quarter from 1919 to 1935, containing information on the legal situation of Jews in Central and Eastern European countries; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Paris; Publisher: Comité des Délégations Juives
  • Magyar Kisebbség : Published in Hungarian as a 12-page magazine twice a month from 1922 to 1942 for Hungarian minorities in Romania; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Lugoj ; Publisher: Jakabffy Elemér, later the Association of Magyars in Romania
  • Rigasche Rundschau : appeared as a German-language daily newspaper from 1894 to 1939; As the only leaf in the Baltic States survivedthe First World War; from 1919 best known newspaper of the German minority in Northern Europe; great importance also for neighboring countries; Distribution across Europe; often used as a source from abroad; Editorial and publishing headquarters: Riga ; Publisher: from 1919 Alfred Ruetz, Paul Schiemann, from 1933 Association of German Ethnic Groups in Europe

evaluation

The development of the ENK shows the general dilemma of the minority organizations, which on the one hand engage in legitimate lobbying, but at the same time can easily become tools of power interests. The assessments of the work of the ENK also differ widely: from the appreciation of the contribution to peace policy and international understanding to the condemnation of various governments as a purely revisionist instrument.

literature

  • Rudolf Michaelsen: The European Nationalities Congress 1925–1928: Construction, Crisis and Consolidation. Peter Lang, 1984.
  • Sabine Bamberger-Stemmann: The European Nationalities Congress 1925–1938. National minorities between lobbying and great power interests. Herder Institute (Marburg) 2001, ISBN 3-87969-290-4 .
  • John Hiden : European Nationalities Congress. In: Dan Diner (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture (EJGK). Volume 2: Co-Ha. Metzler, Stuttgart / Weimar 2012, ISBN 978-3-476-02502-9 , pp. 285-289.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Rudolf Michaelsen: The European Nationalities Congress 1925–1928: Construction, Crisis and Consolidation. Lang, 1984, p. 233.
  2. ^ Albert S. Kotowski: Poland's policy towards its German minority 1919-1939. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998, p. 185.
  3. ↑ Dan Diner: Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture: Volume 2: Co-Ha. Springer-Verlag, 2016, pp. 285–290.
  4. ↑ Dan Diner: Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture: Volume 2: Co-Ha. Springer-Verlag, 2016, pp. 285–290.
  5. ↑ Kerstin Armborst-Weihs: The Formation of the Jewish National Movement in Transnational Exchange: Zionism in Europe up to the First World War. Institute for European History, 2010, p. 4 f.
  6. ↑ Dan Diner: Synchronous Worlds: Periods of Jewish History. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005, p. 160 f.
  7. ^ Albert S. Kotowski: Poland's policy towards its German minority 1919-1939. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998, p. 190.
  8. ^ Natali Stegmann: Interpretations of war - founding states - social policy: The hero and victim discourse in Czechoslovakia 1918–1948. Walter de Gruyter, 2010, p. 203.
  9. ↑ Dan Diner: Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture: Volume 2: Co-Ha. Springer-Verlag, 2016, pp. 285–290.
  10. ^ Rolf Wörsdörfer: Hotspot Adria 1915–1955: Construction and articulation of the national in the Italian-Yugoslav border area. F. Schöningh, 2004, pp. 233-234.
  11. ↑ Christoph Boyer: National opponents or partners? Studies on the relations between Czechs and Germans in the economy of CSR (1918–1938). Walter de Gruyter, 1999, p. 22 f.
  12. ^ Constitution of Czechoslovakia, § 121/1920 Sb., Czech online: www.lexdata.cz  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ; German online: www.verfassungen.net .@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.lexdata.cz  
  13. ^ Kieran Williams: The Prague Spring and its aftermath. Czechoslovak politics. , Cambridge 1997, p. 223 f.
  14. ^ Jörg Requate, Martin Schulze Wessel: European public: transnational communication since the 18th century. Campus Verlag, 2002, p. 171.
  15. ^ Congress of European Nationalities: The nationalities in the states of Europe: Collection of camp reports of the European nationalities congress. W. Braumüller, 1932, p. 16 f.
  16. ↑ Ewald Ammende: Does Russia have to go hungry? The fate of people and nations in the Soviet Union. W. Braumüller, 1935, p. 50 f.
  17. ↑ Verena Moritz u. a .: opposite worlds. Aspects of Austro-Soviet Relations 1918–1938. Residenz Verlag, 2014, p. 353.
  18. ^ Claudia Breuer: The "Russian Section" in Riga: American diplomatic reporting on the Soviet Union, 1922–1933 / 40. Franz Steiner Verlag, 1995, p. 30 f.
  19. ↑ Ingo Schewiola: How the Second World War was made. Volume 1. LULU, 2010, p. 592. ISBN 3-00-029884-3
  20. ↑ Ian Kershaw : Hell Fall: Europe 1914 to 1949. DVA, 2016, p. 111.
  21. ↑ Ewald Ammende: Does Russia have to go hungry? The fate of people and nations in the Soviet Union. W. Braumüller, 1935, p. 22 f.
  22. ^ Jörg Requate, Martin Schulze Wessel: European public: transnational communication since the 18th century. Campus Verlag, 2002, p. 160.
  23. ^ German Foreign Institute: Deutschtum im Ausland, Volume 19. Series of publications by the German Foreign Institute , 1936, p. 355.
  24. ↑ Verena Moritz u. a .: opposite worlds. Aspects of Austro-Soviet Relations 1918–1938 . Residenz Verlag, 2014, p. 353.
  25. ↑ Must Russia go hungry ?, in: Reichspost, No. 334, December 3, 1935, p. 2.
  26. ^ Josef Vogl: Alexander Wienerberger - Photographer of the Holodomor. Documentation archive of Austrian resistance (ed.), 2010 yearbook, Feindbilder-Verlag, 2015, p. 264 f.
  27. ↑ Ewald Ammende: Human life in Russia . George Allen & Unwin Ltd. 1936, digital with pictures, Zubal edition: https://archive.org/details/HumanLifeInRussia
  28. ↑ Ewald Ammende: Does Russia have to go hungry? The fate of people and nations in the Soviet Union. W. Braumüller, 1935, p. 22 f.
  29. ↑ Sabine Bamberger-Stemmann: The European Nationalities Congress 1925 to 1938. Herder Institute, 2000, p. 42 f.
  30. ^ Josef Vogl: Alexander Wienerberger - Photographer of the Holodomor. Documentation archive of Austrian resistance (ed.), 2010 yearbook, Feindbilder-Verlag, 2015, p. 264 f.
  31. ↑ Sabine Bamberger-Stemmann: The European Nationalities Congress 1925 to 1938. Herder Institute, 2000, p. 347.
  32. ^ David J. Smith: The Baltic States and their region: new Europe or old? Editions Rodopi BV, 2005, p. 239 f.
  33. ^ Baltic Historical Commission (ed.): Entry on Uexküll-Güldenband, Ferdinand Wilhelm Frh. V .. In: BBLD - Baltic biographical lexicon digital
  34. ^ Ferdinand von Uexküll-Güldenband: The Soviet constitution and the nationalities. In: Nations and State, No. 10, 1935, pp. 628–633.
  35. ^ Ferdinand von Uexküll-Güldenband: The way of death of the Germans in the Soviet Union. In: Nations and State, No. 8, 1936, p. 632.
  36. ↑ BMI Lexicon Minorities  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Federal Ministry of the Interior, accessed on June 8, 2017.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.bmi.bund.de  
  37. ↑ Federal Agency for Civic Education , accessed on May 10, 2017.
  38. ↑ Österreichische Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut (Ed.): Österreichische Osthefte, Volume 45. Österreichisches Ost- und Südosteuropa-Institut, 2003, p. 566.
  39. ^ Albert S. Kotowski: Poland's policy towards its German minority 1919-1939. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 1998, p. 194.
  40. ↑ Tammo Luther: Volkstumsppolitik des Deutschen Reiches 1933–1938: the Germans abroad in the field of tension between traditionalists and National Socialists. Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004, p. 161.
  41. ↑ Tammo Luther: Volkstumsppolitik des Deutschen Reiches 1933–1938: the Germans abroad in the field of tension between traditionalists and National Socialists. Franz Steiner Verlag, 2004, p. 51.
  42. ↑ Dan Diner: Encyclopedia of Jewish History and Culture: Volume 2: Co-Ha. Springer-Verlag, 2016, pp. 285–290.
  43. ↑ Martin Ernst Pasemann: XIII. European Nationalities Congress in London . in: Zeitschrift für Politik, No. 27, October 10, 1937, pp. 515-518.
  44. ^ Rudolf Michaelsen: The European Nationalities Congress 1925–1928: Construction, Crisis and Consolidation. Lang, 1984, pp. 10-13.
  45. ↑ Jacob Robinson: The minority problem and its literature: critical introduction to the sources and the literature of the European nationality question of the post-war period, with special consideration of the protection of minorities under international law. Walter de Gruyter, 1928, pp. 18-22.
  46. ↑ Overview of selected periodicals (PDF, pp. 5–37) ( Memento of the original from October 28, 2017 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Univ. Heidelberg, accessed on May 27, 2017.  @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gs.uni-heidelberg.de