History of Peru

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The history of Peru encompasses the developments in the territory of the Republic of Peru from prehistory to the present.

Prehistory and early history

The pre-colonial history of the central Andean area at all (oriented at about the expansion of the Inca Empire and the Spanish viceroy realm Peru ) is traditionally as Altperu concerned (see. Ancient Egypt for the pre-Roman or pre-Islamic eras of Egypt).

Possibly as early as 40,000 BC. BC people immigrated from the Asian continent via the then dry Bering Strait and settled the American continent . Immigration to South America therefore took place around 20,000 to 10,000 BC. In any case, the cave paintings in the area around the city of Ayacucho and the Lauricocha caves at the source of the Rio Marañón , which were found in 1957, date from this period .

The oldest known monumental buildings of the Norte Chico culture date from around 3200 BC. Step-shaped pyramids, processional streets and huge enclosed courtyards were found in Sechín Bajo in the Casma Valley, 370 kilometers north of the capital Lima . The site, discovered in 1992, has been excavated by German archaeologists since 2003. What is certain is that the culture planted corn, peanuts, cassava and pumpkins and knew about artificial irrigation.

In excavation layers from around 1700 BC In addition, numerous incised drawings were found that depict a hybrid of caiman and human beings. Since French archaeologists found relics of a culture in eastern Ecuador that also represented the caiman and which dates back to 2450 BC. Chr., Cultural influences from the jungle area may have inspired the culture of Sechin. In any case, no caimans could live in the Andes , so the suspicion is that this culture originated from the lowlands on the eastern edge of the Andes.

Around 4000 BC The breeding of lamas began .

As far as we know today, the city ​​of Caral is the oldest city on the American continent. The step pyramid there was in 2001 to the year 2627 BC. Dated. Houses for at least 3000 people, amphitheaters and temples were found. Further finds prove that the population traded with the coastal and Amazon areas.

The culture of Chavín de Huántar existed around 800 BC. BC to 300 BC The motifs jaguar , puma , bird and snake used in Huántar art suggest a connection to the Olmec culture. The Paracas culture in the area around the capital, known for its mummies, falls within the same timeframe . However, it is unclear whether there really was a culture of its own in this area or whether the dead were brought in from far away because of the dry, conservative air.

Around Lake Titicaca existed from around 1500 BC. BC to AD 1200 the Tiahuanaco culture. It is not clear whether there actually was a Tiahuanaco empire. Traces of this culture can also be found in Bolivia and in northern Chile .

The Wari culture , which existed much later around the city of Ayacucho , is likely to be closely related .

The Nazca Lines

Around 200 BC BC to AD 600 there are traces of the so-called Nazca culture , which was named after the place Nazca , about 500 km south of Lima. The ambiguous Nazca Lines go back to them. This culture was also based on artificial irrigation, as indicated by numerous irrigation channels.

Between the 1st and the 8th century, the Mochica culture existed in the north , which practiced agriculture with sophisticated irrigation systems in the desert strip on the Pacific coast . Both ceramics and metalworking were highly developed. In addition to gold and silver , copper was also processed. There were several principalities that may have perished as a result of an El Niño event.

In the period from 1250 to 1470, the Chimús dominated the Andean region with the huge capital Chan Chan in the Trujillo area . Her skills in handicrafts were less developed. They placed more emphasis on the serial production of useful objects. They succeeded in supplying the growing population with huge irrigation systems.

Machu Picchu

The Chachapoyas lived on the eastern edge of the Andes from 800 to 1600 . Very little is known about them. The rock tombs that they left on high cliffs are famous. In the 16th century the Chachapoyas disappeared without a trace.

The best-known culture (approx. 1200–1532) is that of the Inca , whose military and organizational skills had created a huge empire . This empire was deeply divided when the Spaniards arrived - there was civil war between the Atahualpa brothers (based in Quito ) and Huáscar . Francisco Pizarro conquered the empire for Spain.

The following table lists the Peruvian cultural epochs as seen by a number of archaeologists based on the current state of knowledge.

epoch Period Cultures
Archaic time
Epoch i ??? - 9500 BC Chr. Oquendo , Red Zone (Central Coast)
Epoch II 9500-8000 BC Chr. Chivateros I , Lauricocha I
Epoch III 8000-6000 BC Chr. Arenal , Chivateros II , Lauricocha I , Playa Chira , Puyenca , Toquepala I
Epoch IV 6000-4200 BC Chr. Ambo , Canario , Siches , Lauricocha II , Luz , Toquepala II
Epoch v 4200-2500 BC Chr. Honda , Lauricocha III , Viscachani
Epoch VI 2500-1500 / 1800 BC Chr. Casavilca , culebras , Viscachani , Huaca Prieta
Ceramic time
Exit time 1800 / 1500–900 BC Chr. Early Chiripa, Kotosh , Toríl, Cumbe Mayo
Early horizon 900 BC Cr. – AD 200 Chavín , Cupisnique , Late Chiripa , Paracas , Pichiche , Sechura
Early interim 200–600 AD Moche , Nazca , Tiahuanaco , Pichiche , Sechura , Gorbanzai
Middle horizon AD 600–1000 Moche , Nazca , Wari , Tiahuanaco , Piura , Gorbanzai
Late in the meantime C 1000–1476 Wari , Chimú , Chincha , Cajamarca , Gorbanzai , Piura
Later horizon C 1476–1534 Cajamarca , Chancay , Chachapoya , Chincha , Chimor / Chiribaya , Chucuito , Huaman Huilca , Inka , Ilo , Qotu Qotu , Pacacocha , Palli Marca , Piura , Tajaraca

Colonial times

Pizarro's campaign of conquest 1531–1533

In April 1532, Francisco Pizarro landed on the Peruvian coast, took the Inca ruler Atahualpa prisoner ( Battle of Cajamarca ) and had him executed on July 26, 1533. On November 15, 1533, Pizarro reached the capital Cusco , which was handed over to him without significant resistance. He put Huáscar's younger brother , Manco Cápac II, as an Inca, who dared a narrowly failed uprising in 1536. Pizarro had conquered the Inca empire for the Spanish crown and King Charles I, also known as the German-Roman Emperor Charles V , could say of himself: "The sun never sets in my empire." Pizarro founded the today's capital Lima . After quarrels with his comrade in arms Almagro, whom he had executed in 1538, he was murdered on June 26, 1541 in his palace in Lima.

The Spaniards founded the Viceroyalty of Peru in 1542 with Lima as its capital, which, with the exception of Venezuela, comprised all Spanish possessions in South America. In 1570 the Inquisition was introduced. In 1572 the Spaniards took Vilcabamba , the last refuge of the Incas. The last Inca, Túpac Amaru , was captured and executed on September 24, 1572.

The following century was marked by the total decline of the Indians. Infectious diseases and forced labor reduced their number from an estimated 10 to 15 million to around 800,000. Because of the wealth of precious metals (especially the silver mines in the Department of Potosí ), the viceroyalty was of great importance to the Spanish crown. The trade was strictly regulated and was only allowed to take place via mainland Spain; The immigration of non-Spaniards was also only allowed in exceptional cases.

Lima was developed into a splendid city by the Spaniards and called the city ​​of kings . In the whole country 50,000 churches and 400 monasteries were built, which were given their own style through the participation of Indian stonemasons and artists. Due to the enormous demand for works of art, the Indians also had to be initiated into the secrets of brushes and palettes.

The area of ​​today's countries Ecuador, Colombia, Panama was separated from the viceroyalty of Peru in 1718 and constituted with Venezuela as the viceroyalty of New Granada. The new viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was established in 1776 on the territory of today's Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay .

In the 18th century there were also isolated Indian revolts in the Andean countries. In 1780 the Kazike José Gabriel Condorcanqui rose and by giving his name Tupac Amaru II, he expressly referred to the Inca tradition. In Alto Peru , today's Bolivia, an uprising broke out under Túpac Katari at the same time . La Paz was besieged for nine months before the uprising was put down. Another Indian uprising followed in 1814 and ended in bloody fashion.

Independence time

While independence movements began to develop in most of the countries of South America from 1809, the situation in Peru remained relatively stable. This was mainly due to the style of government of the viceroy, the Duke of la Concordia, José Fernando Abascal y Sousa , who was willing to make concessions with regard to a policy inspired by the French Revolution and a less strict connection with Spain. He introduced the Spanish Constitution of Cádiz from 1812 in Peru, but he was rigorous in the few uprisings that took place. Because Abascal, who ruled until 1816, was able to keep the revolt tendencies low in his viceroyalty, he had the opportunity to support the royalists in Ecuador and Upper Peru ("Upper Peru" was the contemporary name of today's Bolivia).

His successor Joaquín de la Pezuela , who ruled from mid-1816, had been promoted to office through his successes in Upper Peru against the Argentine aid expeditions, and even during his reign the willingness to rebel was comparatively low. An exception is the uprising in Cusco , which the former Indian interim president of the Royal Court of Justice in Lima, Mateo Pumacahua (1740-1815) instigated together with the Angulo brothers. The three resulting campaigns ultimately failed and the ringleaders were executed. De la Pezuela was able to start an expedition to recapture Chile in 1817, but it was unsuccessful because of the resistance of the republicans there.

The Chileans and Argentines in turn planned the liberation of Peru. After preliminary work by Thomas Alexander Lord Cochrane from 1819 onwards, José de San Martín led an expeditionary army to the Peruvian coast on the Scotsman's ships in 1820. The expedition from San Martín led to the liberation of the north of Peru and the central coastal strip with Lima. On July 21, 1821, some notables in Lima signed the Declaration of Independence ( Acta de Independencia del Perú ) written by Manuel Pérez de Tudela . A week later, on July 28, 1821, the government, military, clergy and society took the oath of the declaration of law in the Plaza Mayor , the main square of the city. The 28th of July is therefore the national holiday of Peru.

The central highlands and the south remained under Spanish control. The initial successes led to a coup against de la Pezuela, and José de la Serna e Hinojosa became the last Spanish viceroy in Peru. Because San Martín planned excellently, but did not use the resulting advantages consistently to defeat the Spaniards once and for all, he was forced to ask Simón Bolívar for support.

However, he refused to help at a meeting in Guayaquil, Ecuador in 1822 and San Martín went into exile in Europe. In early 1823, Bolívar sent Antonio José de Sucre with troops at the request of the Peruvian Congress and went to Peru in 1823 himself. He resolved the internal disputes of the Patriots of Peru and began his campaign as dictator president with full powers in mid-1824, which began with the Battle of Junín and the defeat of the northern division of the royal army in August, and with the Battle of Ayacucho in December with the whole of Spain Surrender ended.

19th century

In the period that followed, presidents were arbitrarily appointed and deposed. Rebellions and civil wars prevented the development of a modern state. Outwardly there were constant differences and wars with neighboring states. The Bolivian dictator Andrés Santa Cruz marched into Lima in the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation War in 1836 and united the two countries to form the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation . This union broke up when Santa Cruz was overthrown in 1839 in a conflict with Chile. Peru got into armed conflict with Spain in 1866. In the Saltpeter War (1879 to 1884) the country allied itself with Bolivia against Chile. After the defeat, Bolivia lost its access to the sea and the Atacama desert, which is rich in nitrate, and Peru lost the southern provinces ( Treaty of Ancón ).

The Electoral Act of 1896 granted the right to vote to all Peruvian men who were at least 21 years old, could read and write, and were paying higher taxes. In 1931 the census right to vote was abolished and at the same time compulsory voting was introduced. All men over 21, provided they could read and write, were now eligible to vote.

20th century

At the beginning of the 20th century , three groups faced each other: the military , the oligarchy and the Alianza Popular Revolucionaria Americana (APRA) founded in 1924 . The APRA was a mass movement that represented the interests of the lower social class (predominantly Indians) and tried to enforce them against the ruling upper class. She organized her followers outside of the political arena in professional associations and evening schools and created social institutions with her “people's houses”, with which she succeeded in anchoring her organization throughout the country. She wanted to overcome Latin America's dependence on the United States through social reforms and the creation of a middle class of its own. It was initially fought by the military, in 1932 President Cerro shot 1,000 APRA supporters near the city of Trujillo . Nevertheless, she tried to find supporters among the soldiers.

In the Peruvian-Ecuadorian War from 1941 to 1942, Peru conquered parts of the Amazon region . During World War II, Peru de facto allied itself with the United States, even though it maintained diplomatic relations with the Axis powers . During the war, Peru supplied the United States with raw materials, mainly saltpetre and copper, and received military and medical aid in return. Even before Peru declared war on the Axis Powers (February 13, 1945), the USA founded the Salinas military base in Peru.

After 1945, in addition to internal consolidation towards democracy, the main problem was economic dependence on the USA. The various coalitions and their policies watered down necessary reforms in order not to give cause for the opposition.

Women were eligible to vote in 1955 at the behest of General Manuel Apolinario Odría Amoretti , who had ruled as dictator since 1948. He and his wife Maria Delgado de Odría wanted to replicate the success of the Peróns, and women's suffrage was part of their strategy. Thus the active and passive right to vote for women was introduced on September 7, 1955. However, women who could not read and write, most of them Native American women, were excluded from the right to vote until the 1980s. Because of this, the turnout of women in the 1956 elections was significantly lower than that of men, and the general's plan resulted in an electoral defeat.

The attempt by the government of Fernando Belaúnde Terry (1963–1968) to nationalize American Standard Oil brought the government into opposition to the United States. After the beginnings of land reform, the United States cut development aid. In addition, Washington no longer sold weapons to Peru. Lima was able to compensate for this for the time being through purchases in France from Charles de Gaulle. When the US stopped economic aid and a bribery scandal in favor of the oil company IPC (part of the Exxon group ) was exposed, the military put on a coup against President Belaúnde Terry on October 3, 1968 and took power. The military junta under Juan Velasco Alvarado tried to establish a mixed economy system and wanted to save “national sovereignty and dignity”. The two most important laws of military government were:

  • the 1969 Agricultural Act, which nationalized large estates over 150 hectares in the coastal region and 55 hectares in the Andean region. The previous landowners were compensated, partly in cash, but to a greater extent in the form of government bonds with a term of up to 30 years. Cooperative organization, technical assistance and tiered credit should prevent production from falling during the transition period.
  • the industrial law of 1970, which prioritized the independent industrial development of Peru. Thereafter there were three areas, the state, the private and the cooperative industrial sector. Industrial companies that were founded entirely with foreign capital were to become at least 66 percent in Peruvian ownership after a while. For other companies with foreign capital, the value was 51 percent. In addition, every industrial company had to deduct around 10 percent of the amount from its annual net income and distribute this to the workforce in proportion to their personal basic wages.

The Petroperú company, which still exists today, was founded to nationalize the oil reserves . Foreign companies were also partially expropriated here, but financially compensated and, if they were willing to cooperate with state institutions, even encouraged to invest. The establishment of a basic industry was primarily taken into account by the state. Occupational health and safety was improved, with land reform radically changing the ownership structure in the countryside. The expropriated large estates under the Agricultural Act - around 6.7 million hectares - were transferred to cooperative ownership . Because the large estates in the highlands had often been stolen from the village communities, the cooperatives were not accepted there, but viewed as a continuation of the land grabbing. The military's goal was a “ third way ” between capitalism and communism. The school system was expanded and the indigenous heritage of Peru popularized. The aim was to develop a social consciousness based on mestizoism . In terms of foreign policy, Peru became involved in the non-aligned movement , which led to tensions with the United States. In 1975 Velasco was discontinued due to economic problems (falling fishmeal production for export and falling copper prices and thus increasing foreign debt). He was succeeded by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez , who took a more conservative political course.

In 1979 the military had a new constitution drafted, and the first free elections took place on May 18, 1980. Belaúnde Terry was reinstated as President of the Republic of Peru for five years on July 28, 1980. The nationalized companies, banks, newspapers and fishing operations were turned over into private hands.

From 1982, the left-wing guerrilla group Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) began a bloody war against state power with increasing activity. A state of emergency has been declared in the province of Ayacucho. The group took control of a quarter of the country. In remote regions of the mountainous country there were numerous massacres of the rural population. Both the guerrilla movement and the military punished the villagers' cooperation with the other opponent.

Between 1985 and 1990, President Alan García first tried to turn away from the neoliberal economic policies that his predecessor had pursued. The statutory minimum wage was raised, the import of finished goods restricted and that of capital goods made easier. After García announced that debt servicing would be limited to 10% of export earnings, the IMF and World Bank declared Peru no longer creditworthy. Inflation took on dramatic proportions and deprived poor people of all of their savings. In addition, there was extreme corruption caused by favoring APRA members. The Sendero Luminoso intensified its actions, García ultimately failed with his policy. Affected by corruption, the increasing threat posed by the Sendero Luminoso and the economic situation in the country, the population elected the unknown Alberto Fujimori as president in 1990. He managed to reduce inflation from 7,500% to 140% within two years and to implement numerous economic reforms. State enterprises were privatized again and favorable conditions for foreign investors were created.

On April 5, 1992, Fujimori dissolved after one approved by the military coup , the parliament and suspended the constitution suspended. He had a new, tailor-made constitution drawn up , which came into force on December 29, 1993. On April 9, 1995, Fujimori was re-elected President. His opponent was the former UN Secretary-General Javier Pérez de Cuéllar . Parliamentary elections took place on May 12 and June 3, 1995; Fujimori's "Cambio 90" party received an absolute majority (67 out of 120) of the Congress seats. On December 17, 1996, left-wing rebels of the Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru raided the residence of the Japanese ambassador in Lima and took 483 people hostage, of whom around 200 were released the same day. Elite units of the army stormed the residence on April 22, 1997 and freed 71 of the 72 remaining hostages.

Fujimori's re-election as president on April 9, 2000 sparked violent protests across the country because it was based on election rigging. There was also a bribery scandal involving Fujimori's security advisor Vladimiro Montesinos . Montesinos applied for political asylum in Panama on September 17, 2000, and Fujimori fled to Japan on November 13, 2000 . Valentín Paniagua , who set up a truth commission to investigate human rights violations committed from 1980 to 2000, was sworn in as interim president . An investigative commission of the Peruvian parliament found in a report of more than 12,000 pages, published on August 28, 2003, that Fujimori and Montesinos had covered Peru with a network of corrupt and criminal practices Counter-terrorism allegations of crimes against humanity .

21st century

In 2001, Montesinos was tracked down in Venezuela and, after initial hesitation, extradited to Peru, where he was wanted with an arrest warrant. In 2003 he was sentenced to 15 years in prison.

Alejandro Toledo won the presidential election on April 8, 2001 and became the first president of Native American origin on July 28. Toledo tried to uncover past violations of the law and set up independent courts. His popularity declined steadily during the second half of his tenure, not least because of numerous scandals and corruption cases. In May 2003, farmers and teachers went on strike and set up road blockades across the country. Toledo declared a state of emergency and ordered the army to restore order in the 12 regions of the country. Subsequently, the population's dissatisfaction with the president grew. In March 2002, a US president, George W. Bush, visited Peru for the first time. After a wave of strikes, Beatriz Merino became the first female prime minister of Peru on June 23, 2003. She was released by President Toledo on December 12, 2003. On January 1, 2005, the former Major Antauro Humala and a retinue of about 100 men attacked a police station in the city of Andahuaylas in the Apurímac region and took 10 police officers hostage. 4 people were killed in the process. The nationalist group Etnocaceristas led by Antauro Humala and his brother Ollanta Humala demanded the condemnation and death of the president. The Etnocaceristas refer with their name to the former President Andres Caceres , who, despite his defeat in the saltpeter war against Chile, offered strong resistance to the Chilean soldiers. The government sent military units to the affected area. On January 4, the insurgents laid down their arms and surrendered to the military. As a result, Interior Minister Javier Reátegui resigned.

On November 6, 2005, the former President Fujimori traveled to Chile. Chile executed an Interpol arrest warrant. After a legal tug of war, the Chilean Supreme Court ( Corte Suprema de Justicia ) approved Fujimori's extradition to Peru on September 10, 2006.

Elections were held in the spring of 2006 . Former President Alan García won the runoff election for president. In the 2011 elections , Ollanta Humala was elected President. In the 2016 elections, Pedro Pablo Kuczynski was elected President. He resigned on March 21, 2018, anticipating planned impeachment proceedings on corruption allegations. His successor in office was Martín Vizcarra . The COVID-19 pandemic has been affecting life in Peru since March 2020 . On November 9, 2020, Congressmen voted by a two-thirds majority to remove Vizcarra for corruption and "moral incapacity." The election of his successor on April 11, 2021 was narrowly won by Pedro Castillo .

literature

  • Iris Gareis: The Story of Others. On the ethno-history using the example of Peru (1532–1700) . Reimer, Berlin 2002, ISBN 3-496-02742-8 .
  • Ulrich Goedeking, Eleonore von Oertzen: Peru. (= Beck's series of countries). 3. Edition. Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-50457-4 .
  • Christine Hunefeldt: A Brief History of Peru . Checkmark Books, New York 2004, ISBN 0-8160-5794-X .
  • Catherine Julien: The Inca. History, culture, religion. 4th edition. CH Beck, Munich, 2007, ISBN 978-3-406-41875-4 .
  • Peter Flindell Klarén: Peru. Society and Nationhood in the Andes . Oxford University Press, Oxford 2000, ISBN 0-19-506927-7 ( review ).
  • Battle for the Inca city of Cuzco. Notes by an anonymous contemporary witness 1535–1539. translated, edited and introduced by Mario Koch. Trafo Verlag, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-89626-321-8 .
  • Doris Kurella: Cultures and Buildings of Ancient Peru. History in the backpack (= Kröner's pocket edition . Volume 505). Kröner, Stuttgart 2008, ISBN 978-3-520-50501-9 .
  • José Carlos Mariátegui : Revolution and Peruvian Reality. Selected Political Writings . isp, Frankfurt am Main 1986, ISBN 3-88332-104-4 .
  • John Alden Mason : Ancient Peru. A high Indian culture . Kindler, Zurich 1965.
  • Uwe Nettelbeck : At the river Pirú you met a man named Berú. Therefore the name. The Journey of Tupak Yupanki. In: The Republic . No. 41-47, September 26, 1979, pp. 9-439.
  • Berthold Riese : Machu Picchu. The mysterious city of the Inca . CH Beck, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-52117-7 .
  • Helaine Silverman: Andean Archeology . Blackwell Publishers, Malden 2004, ISBN 0-631-23400-4 .
  • Steve J. Stern (Ed.): Shining and Other Paths. War and society in Peru, 1980-1995 . Duke University Press, Durham 1998, ISBN 0-8223-2217-X .

Web links

Commons : History of Peru  - collection of images, videos and audio files

Remarks

  1. ↑ For example at: Helmut Schindler: The Norbert Mayrock Art Collection from Old Peru . Ed. State Museum of Ethnology, Munich. Munich 2000; Julia Kruse-Hübner: Old Peru. Cultures in the Inca Empire. Binder . Ed. Roman Museum Hildesheim. Hildesheim 1998; Judith Rickenbach: Sicán - a princely grave in old Peru . Exhibition cat. fd Museum Rietberg Zurich. Zurich 1997; Ancient Peru. Spinning - weaving - sacrificing . Ed. Lippe State Museum. Detmold 1992.
  2. ↑ This and the following according to Berthold Seewald: German researchers find huge pyramids in Peru. In: The world. October 19, 2006 and Peru: Oldest building in South America exposed.
  3. ↑ a b Fernando Tuesta Soldevilla: Peru. In: Dieter Nohlen (Ed.): Handbook of the election data of Latin America and the Caribbean (= political organization and representation in America. Volume 1). Leske + Budrich, Opladen 1993, ISBN 3-8100-1028-6 , pp. 651-677, p. 655.
  4. ↑ a b c d Jad Adams: Women and the Vote. A world history. Oxford University Press, Oxford 2014, ISBN 978-0-19-870684-7 , p. 329.
  5. ^ Mart Martin: The Almanac of Women and Minorities in World Politics. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado 2000, p. 303.
  6. ↑ David X. Noack: Allende was part of a larger movement. In: amerika21. January 25, 2011, accessed January 26, 2011 .
  7. ^ H. Schanze: The revolutionization of Latin America. Diesterweg Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1972, p. 133f.
  8. ^ Nytimes.com September 26, 2000: US Says Asylum in Panama Helped Avert a Coup in Peru
  9. ↑ BBC.com February 23, 2001: Peru Congress votes to charge Fujimori
  10. ↑ Comisión de la Verdad y Reconciliación: cverdad.org.pe
  11. ↑ a b Center for Justice and Accountability (cja.org): "I Governed From Hell, Not From the Palace"
  12. ↑ kas.de: George W. Bush in Lima