History of the forest in Central Europe

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The history of the forest in Central Europe is characterized by millennia of forest use , which had a profound effect on the forest stand and the ecological composition of the forests. The term Central Europe here refers to the area between the North Sea and the Alps and between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea.

The history of the forest begins as a botanical natural history , the research of which falls mainly into the field of paleobotany . With the settled settlement, the intensive use of the forest by humans begins, with which the historical and cultural studies deal. The sedentary farmers of the ceramic band culture began to change the forest around 7,500 years ago.

Today's landscape element "forest" in Central Europe is a cultural landscape that has been created over thousands of years and is based almost exclusively on substitute societies . The original natural state and degree of human influence ( hemerobia ) are difficult to assess. Today's forest communities in Central Europe are mostly commercial forests in which the tree species beech and oak , spruce and pine dominate. These forests, which are characterized by the use of individual tree species, were created either as artificially created forests or through more or less strong human intervention. “Forest close to nature” is the exception.

In Central Europe, primeval forests are the few remaining stands that are not used for forestry and have not been used in historical times. Even with these primeval forests in Europe , certain human influences, for example through forest pastures , cannot be completely ruled out. The composition and development of the former Central European primeval forests must therefore be reconstructed from these relics. Tests on forest areas after abandoning their use and comparisons with real primeval forests in climatically comparable regions, especially the Hyrkanian Forest on the Caspian Sea, can contribute to this research.

Effects of the cold ages

In the Pliocene extreme climate fluctuations began four million years ago. In the Pleistocene , these fluctuations culminated in several extended cold ages that ended in Central Europe around 12,000 years ago. (For details see also the last glacial period and climatic history .)

During the cold ages, the average temperature in Central Europe fell by up to 12 ° C. The snow line sank in the Alps by 1200 to 1400 m. Only a relatively narrow, ice-free belt remained between the Alpine glaciers and the inland ice from Scandinavia with a thickness of up to 3000 m.

Central Europe was free of forests at that time, with the exception of local forest steppes and tundra made of frost-hard birch and pine trees . According to their key species, the silver arum ( Dryas octopetala ), the so-called Dryas flora is spoken of.

Extinction

In contrast to the North American continent with mountain ranges in north-south direction, in Europe the mountain ranges running in east-west direction blocked the retreat of the forest communities that gave way to the ice masses. This barrier led to the extinction of a number of species in Europe.

In the early ice ages, horse chestnut ( Aesculum hippocastanum ) and sweetgum ( Liquidambar ) disappeared . The next ice ages led to the extinction of sequoia ( sequoia ), umbrella fir ( Cryptomeria ), tree of life ( thuja ), tulip tree ( liriodendron ) and Douglas fir ( Pseudotsuga ). Hemlock ( Tsuga ) and Hickory ( Carya ) died out in Central Europe during the last ice ages.

Of the numerous oak species in Germany and Central Europe, only three were able to return from the refuge areas, namely stem oak ( Quercus robur ), sessile oak ( Q. petraea ) and downy oak ( Q. pubescens ). For comparison: There are over 80 species of oak in North America. Other species lost considerable intraspecific genetic diversity during their return migration. B. the silver fir ( Abies alba ).

Refuges

The forest flora was slowly pushed back by the climatic change. The refuges of the last Ice Age were probably not only located in southern Europe. Even on today's Atlantic coast between England and France, a few tree species in forest steppes could have survived the cold spell.

Another possibility of retreat was the east and southeast of Europe. In contrast to Scandinavia, large parts of Russia and the Carpathian Mountains remained ice-free. Some species were able to survive here as well. The classic retreat, however, remained the Mediterranean area, where the Mediterranean ensured a more balanced climate and the rugged mountain ranges sealed off various remaining populations.

Return migration

In the interglacials, there was a repopulation by the non-extinct tree species. These return migrations took place individually for each tree species. Determining the speed with which the tree species opened up the vacated area were z. B. seed distribution type, flower holder, frost hardiness and ability to absorb nutrients. The picture of these migrations can be reconstructed with the help of pollen analysis . Initially, rapidly migratory pioneer trees such as B. birch and pine. They were then followed by the warmth-loving species such as B. oak and elm. Then came the slower migratory woody species, which can develop into a climax society (see mosaic cycle concept ). With the end of the warm period and renewed cooling, the species then withdrew to their refuge areas or became extinct.

The most recent post-glacial period - re-migration of tree species

In the youngest section of the Quaternary , the Holocene or postglacial , the forests began to migrate back into the treeless, postglacial steppes around 12,000 years ago. How this return migration took place was largely clarified by means of the pollen analysis . For Central Europe, ten phases are usually identified (according to Firbas ), which are called pollen zones and are numbered in Roman numerals in the Blytt-Sernander sequence . In more recent studies, more and more people are specifying their own pollen zones in order to better address local conditions. The process of reforestation is by and large quite uniform, but there are some regional differences due to local conditions, which are not discussed in detail here. Due to the migration speed (with the beech approx. 260 meters / year) there is a temporal shift of the phases from south to north.

Late Arctic Period, Alleröd and Younger Dryas

This covers the pollen zones I to III (approx. 12,400 to 9,500 BC ) and corresponds roughly to the period of the late Paleolithic . Various types of willow ( Salix ) were pioneers in the early post-ice age ( Holocene ) , but also birch ( Betula ) and pine ( Pinus ) species regained a foothold in Central Europe. Short-term temperature fluctuations at the end of this phase stopped further penetration of the forest.

Preheat time (preboreal) and early heat time (boreal)

In the preheating period, corresponding to the beginning of the Mesolithic, birch and pine were the dominant species. From this time on there were no more cold setbacks. The hazel ( Corylus ) spread rapidly and found favorable growing conditions under the sparse pine stands.

Mean warm time (Atlantic)

At the end of the Middle Stone Age , the average temperatures rose noticeably. The Atlantic began in terms of vegetation . The previous tree species were mainly replaced by oaks ( Quercus ) and elms ( Ulmus ). These were mostly more demanding in terms of nutrient supply and warmth. In particular, the less shade-resistant pine was pushed to poorer sandy locations and bogs. The oak, together with elm and linden, now formed the predominant stands in Central Europe, the mixed oak forest.

During this time, humans transitioned to the sedentary way of life of the Neolithic . Even the large ceramic band houses showed a high demand for wood from the still small and few local companies. By the early Neolithic at the latest , the forest in the foothills of the Alps was specifically geared towards the production of poles.

During the Neolithic Age, other warmth-loving deciduous trees migrated back to Central Europe from their refuges in southern Europe. Maples ( Acer ) and ash trees ( Fraxinus ) enriched the existing stocks. The average temperatures were now 2-3 ° C higher than today. The downy oak ( Quercus pubescens ) reached Germany again. Alder fragments ( Alnus glutinosa ) developed in the swampy lowlands and spruce trees ( Picea abies ) reached the Harz.

Late warm period (subboreal)

In the late warm season there was a cooling and the climate became more humid. For the first time since the last ice age , common beech ( Fagus sylvatica ), hornbeam ( Carpinus betulus ) and silver fir ( Abies alba ) were detectable again.

During the Bronze Age , the average temperature continued to drop. Beeches penetrated the previously oak-dominated stocks. In the Iron Age from 1000 BC In BC the beech replaced the oak in almost all locations. Favored by the humid, oceanic climate in Central Europe and its ability to occupy appropriate habitat even in old age, the beech (high plasticity of the crown) became the dominant tree species. On the drier locations (precipitation <500 mm / a) in the east, the hornbeam took on this role.

In the low mountain ranges, the mixed mountain forest developed through the penetration of the beech. The extremely shade-tolerant fir also managed to gain a foothold in these forests and prevailed over spruces and beeches in some locations. Potentially natural vegetation appeared at this time , but humans were already spread out in Central Europe at this time and large herds of herbivores roamed around.

Post-warming period (subatlantic)

Due to the decreasing average temperature, some areas of distribution were divided, e.g. B. the downy oak. Now the influence of sedentary human forms of settlement became increasingly noticeable.

The forests in Germania

The first more intensive forest use can be seen in Celtic times with the spread of agriculture and metal smelting. This increased further in the Roman-Germanic period, especially in the more densely populated southwestern parts.

Forest in the free Germania

Publius Cornelius Tacitus described free Germania ( Germania magna ) in the 1st century as "terra aut silvis horrida aut paludibus foeda" - a land covered by terrible forests or hideous swamps. At that time, Tacitus' Mediterranean homeland had been cleared for centuries of cultural landscape, the forest for fields, orchards, cities, for wood supplies for house fires and fleet construction. A country whose area was probably 70% covered with forest and climatically resistant, obviously impressed Roman observers. This is expressed in the name. Mountain ranges like the Black Forest were called Silva Abnoba , not Mons Abnoba . It can be assumed that at this time impassable low mountain ranges were largely spared from human influence. But also in the plains there were still large, contiguous forest areas. These were mainly found between the settlement areas of the Germanic tribes and were respected for mutual delimitation. Riverside floodplain areas and forests on rich soils were considered as settlement areas . Interventions first took place through the direct construction of settlements; it was then cleared for arable farming and pasture land. Removal of wood for firing led to further thinning of the natural stocks around the settlement areas. Different forms of use such as forest pasture favored mast-bearing tree species such as oak ( Quercus ) and beech ( Fagus ). In the vicinity of ore mining areas, beech stocks were probably felled on a large scale, as fire from beech charcoal was necessary to process the metal.

Fixed cities and villages were rather a rarity in free Germania. Settlements were abandoned after a while and succession fell. Here a natural, non-natural, vegetation could develop again.

Forest in the Roman occupied Germania

The forest in the Roman occupied Germania (provinces Germania Superior and Inferior ) was used far more intensively than in the unoccupied part. Corresponding amounts of wood were already required for urban development (e.g. Mainz, Trier, Cologne, Xanten). For the house fire and the operation of the baths with their elaborate underfloor heating and hot water basins, large amounts of wood had to be provided steadily. After the conquest of Germania failed (defeat of Varus in 9 AD), the Romans switched to a defensive strategy. Again, large quantities of wood were needed. With the construction of the more than 500 km long Limes , which was more of a wooden wall than a stone wall, a wide swath from the Rhine to the Danube was cut into the forests and wood was required for building palisades and towers. The Roman designers made sure to follow the shape of the terrain as closely as possible and to include fertile soil with the Limes. The fertile Wetterau opposite Mainz was located within the Limes, but the poor Keuperböden south of the Odenwald was outside of it. The beech and oak communities that faltered on the nutrient-rich soils mostly had to give way to agriculture and grazing. Grass and dwarf shrub heaths emerged on some locations and have survived to our times. The Romans also stayed away from the plains with their unpredictable rivers. The alder ( Alnus glutinosa ) far from the river , however, were often converted into pastureland.

The Romans also avoided closed coniferous forests for their settlements, at best mixed forest areas were still attractive to them. However, they valued softwood, especially that of the silver fir ( Abies alba ), for construction and shipbuilding. Fir wood was felled in all accessible locations and also transported over long distances ( Trift ). This disintegrated the natural mountain forest in parts of the Alps, the Black Forest and the Vosges.

The Romans brought familiar tree species with them from the Mediterranean region to Germania, such as the sweet chestnut ( Castanea sativa ) and walnut ( Juglans regia ). These species became extinct in Northern Europe during the Ice Age. The trees were valued for their fruits and their wood. In addition, the durable, tannin-rich wood of the sweet chestnut was used in viticulture.

The Roman colonization was a radical intervention in the forest communities of Central Europe. There remained forest-free zones that no longer recovered from grazing, the species structure in many forest communities was disturbed by selective use and introduced species became part of the vegetation.

Phase of the Great Migration

The Romans gradually gave in to the ever increasing pressure of the Germanic tribes. First the settlements on the right bank of the Rhine were given up after the defeat of the Varus. Since the 2nd century, some peoples have already crossed the border (Marcomanni, Lombards). In the 4th and 5th centuries the Germanic peoples conquered the last remnants of the Limes. Pollen analyzes from this period show that arable farming came to a standstill in large parts. Abandoned Roman forts and manors became woodland again. The way of settlement in the formerly occupied part changed. Permanent settlements were given up in favor of semi-settled settlement forms. When the forest and soil around a settlement were exhausted, the residents moved on.

With the turmoil of the Migration Period, the forest in Central Europe expanded again. The forest was often able to gain a foothold again on the cultivated areas of the Roman colonization. With the decreasing settlement density, a succession of forest communities began again in many areas, which had been strongly influenced by the economic activity of the Roman settlers. The pollen analyzes from this time also show that the beech ( Fagus sylvatica ) spread again strongly. On the one hand in the areas abandoned by the Romans, on the other hand along the Pomeranian Baltic Sea coast and to southern Sweden.

middle Ages

Clearing

At the end of the migration period, the settlement area increased again. Solid structures soon emerged, especially on soils suitable for arable farming. After the expansion of the forest during the migration of peoples, extensive clearing followed in the early and high Middle Ages . They served on the one hand to develop new settlement areas and on the other hand to extract construction and firewood. This period has shaped the landscapes of large parts of Central Europe to this day.

A first major phase of clearing lasted from around 500 to around 800. At the time of the Carolingians , the areas already opened up by the Romans were repopulated. After that, easily accessible and nutrient-rich soils were populated. After the year 800 the settlement and clearing of the forests in Central Europe stopped. Due to the spread of epidemics and the invasion of foreign peoples (in the north the raids of the Normans , in the south the Hungarian invasions ) the population did not increase significantly.

The high mountain ranges remained deserted in this early phase. The first permanent settlements can be found in the Black Forest z. B. can only be proven from around 1000, even the Harz was criss-crossed by difficult to walk paths at that time. However, alluvial forests near the stream (e.g. on the Rhine) were also preserved due to the unpredictability of the rivers. The parts of the floodplain remote from the river, however, were used.

The second major clearing period began in 1100. Human settlements now penetrated into the more remote valleys of the low mountain range. Forest areas were cleared by 1300 or used so intensively for agriculture that they lost their forest character. At the end of the 14th century, a relationship between cultivated and forest area had developed that roughly corresponds to that of today.

Forest use in the Middle Ages

Forest pasture

Juniper in the Lüneburg Heath

Forest pasture is an early historical agricultural form of forest use. The cattle were driven to pasture in the forest. Depending on the intensity of use, the forest thinned or died. Trees that are not eaten with pleasure, such as juniper , spread. In many places, park-like landscapes and juniper heaths were created in the Middle Ages and into modern times. These growing communities later declined due to reforestation or intensification of agricultural use in the stock.

In addition to pigs, large cattle (cattle, horses) were also regularly driven into the forest, with clearly negative consequences for forest communities. In contrast to pig fattening, where the forest character was retained, the forest was destroyed by the browsing and kicking of large domestic animals. "Overgrazed" forests quickly turned to scrub.

The driving in of sheep and goats also had a particularly fatal effect. Goats can also destroy older trees through their climbing abilities, so their driving was already forbidden in early forest regulations. The ban was often ignored because goats and sheep, as domestic animals, contributed to the livelihood of the poorer population.

Zeidelweide

Beekeeping represented an outstanding use of the forest in the Middle Ages, as honey was the only sweetener for food until the 19th century. Moreover, that was beeswax for making candles appreciated for the lighting of churches. Beekeeping rights were accordingly high. This use is mentioned, for example, in the Nuremberg Reichswald . The existence of Zeidler businesses ensured the protection of the forest. In particular tree species such as linden, white willow, fir, but also pine were favored by this economic form. The part of the forest in which the bees were bred is also known as Zeidelweide.

Forestry

Forest cultivation developed in different regions from the 11th century. This type of economy was established after the better soils had already been developed for agriculture. A large number of variants emerged for this type of intermediate agricultural use , which is also reflected in the name. Hackwald, Hauberge, Reutberge, Birkenberge and Schiffelland are the most common names. The importance of this form of economy increased in the pre-industrial period. It was continuously refined and formed a sophisticated system of secondary forest uses (Lohrinde), firewood and arable farming. The stock was first cleared by slash and burn or felling. After cultivating the soil with a hoe or plow, rye, buckwheat or wheat was sown . Most of the time, the floors were empty after a year. Pasture was then used until trees from canes or seeds grew up again. This type of economy had a significant impact on the tree species composition.

Resin usage

This form of use is one of the oldest forest industries. Conifers are suitable, with spruce and pine being preferred. This form of forest use was also associated with considerable destruction. Loss of growth and weakening of the vitality of entire stocks were the result. For this reason, resin extraction was only allowed early on in those stocks that were not easy to harvest, i.e. that were located far from the river. However, since resin was a popular raw material, the ban was ignored everywhere.

Firewood and ash distillery

Even today, wood is still one of the most important sources of energy for humans. In Central Europe, it was replaced by coal during the 19th century. In the medieval use of firewood, two types can be distinguished - close to settlements (especially firewood for house heating) and remote from settlements. A number of pre-industrial productions required wood fires as an energy source or raw material, namely charcoal burning, glassworks, salt works and mines along with the associated hammer mills. In some cases the wood was simply burned by ash burners in order to obtain potash , the only source of potassium for medieval trades.

The charcoal-burning operation was carried out in all forests, whereby more attention was paid to fire protection in the forests closer to settlement and only inferior wood was used. However, these restrictions did not apply to forests that were remote from settlement. Mostly, charcoal burning followed small rivers and streams that were used to transport the coal. In the Middle Ages, earth piles were used exclusively for production.

Glass was very much appreciated in the Middle Ages and was accordingly valuable. At Forest glassworks small settlements were often tied, in which the families of the glassblowers lived. Glassworks were characterized by a particularly large consumption of wood and are often referred to as a "wood-eating trade" in contemporary reports. Glassworks also required charcoal burners and ash burners, which supplied important raw materials for glass production. 90% of the wood used was required for potash , the most important raw material in glass production, and the remaining 10% for the actual glass melt.

In the late Middle Ages, most of the salt deposits became the property of the sovereigns. This started an unrestrained dismantling of this important asset. Large amounts of wood were required for this mining, both for the construction of the tunnels and for the brewing pans of the salt pans . The latter consumed the greater proportion of wood. The example of the city of Lüneburg shows how devastating the extraction of salt was for some landscapes . Surrounded by dense forests before the salt was found, all the forests were cleared in the course of the salt extraction. What remained was a landscape that was utterly destroyed by further land use ( plague management ).

The mining presupposed three natural features; Firstly , of course, the occurrence of ores , secondly large forests from which pit wood and wood for coal production could be obtained, and thirdly, water power had to be available in the form of streams and rivers. The smelting took place near the mining site. Mining for the Harz is mentioned as early as the 10th century. Since mining required large quantities of wood, thought was given early on about regulated use. As early as the end of the Middle Ages, the first estimates of forests for mining use took place. Forests in mining areas enjoyed a special status. Their primary use for ore was determined early on.

Timber and rafting

Timber and construction timber was imported from various parts of Europe early on. Popular woods such as oak and conifers have been documented and floated across rivers and the Baltic Sea since the 13th century . The yew tree had a special position and was very popular with weapon manufacturers because of its excellent properties (flexural strength). Whole stands of yew trees were cleared in Austria for the production of bows (English long bows ) . The wagoners hated the tree species because their draft animals died from eating the fruit. They systematically fought the yew along the transport routes. Overuse and systematic control mean that yew trees only occur in bush-shaped phenotypes today.

Consequences of overexploitation

Many closed forest communities were destroyed to a considerable extent, primarily through the use of firewood. Even the most remote forest areas were used. What remained was a landscape whose disturbances are still recognizable today, for example in the bare ridges, heathland and the distribution of tree species in the Central European forests. In addition, due to the disappearing and non-regenerating forests, the (also agricultural) soil was eroded , whereupon fields and settlements had to be abandoned. Supply crises were the result, especially in times of war.

In view of the devastating consequences of overexploitation of the forest, the sovereigns issued official usage regulations. One example is the Hohenloh Forestry Regulations from 1579.

Modern times

Early modern age

During the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) the population of Central Europe was decimated in the long term (in large parts of Germany the population of 1600 was only reached again after 200 years). As a result, the forests recovered. Even abandoned areas that were previously used for agriculture were forested.

On the other hand, large quantities of firewood were always required in private households and in early industrial production, for example in the manufacture of glass , in tannery or in mining for excavation (supporting the tunnels against collapse). A wood shortage was regularly complained about or feared from the 16th century until the early 19th century. In the Black Forest , huge amounts of wood were tied into rafts and exported to the Netherlands, where the wood was used for shipbuilding . Due to the feudal structures in the Middle Ages, the ownership structure was often unclear for centuries, which contributed to the overexploitation.

In the period between 1750 and 1850 the forest was in the worst condition. Around 1800 there were hardly any closed forests left in Germany (see deforestation ). Contemporary depictions sometimes speak of desert-like landscapes. At times wood was so scarce that fence posts, stairs and other wooden objects were burned in winter.

19th and 20th centuries

In order to avert an impending wood shortage , the devastated forests and bare areas were reforested with the common spruce on the better soils and on the poorer soils with the Scots pine from the middle of the 19th century as part of sustainable forestry . These two robust tree species cope better with the difficult ecological conditions on clear-cut areas than frost-sensitive tree species such as red beech and silver fir and also deliver high wood yields. From this time, sometimes even earlier, the state forest administrations in Central Europe were established, which were supposed to ensure the orderly use of wood.

Due to increasing industrialization and the construction of the railways in the second half of the 19th century, coal replaced firewood as the main source of energy for households and industrial and commercial operations. This made for a significant relief of the forests. In addition, the development of mineral fertilizers and the increasing use of straw as litter pushed back the use of litter in the forests, which allowed the depleted forest soils to slowly recover.

During and after the two world wars , war destruction, reparation blows and the need for wood for the reconstruction resulted in large bare areas, on which pure stands of spruce and pine were again established.

In the 1980s, forest death related to air pollutants became a new problem for the forests of Central Europe. Contrary to the debate at the time, however, a strong increase in the forest in Central Europe was ascertained into the 21st century. The years around the turn of the millennium were primarily characterized by the dominant damage caused by the bark beetle on spruce trees after the severe storms of the era ( Vivian and Wiebke  1990, Lothar 1999 , then Kyrill 2007 , Paula and Emma 2008 ). At the end of the 2010s, the debate about forest dieback flared up again, now in the context of climate change .

At the same time, the idea of ​​environmental protection developed towards more diverse, more resistant forests, in particular a conversion of the forest to more hardwood and mixed forest . In the Natura 2000 program of the EU in particular , numerous near-natural forest ecosystems are listed as worthy of protection. The UNESCO World Heritage of Old Beech Forests of Europe , in particular the Carpathian Mountains , which has been gradually expanded since 2007, also falls into this context, as the overexploitation of the new EU members in Eastern and Southeastern Europe has now increasingly become the focus of public attention.

Todays situation

Age group forest in the fog

For the current ownership structure see private forest , state forest and corporate forest .

Forms of forest use

Today forest management predominates by far . For ecological reasons, forest conversion is often required: away from monocultures, towards stable mixed forests .

Hunting is the most original form of forest use. Hunting tenants pay fees to the landowners in whose forests they hunt. The main game species that can be hunted include the roe deer and other deer species , wild boar , red fox, and some smaller mammals. Forests that were previously reserved for manorial hunts ( wild forest ) have partly survived in a relatively pristine state. Hunting especially of deer is necessary because of the lack of large predators. Without human intervention, the selective ingestion of food by the deer would lead to a segregation of the plant species, which already threaten some herbaceous species. Even the spruce often has problems rejuvenating itself, although it is not bitten much.

Protective forests are forests in which economic use takes a back seat. The protection relates to the location (such as unstable soils), to objects (avalanche protection of settlements) as well as to biotope protection and other ecological aspects. The protective function of the forest is now the third major component in addition to forest and hunting use.

In addition, the forest has also been gaining importance as a recreational area (social function of the forest) since the 20th century .

Forest forms

Today the high forest dominates by far . If a forest is rejuvenated in regular cycles and the trees in a stand are of the same age, one speaks of age group forest (in Germany approx. 90% of the forest area). In the plenter forest , old and young trees stand side by side (irregular regeneration).

Niederwald and Mittelwald used to be important forms of silviculture . In Germany they only play a minor role (approx. 1% of the forest area).

Forest-wild conflict

Wise area for assessing the influence of wildlife on natural regeneration - note the lack of regeneration outside the fence

Too high game densities of herbivores , especially ungulates , can browsing a target of environmental and economic aspects of the forest natural regeneration impede or prevent. By giving preference to certain tree species, selective browsing can displace mixed tree species from the stand and thus reduce tree species diversity. Planted forest crops that are not protected by individual tree protection or fences are also affected. Peeling damage can endanger older forest stands that have already outgrown the browsing for decades and, in the event of damage, destabilize and economically devalue.

The German Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN) summarizes in a press release the main results of an expert opinion on forest and wildlife, commissioned jointly with the German Forestry Council (DFWR) and the Working Group on Natural Forest Management (ANW) and prepared by the forest science chairs of the Universities of Göttingen and Munich. Conflict as follows:

“Excessive hoofed game populations lead to massive problems in large parts of German forests; the damage that has occurred is not only ecologically questionable, but also has a considerable economic and thus financial dimension. The facility and the necessary conversion into natural mixed forests are largely hindered by game browsing. "

- Federal Agency for Nature Conservation (BfN)

Foresters, nature conservation associations and forest owners describe this so-called forest-game conflict - to clarify the conflict of objectives and the actors, occasionally also as a forest-hunting or forest owner-hunter conflict - with regard to the desired forest conversion towards climate-stable mixed forests as significant Problem considered. In Germany, hunters who saw an unwillingness to seriously regulate game stocks in the attitude represented by the traditional German Hunting Association (DJV) founded the Ökologische Jagdverein Bayern eV and later ecological hunting association (ÖJV) in 1988 under the co-initiative of Horst Stern Reducing excessive game populations to reduce browsing and thus enable “near-natural forest management” across the board.

See also

Historical forms of use:

Historical ownership:

literature

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Helge Walentowski, Susanne Winter (2007): Proximity to nature in the commercial forest - what is it? Tuexenia 27: 19-26.
  2. ↑ Reinhard Mosandl: History of the forests in Central Europe in the last millennium. Current contributions to the understanding of historical development. In: Bernd Herrmann (Ed.): Contributions to the Göttingen Environmental History Colloquium 2008–2009 . Universitätsverlag Göttingen, 2009, pp. 91–114. Preview on Google Books
  3. ↑ Nils Bleicher: Old wood in a new light. Archaeological and dendrochronological investigations on late Neolithic wetland settlements in Upper Swabia. Dissertation, Mainz 2007. Material booklets on archeology in Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart 2010.
  4. ↑ Zeno: Lexicon entry on "Zeidelweide". Pierer's Universal-Lexikon, Volume 19. Altenburg 1865, ... Retrieved on August 5, 2019 .
  5. ↑ German Federal Ministry for Food and Agriculture (BMEL, ed.): The forest in Germany - selected results of the third national forest inventory , p. 5.
  6. ↑ In rich countries, forests grow. science.ORF.at, May 14, 2018 - on a study by the FAO, with the Global Comparison map : Forest development from 1990 to 2015 .
  7. ↑ Christian Ammer, Torsten Vor, Thomas Knoke, Stefan Wagner: The forest-wild conflict - analysis and solution approaches against the background of legal, ecological and economic contexts (=  Göttinger Forstwissenschaften . Volume 5 ). Universitätsverlag Göttingen, Göttingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-941875-84-5 , p. 48, 63 , doi : 10.17875 / gup2010-280 ( gwdg.de [PDF; accessed on January 20, 2019]).
  8. ↑ RMA Gill: A Review of Damage by Mammals in North Temperate Forests: 3. Impact on Trees and Forests . In: Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research . tape 65 , no. 4 , 1992, pp. 363-388 , doi : 10.1093 / forestry / 65.4.363-a .
  9. ^ Steeve D. Côté, Thomas P. Rooney, Jean-Pierre Tremblay, Christian Dussault, Donald M. Waller: Ecological Impacts of Deer Overabundance . In: Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics . tape 35 , 2004, pp. 113-147 , doi : 10.1146 / annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105725 .
  10. ↑ a b Christian Ammer, Torsten Vor, Thomas Knoke, Stefan Wagner: The forest-wild conflict - analysis and solution approaches against the background of legal, ecological and economic contexts (=  Göttinger Forstwissenschaften . Volume 5 ). Universitätsverlag Göttingen, Göttingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-941875-84-5 , p. 41 , doi : 10.17875 / gup2010-280 ( gwdg.de [PDF; accessed on January 20, 2019]).
  11. ↑ Christian Ammer, Torsten Vor, Thomas Knoke, Stefan Wagner: The forest-wild conflict - analysis and solution approaches against the background of legal, ecological and economic contexts (=  Göttinger Forstwissenschaften . Volume 5 ). Universitätsverlag Göttingen, Göttingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-941875-84-5 , p. 48 f., 139, 180 f ., doi : 10.17875 / gup2010-280 ( gwdg.de [PDF; accessed on January 20, 2019]).
  12. ↑ BfN, DFWR and ANW present expert reports on the forest-game conflict. In: Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. May 5, 2010, archived from the original on January 10, 2019 ; accessed on January 10, 2019 .
  13. ↑ Christian Ammer, Torsten Vor, Thomas Knoke, Stefan Wagner: The forest-wild conflict - analysis and solution approaches against the background of legal, ecological and economic contexts (=  Göttinger Forstwissenschaften . Volume 5 ). Universitätsverlag Göttingen, Göttingen 2010, ISBN 978-3-941875-84-5 , p. 2, 5, 41, 73 f ., doi : 10.17875 / gup2010-280 ( gwdg.de [PDF; accessed on January 20, 2019]).
  14. ↑ Friedrich Reimoser: On the evaluation and minimization of game damage in the forest . In: FVA insight . No. 3 , 2011, ISSN  1614-7707 , p. 11 ( waldwissen.net [accessed on January 21, 2019]).
  15. ↑ Rudi Suchant: What can be new in understanding game damage? In: FVA insight . No. 3 , 2011, ISSN  1614-7707 , p. 3 ( waldwissen.net [accessed on January 21, 2019]).
  16. ↑ Claus-Peter Lieckfeld: Tatort forest: from someone who set out to save the forest . 1st edition. Westend, Frankfurt / Main 2006, ISBN 3-938060-11-5 , p. 89, 151 ( limited preview in Google Book search).
  17. ↑ Importance of the Hunt. In: Bavarian State Ministry for Food, Agriculture and Forests. Archived from the original ; accessed on January 20, 2019 .