Kaoko belt

Belts in Namibia, including the Kaoko belt

The Kaoko belt ( English Kaoko Belt in) denotes regional geology of Africa in north-northwest direction trending (extending) fold-thrust belt extending from Northwest Namibia to southwest Angola on the west coast of the Atlantic Ocean extends . Its length is about 700 kilometers with a width of about 180 kilometers.

The Kaoko Belt is assigned to the Damara Orogen and can be viewed as the northern extension of the Damara Belt. Both belong to the neoproterozoic (1000 to 541 mya) pan-African orogen system , which was an essential part of the Gondwana formation.

This belt was named after the Kaokoland or Kaokoveld, a region in the northwest of Namibia. The greatest extent extends here.

The evolution of the Kaoko belt took place 780 to 520 million years ago (abbreviated as mya in the following text ). Post-orogenic intrusions followed from 138 to 128 mya due to the disintegration of Gondwana and thus Pangea .

Comparable igneous and metamorphic events in the Kaoko Belt as well as the Ribeira Belt and the Dom Feliciano Belt in eastern Brazil suggest that these land masses and thus today's Africa and South America were connected before the breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia . The South American belts are located on the western flank of the Río de la Plata craton roughly between Porto Alegre in Brazil and Montevideo in Uruguay .

Tectonic evolution

The tectonic development of the Kaoko Belt is related to the beginning of the disintegration of the Rodinia supercontinent from around 870 mya.

Between 780 and 740 mya, the then still intact Congo-São Francisco craton (Congo-SF for short) and the Kalahari craton and the South American Río de la Plata craton broke apart on today's African side . The initially formed continental rift valley developed into an ocean floor spreading with the formation of a mid-ocean ridge . The resulting lake basin developed into the Adamastor Ocean, which is also known as the “Proto-South Atlantic Ocean”.

At about 730 mya which put ice age Snowball Earth with the stubbornness tables glacial one. Hypothetically, the Kaigas Ice Age occurred around 750 mya . After the mighty ice sheets had melted, the enormous amounts of meltwater led to extensive flooding , in the course of which carbonates and glacial sediments were formed as diamictite or tillite layers (see also: Cold Age ) in deep continental rifts and inlets. Another ice age, the Marino Ice Age , from around 635 mya, left more deposits behind.

From 655 mya followed the convergence phase of the Cratonic continental floes, and the northern part of the Adamastor Ocean began to close as a result of subduction under the Río de la Plata craton. Calc-alkaline magma series occurred between 625 and 585 mya in the South American Araçuaí and Ribeira belts, then in the Dom Feliciano belt from 620 to 580 mya. Magmatic events between 656 and 625 mya are detectable in the island arc - Coastal Terran, the westernmost part of the Kaoko belt. Calc-alkaline magma series often show signatures of juvenile island arch crust. From 630 mya the ocean floor spread in the southern Adamastor Ocean.

Between 595 and 560 mya, the Río Negro island arc collided with the Ribeira belt, while the coastal terran of the Kaoko belt collided with the craton Kongo-SF before 580 mya. The northern Adamastor Ocean was subducted. The kaoko belt unfolded, accompanied by intrusions (penetration of magmas) of acidic granitoids . Powerful intrusions also occurred in the central and northern parts of the neighboring Damara Belt. Between 580 and 550 mya, the Kaoko belt was subject to sinistral transpressive deformation (left-directed, oblique compression) and metamorphosis .

Between 530 and 520 mya the largest deformations and pronounced magmatism with high-temperature / low-pressure metamorphosis occurred in the Damara Belt. These processes can also be seen in broad faults as well as recent thermal and magmatic events in the Kaoko Belt. In the Cabo Frio domain of the South American Ribeira Belt, high pressure / high temperature metamorphoses occurred from 530 to 510 mya, which are interpreted as a result of the collision. After that, the orogeny of the Kaoko Belt was largely complete and it had consolidated. It stayed that way for hundreds of millions of years.

During the post-orogenic intrusion phase from 138 to 128 mya, mighty flood basalts penetrated the sedimentary overburden and formed the Etendeka plateau in the southern area of ​​the Kaoko belt. This is related to the opening of the South Atlantic when Africa and South America began to separate.

These developments, from the breakup to the reconfiguration of continental land masses, including the formation and closure of oceans, are collectively referred to as the Wilson cycle .

Position and extent

The Kaoko Belt developed on the southwestern edge of the Congo-SF craton.

In the south, the Ugab zone in the lower Ugab valley forms the southern boundary and establishes the connection to the Damara belt there. However, the southern area of ​​the Kaoko Belt is covered by the thick basalt coverings of the Etendeka Plateau. To the east of the Etendeka Plateau, the Kamanjab Inlier joins and also forms the eastern boundary of the Kaoko Belt.

In the north, the Epupa-Metamorpic Complex, through which the Kunene River flows between Namibia and Angola, borders the Kaoko Belt. Below this complex is the Kunene Zone.

The Atlantic Ocean forms the western border. North of Moçâmedes in Angola, the belt ends on what is now the continent of Africa , i. that is, the northwestern continuation to the Ribeira Belt was originally located there.

Structures

The Kaoko Belt represents the northern Küstenarm one of a triple junction (triple) outgoing junction between the African cratons Congo SF and Kalahari and the South American craton Río de la Plata. It is an orogen with a sinistral (left-facing) transpression (see also: transpression), d. i.e., a combination of straight and inclined blade displacement (see also: strike-slip fault).

The Kaoko Belt is divided into three main tectonic-stratigraphic and metamorphic zones: the Eastern Kaoko Zone, the Central Kaoko Zone, and the Western Kaoko Zone. All have different geological and evolutionary characteristics.

Two large geological divisions , sometimes defined as separate zones, separate the three zones of the Kaoko belt. It is the Purros mylonites zone and the Sesfontein Thrust, an About Schiebungs -Disturbance. The Village Mylonite Zone, also known as the Three Palms Mylonite Zone, is a lineament (linear structure) between different geological formations in the Western Kaoko Zone.

To the east of the Sesfontein Thrust lies the Eastern Kaoko Zone and to the west of it the Central and Western Kaoko Zone. This thrust also runs almost parallel to the three zones and forms a gently sloping, sloping structure to the west, along which the western part of the Kaoko belt was pushed onto the eastern part.

• The eastern Kaoko zone represents a foreland of the belt and is formed from upright folds, low-grade, indigenous platform carbonates formed in the same area . The western part of this zone is formed by the slightly westward sloping Sesfontein Thrust, which was subject to a brittle deformation as a result of east / west compression. Much of the Epupa-Metamorpic Complex is in the north, while the Kamanjab Inlier occupies the south.

The Kunene Zone Zone in the Namibian region of Kunene is located in the north of the Eastern Kaoko Zone. There it connects to the south of Epupa-Metamorpic Complex. This zone shows a compression in north-south direction without any transpressive influence.

• The Central Kaoko Zone has been moved along the Sesfontein Thrust to the Eastern Kaoko Zone. The northern and central areas are dominated by the foothills of the Epupa-Metamorpic Complex, while the southern section is covered by the Etendeka Plateau, which extends to the Ugab zone. During the sinistral transpression, they underwent an intensive structural change that created large eastward thrust nappies.

The western border forms the Purros Mylonite Zone, which runs through the entire Kaoko Belt parallel to the three zones. The rocks in this zone were subject to mylonitization (plastic deformation) as a result of a dislocation metamorphosis , a lateral, shearing movement of blocks of crust. The rocks are plastically deformed in the shear direction and show a corresponding alignment of the minerals (see also: Texture ).

• The Western Kaoko Zone is bounded to the west by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east by the Purros Mylonite Zone. In the south it is covered by an extension of the Etendeka plateau and merges into the Ugab zone. The Western Kaoko zone can be regarded as orogenic block from different terranes , the Coastal Terran, the Khumib Terran and the Hoarusib Terran, the sedimentary Damara sequence is assembled. These terranes were subject to leaf displacements and are separated by lateral faults.

The Village Mylonite Zone runs through the Western Kaoko Zone as well as the lateral faults quasi-parallel to the main strike. This lineament marks the boundary between the pan-African granitic intrusions between 650 and 550 mya in the west and the paleoproterozoic to Mesozoic basement composed of orthogneiss around 1,507 mya in the east.

• The Ugab Zone forms the southern boundary of the Kaoko Belt. The rocks were subject to intense deformation with very narrow folds.

Chronostratigraphic evolution, rocks

The Kaoko Belt contains crustal provinces of different ages and heterogeneously composed. They can be differentiated chronostratigraphically as follows:

Cratonic floor

The lowest floor of the Kaoko Belt is the predominantly archaic Congo-SF craton. The Kamanjab Inlier and the Epupa-Metamorpic Complex are connected to it.

The Kamanjab Inlier is an outcrop of the Congo Craton with which part of the bottom floor of the Kaoko Belt comes to light. The inlier extends in the southeast of the Kaoko Belt and is believed to have formed on an active continental margin during the development of the supercontinent Columbia with rift fractures during the Eburnian orogeny between about 1,800 to 1,600 mya and the Kibarian orogeny around 1,600 mya.

The oldest parent rocks date to more than 2,100 my from an impoverished earth mantle spring , whose original composition was deprived of certain components as a result of magmatic differentiation . The inlier consists of paleoproterozoic metamorphic sequences with ortho- and paragneiss that date from 1,880 to 1,810 mya. During the Kibara orogeny (see also: Kibaran orogeny) other magmatic phases between about 1,500 and 1,300 mya took place. They are associated with tectono-metamorphic events on active continental margins. Metamorphic overprinting of the rocks produced migmatization , whereby they were partially melted ( anatexis ).

The Epupa-Metamorpic Complex is like the Kamanjab Inlier an outcrop of the Congo Craton and presumably had a similar development to the Inlier. The complex extends across the northern and central regions of the Kaoko Belt. It consists mostly of ortho and paragneiss. It also contains a significant gabbro - anorthosite body, known as the Kunene Anorthosite Complex, as well as a granulite terran. The oldest parent rock dates back to more than 2,100 mya and probably comes from an impoverished earth mantle spring. The Protolith orthogneiss are between 1,861 and 1,758 my old. The rocks were subject to various large areas of migmatization, as a result of which they were partially melted ( anatexis ). These events took place around 1,760 mya, i.e. the place name of the gneiss during the same period. They received overprint during the Damara orogeny, which resulted in low to high grade shear and mylonite zones.

Basement

The basement of the Kaoko Belt below the Damara Sequence in the Central and Western Kaoko Zone consists of several arches - terranos with a mosaic of archaic (approx. 4,000 to 2,500 mya) paleoproterozoic (2,500 to 1,600 mya) and Mesozoic (1,600 to 1,000 mya) metamorphic and volcanic complexes. These rock formations form the southwestern edge of the Congo-SF craton and were intensively reprocessed during the Damara orogeny. The oldest rocks are in the archaic Andib terran. They consist of granitic and dioritic orthogneiss with an age between 2,645 and 2,585 mya. These rocks are contained in a single upright folded antiformal , but not fully developed, saddle-shaped tectonic blanket within the southern reaches of the Central Kaoko Zone.

All other basement formations in the Eastern and Central Zone of the Kaoko Belt consist predominantly of granitoid orthogneiss from Paleoproterozoic age. Mesozoic-age orthogneiss were not found in the Central Zone, nor were paleoproterozoic in the Western Kaoko Zone. However, this zone contains eye gneisses , migmatites and metasediments (e.g. calcium silicate gneisses ). They are classified almost exclusively as pre-pan-African basement mountains. All of them were intensively worked up and recrystallized during the Damara orogenesis.

Sedimentary overburden

On the basement of the Kaoko Belt there are overburden of different origins and compositions. They are of sedimentary or magmatic origin.

The Damara sequence takes up most of the Kaoko Belt as well as all of the Damara orogen. Their development is related to the decay of Rodinia and the formation of rifts between the African cratons Congo-SF and Kalahari on the one hand and the South American craton Rio de la Plata on the other. In the initial continental rifts in the area of ​​what is now central Namibia, various sediments of continental origin were deposited, such as fluvial sediment (river deposits) or sands from various erosion sources , from which conglomerates, sandstones or quartzites could later form. In addition, volcanism occurred locally on the shoulders of the trench . Also tillites from the Sturtian glaciation and Marinoan glaciation delivered large amounts of sediment in the form of Diamiktitlagen . With further expansion of the crust, inlets developed in which kilometer-thick marine sedimentary layers developed. Mighty layers were also deposited on the passive edge of the Adamastor Ocean.

In the Kaoko Belt, carbonates first sedimented in shelf areas of the Eastern Kaoko Zone, which were then followed by deposits on marine slopes and deep-sea basins in the Central and Western Kaoko Zone.

The basal, lowest Damara sequence is characterized by rift- related siliciclastics ( clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks ) in the Nosib group of the Eastern Kaoko Zone. It contains quartzites , conglomerates and arenites that were deposited between 770 and 600 mya.

The Mulden group overlays the Nosib group with siliciclastic molasses , which is dated to 620 to 600 mya. These deposits are located just east of the Sesfontein Thrust, a thrust in the Eastern contain Kaoko zone.

To the west of this thrust, metamorphosed turbidites , greywacke and mica schist predominate alongside other sediments , while meta-carbonates, greywacke schists, quartzites and arcoses are hardly present. Glacial diamictite layers formed around 750 mya during the hypothetical Kaigas Ice Age and from around 715 mya in the Sturt Ice Age and the Marino Ice Age , from around 635 mya. These are assigned to the hypothesis snowball earth .

The westernmost coastal area is characterized by metamorphosed Grauwacken and Arenites. Mafishes and carbonatic rocks hardly occur.

The Kunene Zone in the north of the Eastern Kaoko Zone forms a block of low-grade overprinted Damara sequence that was compressed in a north-south direction without transpression.

The Ugab Zone consists of thin turbidite marine turbidity currents of the Damara sequence that have been severely deformed.

Granitoid intrusions

In the Eastern Kaoko Zone no paläoproterozoische and Neoproterozoic granitoids are included, while Kaoko Zone minor occurrences in western areas of the Central various small powerful forms ( courses and sills occur).

The Western Kaoko Zone, on the other hand, is penetrated with larger granitoid bodies. They originated in several periods from 656 to 645 mya with dioritic orthogneiss and from 580 to 552 mya with predominantly granitic orthogneiss, which took place before or during the transpressive phase of the kaoko belt. Smaller pegmatitic and granitic ducts penetrated axially flat into the upright folds of this zone during the late phase of the transpressive deformation.

In the Ugab zone between 573 and 570 mya granites and around 530 mya a syenite - pluton . These intrusions fall into the first phase of wrinkling or intensive deformation and a north / south compression.

Flood basalts

The Etendeka Plateau broke through the sedimentary rocks of the southern area of ​​the Kaoko Belt between the Huab River in the south and the Hoanib River in the north. The deposition occurred from about 138 to 128 mya when Gondwana and with it Pangea broke apart. The continental Tristan Hotspot (See also: Tristan hotspot), a plume became active when the opening of the South Atlantic coming from the south reached the latitude of Namibia. The emerging magma masses in the form of flood basalts formed the Paraná-Etendeka Trap , a Large Igneous Province , which is present today in the huge South American Paraná basin and, to a lesser extent, in the north-west of Namibia. The Paraná-Etendeka Trap is one of the largest magmatic major provinces.

Structural development and deformations

Steep layers in the hills of the "Kaokoland"

False-color satellite image of part of the Southern Kaoko Zone with clearly recognizable, very narrow main fold with north-south trending fold axes (see also Torn Turbidite System )

The structural development of the kaoko belt is divided into three main phases. Associated with this are the pan-African deformation events: the ductile deformation D1, the ductile main deformation D2 and the ductile to brittle deformation D3.

In the first, thermal phase D1, quartzite veins developed in the Central Kaoko Zone, while paragneiss, granitoids and extensive partial melts developed in the Western Zone . This magmatic events occurred in the period from about 656 to 550 mya, and had up to tracks in garnet - pyroclastic no visible deformations result.

In the deformation phase D2, a transpressive tectonic regime of around 580 to 550 mya prevailed, which shaped the geometry of the entire Kaoko belt. The deformations started with the so-called Wrench stage, a sheet displacement (engl .: strike-slip fault) under oblique horizontal force. Thereafter, the deformations in the convergence stage became increasingly progressive and transpressive with both temporal and spatial shifting of the deformations towards the outer edges.

The wrench stage is characterized by the formation of profound and intensive bank (stratigraphy) -parallel structural orientations with linear orientations of the minerals (linear (geology)) and an inclination of 10 to 20 degrees in the northwest. This was accompanied by the formation of small isoclinal (rectified) folds (S1 folds), which may be related to the south-east thrust of the western onto the central Kaoko zone.

The convergence stage folded the S1 folds and the structural orientations associated with them (see also: Boudinage). The resulting, kilometer-sized S2 folds either stroke subvertically or rise steeply to the northeast and occur in the western and central Kaoko zones.

At this stage, the Purros Mylonite Zone was also created as the boundary between the Western and Central Kaoko Zone.

In the post-transpressive D3 deformation phase, from around 530 to 510 mya, north / south compression and upset of the structures occurred. The Kaoko belt has been moderately refurbished. The Village Mylonite Zone was created in the Western Kaoko Zone. It shows a sinistral leaf displacement structure with kinked folds. This shear zone or lineament separates the granitic rocks in the west from the gneiss in the east of the Western Kaoko Zone. The sub-vertical S2 folds were also worked up again ductile to brittle.

Metamorphoses

Various tectonic-metamorphic events shaped the Kaoko belt. The metamorphic degree of overprinting decreases from west to east, i.e. that is, in the Western Kaoko Zone, metamorphosis reached the highest levels.

The Kaoko Belt was essentially subject to three phases of metamorphosis. These were created during the three deformation phases.

The M1 metamorphosis, which occurred during the thermal phase D1, is a granulite facial event and represents the oldest metamorphic cycle in the Kaoko belt. With 656 mya of a monzogranitic orthogneiss (see also English monzogranite), a granite with high biotite - and amphibole Portion, the earliest evidence is available. A sample of garnet-containing gneiss dates to 645 mya. Both records come from a small area in the westernmost coastal terran on the Atlantic coast. Other locations are not yet known. From this it is assumed that this M1 metamorphosis under high temperature / low pressure conditions was caused exclusively in the coastal area and by magmatic events. Other concepts are also discussed.

In this phase the rocks of the Western Kaoko Zone received a metamorphic overprint from amphibolite facies to granulite facies . It is the highest degree of metamorphosis in the Kaoko Belt.

The M2 metamorphosis took place between 580 and 550 mya during the transpressive deformation phase D2 of the Kaoko belt. The M2 metamorphosis has a Barrow-type character, which is characterized by a sequence of several mineral zones. It is the most common type of metamorphosis. The Central and Eastern Kaoko Zone are affected by this metamorphic phase.

The rocks of the Central Zone are characterized by a transition from a lower green schist facies in the east to upper amphibolite facies in the west, which reflects a corresponding increase in pressure and temperature.

The mylonized rocks of the Purros Mylonite zone show upper amphibolite facies to ultramylonite facies .

The Eastern Kaoko Zone with the platform carbonates was overprinted with low grade sub- green schist facies .

The M3 metamorphosis occurred from 530 to 510 mya as a result of compressions during the deformation phase D3 of the Ugab zone. The turbidite Damara sequences contained in the Ugab zone were embossed with greenery.

literature

• Ben Goscombe, Martin Handa and David Gray: Structure of the Kaoko Belt, Namibia: progressive evolution of a classic transpressional orogen. In: ScienceDirect, Journal of Structural Geology, Volume 25, Issue 7, July 2003, Pages 1049-1081 doi: 10.1016 / S0191-8141 (02) 00150-5 , online
• DR Gray, DA Foster, JG Meert, BD Goscombe and others: A Damara orogen perspective on the assembly of southwestern Gondwana. In: Geological Society: Special Publications , London 2008, pp. 257-278. doi: 10.1144 / SP294.14 , tekphys.geo online
• C. Kleinhanns, T. Fullgraf, F. Wilsky, N. Nolte and others: U – Pb zircon ages and (isotope) geochemical signatures of the Kamanjab Inlier (NW Namibia): constraints on Palaeoproterozoic crustal evolution along the southern Congo craton. In: The Geological Society of London 2013. online
• Pedro Oyhantçabal, Siegfried Siegesmund, Klaus Wemmer, Cees W. Passchier: The transpressional connection between Dom Feliciano and Kaoko Belts at 580-550 Ma. In: International Journal of Earth Sciences, April 2011, Volume 100, Issue 2, pp. 379-390, doi: 10.1007 / s00531-010-0577-3
• R. Brandt: Preliminary Report on the Stratigraphy of the Damara Sequence and the Geology and Geochemistry of Damaran Granites in an Area between Walvis Bay and Karibib. In: Communs Geol. Surv. SW Afr./Namibia, 1, 1985, pp. 31-44 online

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Ben Goscombe, Martin Hand, David Gray and Jo Mawby: "The Metamorphic Architecture of a Transpressional Orogen: the Kaoko Belt, Namibia." In: Oxford Journals, Science & Mathematics, Journal of Petrology, Volume 44, Issue 4Pp. 679-711. doi: 10.1093 / petrology / 44.4.679 , online
2. ^ Structure of the Kaoko Belt, Namibia: progressive evolution of a classic transpressional orogen. Science Direct, July 2003.
3. ↑ "Fold and Thrust Belt." In: Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, Spektrum.de, Lexicon of Geosciences, Fold and Thrust Belt. [1]
4. ^ A. Kühn, K. Stüwe and RAJ Trouw: "Metamorphic Evolution of the Ribeira Belt: Evidence from Outcrops in the Rio de Janeiro Area, Brazil." In: Journal of Petrology, Volume 45, Number 11, Pages 2303–2323 2004 doi: 10.1093 / petrology / egh058 . petrology.oxfordjournals PDF
5. ↑ Pedro Oyhantçabal, Siegfried Siegemund, Klaus Wemmer, Cees W. Passchier: "The connection between transpressional Dom Feliciano and Kaoko Belt at 580-550 Ma." In: International Journal of Earth Sciences, April 2011, Volume 100, Issue 2, pp 379-390. DOI: 10.1007 / s00531-010-0577-3 .
6. ↑ Pedro Oyhantçabal, Siegfried Siegesmund and Klaus Wemmer: "The Río de la Plata Craton: a review of units, boundaries, ages and isotopic signature." In: International Journal of Earth Sciences, April 2011, Volume 100, Issue 2, pp 201-220. doi: 10.1007 / s00531-010-0580-8
7. ^ DR Gray, DA Foster, JG Meert, BD Goscombe and others: "A Damara orogen perspective on the assembly of southwestern Gondwana." In: Geological Society, London, Special Publications 2008; v. 294; p. 257-278. doi: 10.1144 / SP294.14 , tekphys.geo.uni-mainz online
8. ↑ Fernandez-Alonso and others: The Proterozoic History of the Proto-Congo Craton of Central Africa. In: Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Museum for Central Africa, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium. africamuseum.be PDF
9. ↑ Armin Zeh, Axel Gerdes and Jackson M. Barton, Jr .: Archean Accretion and Crustal Evolution of the Kalahari Craton — the Zircon Age and Hf Isotope Record of Granitic Rocks from Barberton / Swaziland to the Francistown Arc. In: Oxford Journals, Science & Mathematics Journal of Petrology, Advance Access 10.1093 / petrology / egp027. doi: 10.1093 / petrology / egp027 , online
10. ↑ Hartwig E. Frimmel and Peter G. Fölling: "Late Vendian Closure of the Adamastor Ocean: Timing of Tectonic Inversion and Syn-orogenic Sedimentation in the Gariep Basin." In: Gondwana Research , V. 7, No. 3, pp. 685-699. DOI: 10.1016 / S1342-937X (05) 71056-X . on-line
11. ^ Paul F. Hoffman, Alan J. Kaufman, Galen P. Halverson, Daniel P. Schrag: A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth. In: A Neoproterozoic Snowball Earth, Science 28 Aug 1998: Vol. 281, Issue 5381, pp. 1342-1346. DOI: 10.1126 / science.281.5381.1342 , online
12. ↑ Hetu C. Sheth, Ignacio S. Torres-Alvarado, Surendra P. Verma: What Is the "Calc-alkaline Rock Series ?." In: International Geology Review 44 (8): 686-701, August 2002. DOI: 10.2747 / 0020-6814.44.8.686 .
13. ^ X. Maeder, CW Passchier: "Syntectonic veins in the Lower Ugab Valley, southern Kaoko zone, Namibia." In: Geophysical Research Abstracts, Vol. 8, 03563, 2006, SRef-ID: 1607-7962 / gra / EGU06-A-03563. meetings.copernicus PDF
14. ↑ Nicole Nolte: "Paleoproterozoic crust growth (2.0-1.8 Ga) using the example of the Västervik region in SE Sweden and the Kamanjab Inlier in NW Namibia." In: Dissertation to obtain the mathematical and scientific doctoral degree “Doctor rerum naturalium” of the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen in the PhD program Geosciences of the Georg-August University School of Science (GAUSS) 2012. [2]
15. ↑ Rudolf Nagel: "One billion years of geological development on the northwestern edge of the Kalahari Kraton." In: "Dissertation to obtain the doctoral degree of the mathematical and natural science faculties of the Georg-August University of Göttingen 1999." [3] , unam.na/theses online
16. ↑ R. Key and AB Kampunzu: "Evolution of the Kibaran belt system in southwestern Africa: Comparison with equatorial and southern Africa." In: UNESCO-IUGS as IGCP418. Archived copy ( memento of the original from February 1, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
17. ^ A. Kröner, Y. Rojas-Agramonte, E. Hegner and others: "SHRIMP zircon dating and Nd isotopic systematics of Palaeoproterozoic migmatitic orthogneisses in the Epupa Metamorphic Complex of northwestern Namibia." In: Precambrian Research, Volume 183, Issue 1, November 1, 2010, pp. 50-69. doi : 10.1016 / j.precamres.2010.06.018
18. ↑ Nicole Grünert: "The Damara sequence: the most significant geological unit in Namibia:" In: namibiana book depot, press releases / The Damara sequence: the most significant geological unit in Namibia. [4]
19. ↑ Andrew Goudie and Heather Viles, "The Etendeka Plateau." In: SpringerLink, Chapter Landscapes and Landforms of Namibia, Part of the series World Geomorphological Landscapes pp. 73–75, 16 October 2014. doi : 10.1007 / 978-94-017-8020-9_9
20. ^ Stephan Ulrich Georg Kröner: "Geochronological and Structural Evolution of the Western and Central Kaoko Belt in NW Namibia." In: Dissertation to obtain the degree "Doctor of Natural Science" at the Faculty of Chemistry, Pharmacy and Geosciences of Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz 2005. ubm.opus PDF ( Memento of the original from October 17, 2005 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and not yet tested. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. 
21. ↑ Helmut GF Winkler: "Facial series of the Barrow type." In: SpringerLink, Chapter The Genesis of Metamorphic Rocks, pp. 76–96. doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-662-29030-9_8