Pan-African orogeny
Under Pan-African orogeny a lengthy and large-scale will geodynamic cycle of tectonic , magmatic , volcanic , metamorphic and sedimentary processes with formation of mountains or orogenic understood belts. In the narrower sense, it led to the formation of the African continent .
Pan-African orogeny is based on plate tectonic processes of global proportions, starting with the breakup of lithospheric plates (continental plates ) and the opening of intra-continental rift breaks up to the closing of the oceans or seas formed between them . These processes can be traced back to the development phases of the supercontinent Rodinia and are related to the later formation of the supercontinent Pannotia with the great continent Gondwana as its most important continental mass. Africa was the central continent in it.
The orogenic belts formed between older, geologically stable land masses, such as B. cratons , shields or terranos and thus represent today fossil plate edges in different and changing geological forms, on the basis of which the paleographic developments can be understood.
The Pan-African orogeny period falls into the era of the Neoproterozoic and began about 1000 million years ago (abbreviated mya ) and was largely completed in the early Phanerozoic , the lower Cambrian , around 530 mya with the final orogeny.
Conceptualization
The term Pan-African (English Pan-African) was coined in 1964 by the geologist William Quarrier Kennedy . The basis was the measurements of the isotope ratios in the radioactive decay series of rubidium (Rb) in strontium (Sr) and potassium (K) in argon (Ar) in African rocks that come from the orogenic belts (see also → Geochronology ).
Archaic to Mesoproterozoic structures and developments
The continent of Africa consists of a huge, crystalline, crystalline basement with very old rocks. Widespread, thick sediments of Mesozoic and Tertiary ages lie above it and form the overburden .
The oldest structures and rocks in Africa can be traced back to archaic (from 4,600 to 2,500 mya) and Proterozoic (from 2,500 to 541 mya) periods.
Archaic structures
West Africa craton with adjacent Transsahara belt (Pharusian belt) as well as Tuareg and Binin Nigeria shields
Sahara metacraton with parts of the Arab-Nubian shield, the West Africa and Congo craton
Zimbabwe Kraton and Limpop Belt with the Kaapvaal Kraton
In the Archaic, the seven oldest cratonized cores in Africa were essentially formed. Up until the Paleoproterozoic, they were joined together to form three large cratons.
- North West Africa
- West Africa Kraton with the Reguibat and Man shields
- North Central Africa
- Sahara metacraton or Nile craton
- Central Africa
- Congo craton with the Gabon and Chaillu, Zaire, Angola and Kassai blocks. Before and during the Pan-African Orogeny, the Congo craton was still associated with the São Francisco craton. Their separation took place during the disintegration of Pangea with the separation of Africa from South America in the Lower Cretaceous .
- Tanzania Kraton
- Bangweulu Block
- South Africa
- Kaapvaal Kraton
- Zimbabwe Kraton, in which the Sebakwe protocrat is incorporated. These cratons are separated from the archaic Limpopo Belt and enclosed to the south by the Paleoproterozoic Namaqua Natal Belt. Together they form the Kalahari craton.
Madagascar contains the Antogil block and the Antananarivo craton.
Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic developments
Two major mountain-building events occurred in the Proterozoic.
- Eburnean orogeny is a cycle of tectonic , metamorphic and plutonic events that occurred between approx. 2200 and 1800 mya. A distinction is made between three phases: Along an active accretion wedge , further parts of the crust attached to the West Africa craton. The cratons Congo and Tanzania were merged to form the Central African craton. Passive continental margins with mountain formations developed on the central and South African cratons.
- The Kibaran orogeny was a mountain-forming process in Africa as part of the global Grenville orogeny that led to the formation of Rodinias . The period is believed to be between 1400 and 1000 mya. The African regions covered by this orogeny are still interpreted differently. In the broadest sense, it is the Kibara Mountains in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Namaqua-Natal Belt in southern Africa. Rocks of this age were found in the Ahaggar (Hoggar Mountains) as well as in northwest and southwest Nigeria and in Cameroon and in the north of the Congo Craton. Orogenic segments were also found in South Africa .
It has recently been suggested that the definition be made much narrower. According to this, the term "Kibara" only refers to a tectono-magmatic event around 1375 mya in the Karagwe-Ankole Belt north of Lake Tanganyika in southern Uganda . The term "Kibaran Belt" is said to be limited to the belt around the Kibara Mountains in the southeast of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Pan-African orogeny
East African Orogen
The East African Orogen is an orogen complex about 6000 kilometers (abbreviated to km), which runs in a north-south direction in east Africa and in the adjacent part of the Middle East . It begins in the south of Israel and continues to Mozambique . The East African Orogen consists of the Arab-Nubian Shield, the Mozambique Belt and finds its geological continuation in Madagascar. This orogen complex can be compared with today's high mountain system of the Alpidic orogeny .
With the disintegration of Rodinia, the Mozambique Ocean opened up by approx. 1000 mya as a result of the ocean floor spreading . This spread between Greater India ( India with northeast Madagascar , Sri Lanka and the Seychelles ), the Tanzania craton, the Congo-São Francisco craton (abbreviated to Congo-SF) and the Bangweulu block (see also → Pannotia) ). Another ocean was between the Kalahari craton and East Antarctica , or the partial Mawson craton. This is known as the Mawson Ocean. The Mawson Craton is hidden under the Antarctic ice sheet . It is believed that it corresponds roughly to Wilkesland .
As a result of the ocean floor subduction, one or more crustal blocks, microcontinents or terranos of archaic and paleoproterozoic age became detached from it . The period of this separation is not yet clear. The detached land masses were named after an old name for areas of the African east coast Azania .
The main crustal provinces in the East African Orogen are the Sahara Metacraton (SM), the Arab-Nubian Shield (ANS), the Congo / Tanzania / Bangweulu Cratons (CTB), the Zimbabwe / Kalahari Cratons (ZKC), the Mozambique belt (MG), the Eastern Granulite / Cabo Delgado ceiling complexes, each African and the Malagasy cratons Antogil (A) and the Masora (M) (see illustration).
The East African collision phase took place between 650 and 620 mya. It stretched from the Arabic-Nubian shield to the Bangweulu block. It was followed by the Kuunga orogeny from 570 to 530 mya, in which East Antarctica or the partial Mason craton collided with the Kalahari craton. Subsequent elongation tectonics ( extension ) took place up to 480 mya.
Arabic-Nubian shield
The Arab-Nubian Shield forms the northern section of the East African orogen. It is divided into the Arabic shield and the Nubian shield. The former extends over large parts of the western Arabian Peninsula . The Nubian shield is part of the African plate . Originally both shields were connected. They were separated from one another as a result of the opening of the Red Sea that began about 38 mya ago.
Geologically, the Arab-Nubian shield is a shield-like , but not cratonized basement complex. It was created by accretion (merging) of a multitude of intra-oceanic crusts (island arches) and possibly oceanic plateaus and other terranos . These were compressed between the Sahara Metacraton in the west, the Congo-SF craton and the Tanzania craton and the Azania and Afif terrans in the east. Numerous ocean floor sequences ( ophiolites ) and their sutures postponed on continental flanks bear witness to these collisions, which occurred from 890 to 580 mya.
Mozambique belt
The Mozambique belt connects to the south of the Arab-Nubian shield. It forms the southern branch of the East African orogen. It runs along the east coast of Central to South Africa from southern Ethiopia to central Mozambique . Based on geophysical patterns, structural properties and geochronology , it is assumed that the Mozambique Belt continues to Madagascar , among others .
The Azania crustal blocks collided between 650 and 620 mya with the cratons Tanzania, Congo-SF and Bangweulu as a result of the approach of the Indian Shield. Another orogen formation phase took place between 570 and 530 mya, when the Mawson Ocean closed and East Antarctica or the Mawson craton and Australia collided with the Kalahari and Zimbabwe cratons. These processes are called Kuunga orogenesis.
The Mozambique Belt contains a multitude of crust structures, blocks and orrogens, which arose differently and developed differently from one another. A distinction can be made between the formation of new (juvenile) and the reprocessing of old crusts. What they have in common, however, is the impact of collisions on these structures.
Newly formed crusts form a uniform, continuous belt complex that connects to the south of the Arab-Nubian shield and runs from eastern Uganda via Kenya and Tanzania to central Mozambique. The rocks are similar to those of the Arab-Nubian shield. Between 650 and 620 mya they were severely deformed and metamorphically overprinted and pushed as tectonic blankets in the form of cliffs (English: Nappe) on the western pre-neoproterozoic basement provinces.
Reshaped crustal provinces affect pre-Neoproterozoic basement units on the eastern to southwestern edges of the cratons Congo-SF, Tanzania and Bangweulu as well as the northern and eastern edges of the cratons Kalahari and Zimbabwe. As a result of collision processes, they were reworked tectonically, thermally and structurally in different ways between 580 and 540 mya. This affected a large number of individual crustal provinces, the parent rocks (protoliths) of which mostly originate from the respective cratons. The collision processes were accompanied by z. T. voluminous plutonic intrusions and extensive volcanic rocks .
Madagascar structures
The emergence of Madagascar is characterized by an accumulation of different geological structures from different geographical areas of origin and development phases over time. It includes paleoarchaic and paleoproterozian kraton fragments derived from other cratons, as well as Neoproterozoic juvenile island arch components from various ocean basins. During the formation of the East African Orogen, these land masses merged.
The Antogil block and the Antananarivo craton of central Madagascar are of particular importance with regard to the formation of Madagascar. The Antogil block was originally part of the Indian Dharwar kraton. The Antananarivo craton comes from the eastern areas of the cratons Kongo-SF, Tanzania and the Bangweulu block. Both were separated by the Malagasy Ocean. The Mozambique Ocean stretched between both and East Africa. From 630 to 530 mya both crustal provinces collided with each other under compressions and metamorphoses of the rocks.
Neoproterozoic juvenile crustal provinces consist of sedimentary rocks with an island arc affinity. The age of deposition dates between 800 and 550 mya. These juvenile crust areas are related to the formation of the Mozambique belt. The Betsimisaraka suture zone is of particular importance. It forms the contact zone between the Cratonic provinces after their collision.
India with Madagascar separated from Africa about 160 mya . At around 90 mya, Madagascar was separated from India. Since then, Madagascar has been separated from Africa by the Indian Ocean .
Transcontinental belt of South Africa
Based on similar tectonic developments, structural and metamorphic properties, it is assumed that these belts traverse South Africa approximately in an east-west direction, beginning at the Mozambique belt and extending to the west coast of the South Atlantic . It would therefore have a length of approx. 2,000 km.
Zambezi belt
The Zambezi Belt stretches between southern Zambia and northern Zimbabwe . Geologically it is bounded in the north by the craton Kongo-SF and in the south by the Zimbabwe craton, the northern part of the Kalahari craton. In northern Zimbabwe, the belt branches off from a triple junction there, to which the Mozambique belt and the Lufilian arc also connect.
The formation of the Zambezi Belt goes back to plate tectonic events from 880 to 820 mya. One or more, relatively narrow intra-continental aulacogenic rift fractures that did not lead to oceanic spreads were created , which were flooded with sea water. Magmatic components and sediments of Neoproterozoic age were deposited in these.
Between 620 and 550 mya, these rocks were subject to compression and deformation, mainly as a result of collision processes between the cratons Congo-SF and Kalahari, which closed the rift fractures and sedimentary basins again and formed folds and thrust complexes . In the process, transform faults (lateral shifts of the tectonic plates) also formed, such as the Mwembeshi shear zone , which separates the Zambezi Belt from the Lufilian Arc and continues transcontinental through South Africa. Voluminous batholiths intruded into the strongly metamorphic overprinted rocks of the basement .
The Chewore Inliers are of particular importance for the exploration of the Zambezi Belt . They are centrally located in the Zambezi Belt in the northern zone of the Zimbabwe craton. With the help of structures, metamorphoses and geochronology , the protracted and diverse processes from the Mesoproterozoic to the early Paleozoic can be traced.
Lufilian arch
The Lufilian Arc is located roughly in the center of southern Africa and runs from northwest Zambia through the former Katanga province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo to eastern Angola . It has a north-facing convex shape. Geologically, it connects to the western zones of the Zambezi Belt and the Mozambique Belt. It is surrounded by the cratons Kongo-SF and Kalahari and the Bangweulu block. The Mwembeshi Shear Zone demarcates it from the Zambezi Belt.
The geological development of the Lufilian Arc began around 880 mya and was similar to that of the Zambezi Belt. In the aulacogenic basin, 5 to 10 km thick layers of sediment, known as the Katanga Supergroup , were deposited . The surrounding continental masses served as a source of sediment. During the collision processes between the Congo SF and the Kalahari craton, the sedimentary rocks were deformed with low igneous proportions of up to 540 mya and metamorphically overprinted with low to high degrees. In central Zambia up to the Mwembeshi shear zone, a large batholith intruded the deposited sediments around 550 mya .
Part of the Lufilian Arc is the Copperbelt , which is of particular economic importance, as significant deposits of copper , cobalt and other ores are mined there.
Damara belt
The Damara Belt has a streak (longitudinal axis) running from southwest to northeast on the southwestern area of the Congo-SF craton and northwestern edge of the Kalahari craton. He is open-minded in central and southern Namibia . It continues under cover layers towards Botswana . It can be determined from the west coast of the South Atlantic to the interior of Namibia over a length of approx. 530 km. To the east it is covered by younger sediments of the Kalahari with an irregular extent. In north-south direction it has a total extension of approx. 1,400 km including the northern platform and the Nama foreland basin to the south .
The orogeny of the Damara Belt began in the period from 780 to 740 mya with intra-continental rift breaks along a triple junction (triple point) between the Congo-SF craton and the Kalahari and Río de la Plata cratons. The Adamastor Ocean formed between them. Plutons and volcanic rocks with lava flows and ash tuffs developed on the western edges of the rift valley . Several kilometers thick layers were deposited.
Subsequently, between the Congo SF and Kalahari cratons, two approximately parallel intra-continental rift breaks emerged, which were flooded with sea water. The Khomas Rift, which is also known as the Khomas Trough, formed in the southern rift valley. A mid-ocean ridge and an ocean floor spread probably arose in it . The 350 kilometer long Matchless Amphibolite Member is seen as an indication of the ocean floor spreading. For several million years, the rift valley served as a collecting basin for a wide variety of sediment material, consisting mainly of siliciclastics with minor deposits of volcanic sedimentary layers. They form the Damara supergroup .
Between 595 and 540 mya the Adamastor Ocean and the Khomas Sea joined. The cratons Kongo-SF and Kalahari had collided, combined with folds and metamorphoses of rock structures and mountain formations . The dolomitic Naukluft Nappe Complex was pushed as a tectonic blanket to the south on the Nama foreland basin around 496 mya with shearings from the subsoil and thrusts on the basin sediments that had already been deposited.
Kaoko belt
The Kaoko Belt describes a fold and thrust belt that stretches from northwest Namibia to southwest Angola on the west coast of the Atlantic Ocean . Its length is about 700 km with a width of about 180 km. The Kaoko Belt can be viewed as the northern extension of the Damara Belt.
The initial geodynamic development is comparable to that of the Damara Belt. From 655 mya, the northern part of the Adamastor Ocean began to close, creating juvenile island-arch crust. Their magmatic events have been proven in the coastal terran. From 630 mya the ocean floor spread in the southern Adamastor Ocean. 580 mya ago, the northern Adamastor Ocean closed as a result of the collision of the coastal terran with the Congo-SF craton. The Kaoko Belt unfolded, accompanied by powerful intrusions, deformations and metamorphoses. The Kaoko belt had largely consolidated between 530 and 510 mya. During post-orogenic intrusions, mighty flood basalts penetrated the sedimentary overburden and formed the Etendeka plateau in the southern area of the Kaoko belt. This is related to the opening up of the South Atlantic when Africa and South America began to separate.
Gariep belt
The Gariep Belt is a fold and thrust belt running roughly in a north-south direction on the south Atlantic west coast, starting at Lüderitz in south-west Namibia to Kleinzee on the north-west coast of South Africa . It extends over a length of about 400 km and a width of about 80 km. The Gariep Belt can be viewed as the southern continuation of the Damara Belt. In the south, the Gariep Belt merges into the Saldania Belt, which extends on the southwestern edge of the Kalahari Craton between Saldanha and the Cape of Good Hope .
The initial geodynamic development is comparable to that of the Damara Belt. With the beginning of the closure of the southern Adamastor Ocean from 600 mya, the Gariep orogeny began. The final folding and thrusting processes in the Gariep Belt took place during the collision of the Kalahari and the Río-de-la Plata craton at around 545 mya. The Gariep belt had largely consolidated by 520 mya. However, eastward thrust tectonics of the Naukluft Nappe Complex in the adjoining Nama foreland basin with up to 496 mya can be detected. Today's geological situation developed with the opening of the South Atlantic from the early Cretaceous period .
The Saldania Belt went through a similar geodynamic development as the Gariep Belt.
Transcontinental belt of North Africa
The transcontinental belts of North Africa extend mainly in a north-south direction starting in the south of Morocco to the south Atlantic coast of Benin .
Trans-Saharan Belt
The Transsahara Belt is a system of fold and thrust orogens with a length of more than 3000 km. It extends from the Moroccan Anti-Atlas via Algeria to the south Atlantic coast of Benin . Except for Nigeria, Benin, Togo and Ghana, the belt crosses the Sahara with a length of approx. 1800 km , from which it got its name.
The Transsahara Belt is subdivided into the south-west / north-east running ( trending ) anti-Atlas belt, the Pharusian belt, which is oriented quasi in north-south direction, which extends from Algeria to Mali, and the Dahomeyide belt in Mali and Niger.
Geologically and geomorphologically , the anti-Atlas belt is part of the atlas to the north and east . The Pharusian Belt developed between the northeast flank of the West Africa Craton and the Tuareg Shield, while the Dahomeyide Belt is bounded by the southeastern edge of the West Africa Craton and the western zone of the Togo-Benin-Nigeria Shield. The latter belt thus separate the West Africa craton and the Sahara metacraton. The Dahomeyid Belt has its continuation in the province of Borborema of the state of Paraíba in northeastern Brazil .
The geological development began with the formation of rifts and the opening of oceans. The Pharusian Ocean, also known as the Transsahara Ocean, spread out between the eastern edge of the West Africa craton and the western flank of the Sahara metacraton. Another, unnamed ocean of unknown extent formed on the northern edge of the West Africa craton in front of an as yet undefined land mass (sometimes referred to as the Morocco continent). During the subsequent subduction of oceanic under continental lithospheric plates , new, different crustal blocks emerged, such as igneous island arcs and forearc and backarc basins . The progressive narrowing and closing of the oceans led to collisions and partial thrusts on the continental margins with orogenic folding of the crustal units, development of plutons and volcanoes as well as volcanic-sedimentary deposits. Today, large belt areas are hidden under sedimentary layers of the Sahara , the Sahel and other areas.
The main phase of development falls during the Pan-African Orogeny and ranges from around 800 to 550 mya.
North West African Belt
The Mauritanide, Bassaride and Rokelide belts are grouped together in the Northwest African Belt. On the western edge of the West Africa craton they form an arched mountain range approx. 3000 km long and approx. 200 km wide. The Mauritanide Belt stretches from southern Morocco , where it joins the Anti-Atlas , through Mauritania to northern Senegal , the Bassaride Belt runs through southern Senegal to Guinea-Bissau , the Rokelide Belt is located in Guinea-Bissau, in Sierra Leone and Liberia . Large stretches of this mountain range are hidden under thick younger sedimentary layers. The belts underwent a multi-phase tectono-thermal development in which two main structures generally emerged: the fold and thrust belt as well as the foreland expanding in the direction of the craton . The frontal thrust (thrust front) defines the tectonic boundary between the two.
The evolution of the belt began from around 850 mya with rift formation accompanied by volcanic eruptions. This rift closed at 660 mya as a result of the collision of a western block with the West Africa craton with orogenic formation of the Bassaride belt. After that, volcanoclastic and other sediments were deposited which were compressed and folded from 620 to 610 mya. In a further expansion regime, further rift fractures formed parallel to the Bassaride belt between 610 and 550 mya. The Mauritanide and Rokelide belts are formed in these rift valleys. Tillite and mud rocks were deposited in it. The Rokelide Belt was unfolded between 550 and 500 mya as a result of the collision of the South American Late Paleoproterozoic Guyana Shield with the Reguibat Shield. In the Mauritanide Belt, tectono-thermal processes occurred from 530 to 480 mya. After 480 mya further rift fractures opened in the central Mauritanide belt with the ejection of volcanic rocks. In the Bassaride and Rokelide belts, marine transgressive sediments were deposited during a sea rise.
The original rocks of these belts come from the archaic basement of the West Africa craton with the Reguibat shield to the north and the Man shield to the south. They consist of highly metamorphosed gneisses and granulite , low-grade metamorphic supracrustal sequences and volcanic-sedimentary sedimentary rocks.
Central and Midwest African Belts
Central African belt
The Central African Belt was formed between the northern edge of the Congo-SF craton and the southwestern area of the Togo-Benin-Nigeria shield. Geographically, it extends into Cameroon , Chad and the Central African Republic .
This belt consists of neoproterozoic supracrustal rock aggregations and differently deformed granitoids with tectonically interposed wedges of palaeoproterozoic basement. The southern part shows moderately to highly metamorphosed neoproterozoic rocks, including 620 mya old granulites believed to have formed in a continental collision zone and pushed over the Congo SF craton. The central and northern areas are characterized by a huge belt, which is characterized by shear and shear zones . This correlates with structures in the northeast of Brazil and indicates late collision processes. The Central African Belt continues eastward in the little-known Oubanguide Belt of the Central African Republic .
Western Congo Belt
The Western Congo Belt is an orogen about 1400 km long, which stretches from Gabon to northern Angola in a slightly arched manner along the South African west Atlantic coast. It was created by rift formation between approx. 1000 and 900 mya on the western edge of the Congo-SF craton. This was followed Subsidenzen (crustal subsidence) and formation of a carbonate- foreland basin , the so-called West Congolian Supergroup was deposited in the between 900 and 570 mya. It contains two glacial diamictitic horizons similar to those in the Katangan sequence of the Lufilian Arc.
The structures are of an east vergent dominated (inclined) deformation of the eastern edge of which the oceanic crust ( ophiolites were pushed) on the Congo-SF-Kraton associated with dextral (right Gerichter) and sinistral (left Gerichter) transverse (transverse) shear . The rock metamorphosis is low to moderate. In the west, an allochthonous pile of paleo- to Mesoproterozoic bedrocks brought by transport processes overlies the western Congolese foreland sequence. It is concluded that the Western Congo Belt represents the eastern part of an orogen system, the western part of which, including an 800 mya old ophiolite, appears in the Aracuai Belt of Brazil .
Web links
- African geology ( Memento of February 6, 2009 in the Internet Archive ) In: fortunecity.com
- Thomas Schlüter: Geological Atlas of Africa In: Springer Science & Business Media, April 19, 2008 , Chapter 4, Review of Countries and Teritories, Algeria (from page 31) ISBN 978-3-540-76324-6 , ISBN 978-3- 540-76373-4 (eBook) [12]
- AC Ajibade and JB Wright: The Togo-Benin-Nigeria Shield: evidence of crustal aggregation in the Pan-African belt In: Tectonophysics , Volume 165, Issues 1-4, August 20, 1989, pp. 125-129. doi : 10.1016 / 0040-1951 (89) 90041-3
Individual evidence
- ^ A. Kröner and RJ Stern: Pan-African Orogeny In: Encyclopedia of Geology (2004), vol. 1, Elsevier, Amsterdam [1] , alternatively [2]
- ↑ Douwe JJ Van Hinsbergen, Susanne JH Buiter, Trond H. Torsvik, Carmen Gaina and Susan J. Webb: The formation and evolution of Africa from the Archaean to Present: introduction In: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 357, 1- 8, 13 October 2011 doi: 10.1144 / SP357.1 , alternatively [3]
- ↑ Paul HGM Dirks, Tom G. Blenkinsop and Hielke A. Jelsma: The Geological Evolution of Africa In: Geology-Vol. IV doi : 10.1144 / SP357.1 , alternatively [4] or [5]
- ↑ Nasser Ennih and Jean-Paul Liégeois: The boundaries of the West African craton, with special reference to the basement of the Moroccan metacratonic Anti-Atlas belt In: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 297, 1-17, 28 May 2008 doi : 10.1144 / SP297.1 , alternatively [6]
- ↑ Mohamed G. Abdelsalam, Stephen S. Gao, Jean-Paul Liégeois: Upper mantle structure of the Saharan Metacraton In: Journal of African Earth Sciences 60 (2011) 328–336 doi: 10.1016 / j.jafrearsci.2011.03.009 , alternative [7]
- ↑ Robert J. Thomas, Christopher Spencer, Alphonce M. Bushi, Nick Baglow and others: Geochronology of the central Tanzania Craton and its southern and eastern orogenic margins In: Precambrian Research, Volume 277, May 2016, Pages 47-67 doi : 10.1016 /j.precamres.2016.02.008 .
- ↑ LS Andersen and R. Unrug: Geodynamic evolution of the Bangweulu Block, northern Zambia In: Precambrian Research, Volume 25, Issues 1-3, August 1984, Pages 187-212 doi : 10.1016 / 0301-9268 (84) 90032-9 .
- ↑ Hielke A. Jelsma and Paul HGM Dirks: Neoarchaean tectonic evolution of the Zimbabwe Craton In: Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 199, 183-211, January 1, 2002 doi : 10.1144 / GSL.SP.2002.199.01.10 , alterantiv [ 8th]
- ↑ J. Jacobs, S. Pisarevsky, RJ Thomas and T. Becker: The Kalahari Craton during the assembly and dispersal of Rodinia In: Precambrian Research, Volume 160, Issues 1-2, 5 January 2008, Pages 142-158 doi : 10.1016 /j.precamres.2007.04.022 .
- ↑ Emmanuel Egal, Denis Thiéblemont, Didier Lahondère, Catherine Guerrot and others: Late Eburnean granitization and tectonics along the western and northwestern margin of the Archean Ke´ne´ma – Man domain (Guinea, West African Craton) In: Precambrian Research 117 ( 2002) 57–84 [9]
- ↑ L. Tacka, MTD Wingateb, B. De Waeled, J. Meerte and others: The Mesoproterozoic Karagwe-Ankole Belt (formerly the NE Kibara Belt): The result of prolonged extensional intracratonic basin development punctuated by two short-lived far-field compressional events In: Precambrian Research 180 (1): 63-84 • June 2010 DOI: 10.1016 / j.precamres.2010.02.022 , alternatively [10]
- ↑ M. Fernandez-Alonso, H. Cutten, B. De Waele, L.Tack, A.Tahon, Baudet, SD Barritt: The Mesoproterozoic Karagwe-Ankole Belt (formerly the NE Kibara Belt): The result of prolonged extensional intracratonic basin development punctuated by two short-lived far-field compressional events In: Precambrian Research Volumes 216–219, October 2012, Pages 63-86 doi : 10.1016 / j.precamres.2012.06.007 .
- ↑ Michel Villeneuve: Review of the orogenic belts on the western side of the West African craton: Bassarides, Rokelides and Maurtitanides In: The Boundaries of the West African Craton, Geological Society of London, 2008 - 533 pages [11]
- ↑ Sebastien Owona, Bernhard Schulz, Lothar Ratschbacher, Joseph Mvondo Ondoa and others: Pan-African metamorphic evolution in the southern Yaounde Group (Oubanguide Complex, Cameroon) as revealed by EMP-monazite dating and thermobarometry of garnet metapelites In: Journal of African Earth Sciences, Volume 59, Issue 1, January 2011, Pages 125-139 doi : 10.1016 / j.jafrearsci.2010.09.003 .
- ↑ Pascal Affaton, Feiko Kalsbeek, Florent Boudzoumou, Roland Trompette, Kristine Thrane and Robert Frei: The Pan-African West Congo belt in the Republic of Congo (Congo Brazzaville): Stratigraphy of the Mayombe and West Congo Supergroups studied by detrital zircon geochronology In : Precambrian Research, Volume 272, January 2016, Pages 185-202 doi : 10.1016 / j.precamres.2015.10.020 .
- ↑ Fernando F. Alkmim, Matheus Kuchenbecker, Humberto LS Reis and Antônio C. Pedrosa-Soares: The Araçuaí Belt In: São Francisco Craton, Eastern Brazil pp 255-276 doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-319-01715-0