Paraná basin

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Location of the Paraná Basin (outlined in yellow, above) as well as the immediately adjacent and sometimes included Chaco-Paraná Basin (outlined in yellow, below) in South America

The Paraná Basin is a vast fossil sedimentary basin in central-eastern South America . It stretches across northeast Argentina , central-southern Brazil , eastern Paraguay, and northern Uruguay , with the lion's share (1.1 million square kilometers) being on Brazilian territory. The basin has elliptical dimensions and takes up an area of ​​around 1.5 million square kilometers. It was formed during the Paleozoic and was active well into the Mesozoic . Its sediments are Ordovician to Cretaceous age (460 to 65 million years BP ). In the central part of the basin, the deposits reach a total thickness of up to 7000 meters and are of sedimentary as well as volcanic origin.

The Paraná Basin is a typical intra- Cratonic flexure basin (epicontinental " geosyncline "), the formation of which is due to thermal crust subsidence, which began after the multiple collisions during the Brasiliano or Pan-African orogeny (found BP in the period 670 to 520 million years ago seven collisions take place - see also Cadomic Orogeny ). In the Paleozoic, the basin formed a sea gulf that was open to the southwest towards the high seas. During the Palaeozoic Gondwaniden - orogeny the Paraná Basin then developed into a foreland basin . Until the Andes mountain formation , it was also connected to the Chaco-Paraná basin . The history of the basin is closely related to the convergence of the former Gondwana and the oceanic crust of Panthalassas .

The Río Paraná , after which the Paraná Basin was named, flows through the central part of the basin. The sedimentary basin described here is not identical to the catchment area ("hydrographic basin") of the Río Paraná.

Initial Studies

The Brazilian part of the basin was examined for the first time as early as 1841, the reason being a prospecting for coal by the then Imperial Brazilian Energy Authority . The “White Report”, which was written in 1908 by the American geologist Israel C. White , then head of the “Comissão de Estudos das Minas de Carvão de Pedra do Brasil”, represented a milestone in the geological understanding of the Paraná Basin. (Study Commission of the Hard Coal Mines of Brazil). In the studies by coal stocks were several namely Mesosaurus fossilien in the perm black shales of the Irati formation discovered simultaneously be pushed onto the Glossopteris flora in the perm coal. White was one of the first to recognize the close relationship between the Permian layers of South America and similar rocks from the Karoo Basin of South Africa .

stratigraphy

Simplified geological map of the Paraná Basin
Simplified stratigraphic table of the Paraná basin

The sediment filling of the Paraná Basin spans almost 400 million years of geological history. In 1997, Milani subdivided the sedimentary sequence in the Paraná Basin into six sequence-stratigraphic second-order supersequences in the sense of Vail . These sequences form the stratigraphic framework of the basin and are in turn bounded by discordances and significant layer gaps of an erosive nature. The sediment filling can be allostratigraphically subdivided into the following six second-order super-sequences (from young to old):

Bauru Supersequence - Upper Cretaceous ( Aptian - to Maastrichtian )

After the very powerful flood basalts of the Serra-Geral formation flowed out, the Paraná basin sagged in the shape of a bowl. The sediments of the Caiuá group and the Bauru group then collected in this newly created inner-continental sedimentation area . The distribution area of ​​the Bauru supersequence lies in the central northern section of the Paraná basin and consists mainly of sandy to conglomerate sediments. During the deposition of the Bauru group, ultrabasic to intermediate alkaline rocks penetrated . The fossil contents of this supersequence include turtles , crocodiles and dinosaurs .

  • Bauru group . Predominantly limnic and fluvial facies rocks with transitions to aeolian sedimentation.
  • Caiuá group . Aeolian sediments of the then Caiuá desert .

Gondwana III Supersequence - Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous ( Berriasium )

This supersequence is shaped by the breaking up of Gondwana, which ultimately led to the formation of the South Atlantic. It consists of the São Bento group with the following formations:

  • Serra Geral formation . Skin rivium . Up to 1700 meters thick bimodal tholeiitic flood basalts (Paraná basalt), subordinate also rhyolites . These volcanic rocks have a gap in their chemical composition at 60-64% SiO 2 and are made up of 16 individual units that can contain intermediate sandstone layers of the Botucatu Formation. These continental flood basalts (trapezoid basalts) of huge dimensions (formation of a “ Large Igneous Province ” - LIP ) emerged in the period 137 to 127 million years BP with a peak in volcanic activity in the period 133 to 132 million years BP. Even today, their total area is over a million square kilometers. They spilled equally over the Etendeka Basin in Namibia and Angola .
  • Botucatu formation . Lower Cretaceous. The formation represents an erg that spread across the entire Paraná basin. There was a large-scale desertification of the still united supercontinent Gondwana, with the so-called "Botucatu Desert" with an area of ​​1.2 million square kilometers arose. The former huge dune fields left behind thick, coarse to fine-grained, up to 400 meters thick sandstone packages (dry dune and interdune facies), which now house the Guaraní aquifer , one of the most important aquifers in the world. The formation contains traces of primitive mammals ( Brasilichnium elusivum ), ornithopods and theropods .
  • Guará formation . Upper Jurassic. Thickness 80 to 200 meters. Continental, aeolian-fluvial deposits. Only in the southwest part of the Paraná basin.

Gondwana II Supersequence - Indusium to Rhaetium

This Triassic supersequence marks the beginning of continental sedimentation in a southeast-northwest trending rift system. It contains important faunal communities of reptiles and progenitors of mammals , which can be correlated with comparable faunal communities in Africa. Mainly fluvial psammites , which reach a thickness of over 200 meters, were sedimented .

Gondwana I Supersequence - Upper Carboniferous to Upper Permian

This supersquence of the Paraná Basin, which is the mightiest at 2500 meters, is characterized by significant glaciation ; the ice cap at that time covered almost the entire southern Gondwana. The icing peak was reached in the Lower Carboniferous . This prevented practically any significant sedimentation until the ice masses in the Westfalium (Upper Carboniferous) thawed. It represents a marine, transgressive-regressive cycle and consists of the Passa-Dois group , Guatá group and the basal Itararé group . Up until the beginning of the Guatá group, open marine sedimentation conditions prevailed, then transition to the sedimentation area of ​​a syneklise with increasing continentalization.

  • Pirambóia formation . Upper Permian ( Wuchiapingium ). Tar sandstones. Establishment of a sand sea close to the sea. Wet Aeolian sedimentation with dune and interdune facies. Wadisediments also occur. Seismites testify to the first distensive movements in the Paraná Basin, culminating in the Central Triassic.
  • Passa Dois Group - Rio-do-Rasto formation . Middle Permian ( Wordium and Capitanium ). 400 to 550 meters thick. Transition from marine to continental sedimentation - from intra- and supertidal over coastal plains to fluvio-deltaic facies (limnic delta and prodelta sediments). Mainly red colored, fine-grained sediments with sandstone lenses. Fossil preserved are vertebrates - dicynodonts ( endothiodon ), labyrinthodonts and rhynchosaurs ( scaphonyx ) -, mussels, clam shells , pollen and abundant plant remains (glossopteris and many other taxa).
  • Passa Dois group - Teresina formation . Middle Permian ( Wordium ). 280 to 330 meters thick deposits of an epirogenetic shallow sea. Consists of several siliciclastic sequences (dark, gray-green slate, siltstones and fine-grained sandstones) with grain size increasing towards the hanging wall. Plane-parallel and flasher stratification , oscillation ripples, dry cracks and large elliptical calcareous concretions. Carries out plant debris, mussels and pollen.
  • Passa Dois Group - Serra Alta Formation . Lower Permian ( Roadium ) and Wordium . Thickness 60 to 90 meters. Plane-parallel dark gray to black slate and siltstone with large elliptical calcareous concretions. Bones of fish, subordinate also micrite containing mussels ; Clam shell and pollen.
  • Passa Dois Group - Irati Formation . Lower Permian Roadium . 35 to 45 meters thick, bituminous, gray-blue to dark-gray slate clays ( black slate facies ), which were deposited below the wave base in a calm environment. Limestone and dolomitic layers on the hanging wall. The formation is an important petroleum mother rock and is world famous for its Mesosaurus fauna ( Brazilosaurus , Mesosaurus and Stereosternum ). It also contains fish, crustacean and plant remains as well as pollen.
  • Passa Dois group . Middle to Upper Permian ( Roadium to Capitanium ). Up to 1400 meters powerful regressive unit. Continentalization of the Paraná Basin with increasing constriction from the open ocean.
  • Guatá Group - Palermo Formation . Kungurium to Roadium . Shallow marine, from the west transgressing (externally neritic) claystones and slate. Wavy lens and fiber layers and interposed fine-grain ortho quartzite layers. Offshore facies. Achieving maximum paleobathymetric conditions. Contains silicified tree trunks ( dadoxilon ), shells and spores.
  • Guatá Group - Rio Bonito Formation . Artinskium to Kungurium . Thickness 110 meters. Cream-colored to light gray fluvial delta sandstones with coal seams at the base. Subsequent transgression with emphasis on the clayey component (gray-green clay, silt and fine-grained sandstones) followed by littoral-facial sandstones with huge parali coal deposits. The complete disappearance of the ice masses enabled the appearance of the Glossopteris flora . Changing facies indicate tectonic movements in the basement.
  • Guatá group . Lower to Middle Permian. Restructuring of the basin architecture, beginning continentalization with northward wedging, backward sedimentation.
  • Itararé group - Taciba formation . Lower Permian (Middle Sacmarium to Artinskium). A climatic improvement causes a rapid melting of the ice masses and leads to a high sea level. Massive diamictites and their sliding masses. Pollen and spores, foraminifera, but also invertebrates such as brachiopods, gastropods and trilobites, even fish scales occur. Thickness over 260 meters.
  • Itararé group - Campo Mourão formation . Upper carbon ( Stefanium ) to middle sacmarium. Sand-rich unit, also contains siltstones, diamictites and rhythms. Thickness 450 to 900 meters. Pollen and spores, trilobites
  • Itararé Group - Lagoa Azul Formation . Upper Carboniferous (Westfalium). Heavily silicified, 325 meters thick sandstone unit. Leads the Roncador-Lage, a gravel-containing slate clay sediments from melting icebergs at high sea level. Pollen and spores ( Potonieisporites microflora).
  • Itararé group . Upper Carboniferous ( Westfalium ) to Lower Permian ( Sakmarium / Artinskium ). Up to 1500 thick, both glaciomarine and glacio-continental sediments, mainly sandstones, diamictites , conglomerates and claystones. Trilobite finds ( Tasmanites ) prove the marine character. Are widely used glaciogenic Faziesgesteine such as warvenartige rhythmites that have been deposited after the melting of the ice masses. Sedimentation wedging to the south (onlap) in accordance with the ice cap retreating to the south (or Gondwana’s gradual northward drift). In the north and west of the Paraná Basin, sedimentation of continental red sediments, the Aquidauana Formation , occurred at the same time .

Hiatus : layer gap representing 55 million years

Paraná supersequence - Devonian

Marine ingression (widespread transgression) from the west, leaving mainly detritic series and dark marls. The total thickness is 1000 meters. A full, openly marine, transgressive-regressive cycle.

Rio Ivaí Supersequence - Upper Ordovician to Llandovery

This basal supersequence represents an openly marine, transgressive-regressive cycle. During the period from the Upper Ordovician to the Lower Silurian , it was deposited directly on the Vorordovician basement. The supersequence reaches a total thickness of 1000 meters and consists of three formations :

The sediments from the Castro Group and the Itajaí Group, which were also formed in rift fractures during the expansion phase of the Brasiliano orogen (520 to 480 million years BP) , had already followed the same strike direction. They can be seen as the forerunners of the actual sedimentation in the Paraná Basin.

Synoptic table

Supersequence group formation Age Mightiness description Fossils
Bauru Bauru Turonian to Maastrichtian ~ 300 meters Continental siliciclastic sediments, semi-arid climate; Wadi, Playa and dune facies Crocodiles, some dinosaurs
Caiuá Aptium to Turonium Continental Aeolian sediments, arid climate; Dune, interdune and sand flat facies Tetrapod tracks
Gondwana III São Bento Serra Geral Skin rivium 1700 meters Tholeiitic flood basalts; intermediate desert sands
Botucatu Lower Cretaceous to Hauterivium Up to 400 meters Continental aeolian sediments; arid climate; Dune and interdune facies Traces of ornithopods, mammals and theropods
Guará Upper Jurassic 80 to 200 meters Continental Aeolian-Fluvial Deposits
Gondwana II Rosario do Sul Mata sandstone Rhaetium Continental fluvial sediments; sandy pigtail facies with falling sea levels Silicified tree trunks
Caturrita formation Carnium to Norium Up to 60 meters Extensively interwoven river system with emphasis on the sandy component; relatively humid climate Cynodontier, Dicynodontier, Dinosaur, Rhynchosaurier, Sphenodontia and Thecodontia
Santa Maria Ladinium to Carnium 200 metres Base conglomerate and deep sandy sedimentation, then sandy stratified flood and lake sediments followed by an energetic isolated pigtail facies; semi-arid climate Archosaurs, Cynodonts, Dicynodonts, Dinosaurs, Procolophons, Rhynchosaurs, Sphenodontia and Thecodontia
Sanga do Cabral Indusium to Olenekium 50 to 100 meters Alluvial plaited stream level with table-like fine-layered sandstones. River facies and suspension sedimentation, occasionally also conglomeratic layers Vertebrates - Cynodontier, Dicynodontier, Dinocephalia, Procolophoniden, Protorosauria and Temnospondylen
Gondwana I Pirambóia Wuchiapingium Suppersequence a total of 2500 meters Wet Aeolian sand sea sediments. Dune, interdune and wadifacies
Passover Dois Rio do Rasto Wordium and Capitanium Group up to 1400 meters in total; 400 to 550 meters Limnian delta and prodelta sediments Vertebrates (Dicynodontier, Labyrinthodontier, Rhynchosaurier), mussels, mussel shells, pollen and plant remains (including Glossopteris)
Teresina Wordium 280 to 330 meters Shallow marine debris Plant remains, mussels and pollen
Serra Alta Roadium and Wordium 60 to 90 meters Dark slate with calcareous concretions and micrites Fish bones, clams, clam shells and pollen
Irati Roadium 35 to 45 meters Black shale facies with bituminous shale clays Mesosaurus fauna; Fishes; Crustaceans, plants and pollen
Guatá Palermo Kungurium to Roadium Transgresive shallow marine clay sediments with fine-grained ortho quartzites Silicified tree trunks, shells, spores
Rio Bonito Artinskium 110 meters Fluvial delta sandstones with coal seams at the base, followed by transgressive claystones (marine) and huge paralian coal deposits Glossopteris flora; Megaspores
Itarare Taciba Sakmarium to Artinskium Group total 1500 meters; over 260 meters Massive diamictites and their sliding masses Fish scales; Brachiopods, gastropods, trilobites; Foraminifera, pollen and spores
Campo Mourão Stefanium to Sakmarium 450 to 900 meters Mainly sandstones, also siltstones, diamictites and rhythmites Trilobites; Pollen and spores
Lagoa Azul Westfalium 325 meters Silicified sandstones with a diamictitic Roncador layer Pollen and spores
Paraná Ponta Grossa Emsium to Frasnium 850 meters Neritic clay-rich sediments; Petroleum mother rock Malvinocaffic invertebrate fauna and plant remains
Furnas Lochkovium to Emsium 260 meters Kaolinite-rich sandstones of the shallow platform facies
Rio Ivaí Vila Maria Llandovery Supersequence a total of 1000 meters Mica-rich shales and fine-grain sandstones Brachiopods, chitinozoa, graptolites, molluscs, phytoplankton, spores and trilobites.
Rio Ivaí Supreme Ordovician Several tens of meters Glaciated diamictites
Alto Garças Upper Ordovician Up to 300 meters Conglomerates and sandstones with associated Três Lagoas basalt

Sedimentary development

Subsidence

The Paraná Basin experienced the first major depression in the Middle Devon during the deposition of the Paraná supersequence. The main subsidence took place in the Permian with the massive sediment load of the Gondwana I supersequence. Flood basalt magmatism peaked around 130 million years BP (in the Lower Cretaceous). Since then, the basin has continued to sink steadily to this day, but no longer as much as in the two events cited above.

Iguazu Falls

Tectonic evolution

The current central depth axis of the Paraná Basin runs in NNE-SSW direction, roughly parallel to the Atlantic coast. This structure did not exist during the Paleozoic and the Old Mesozoic Era, rather the room at that time showed a flat, deep-set table with a wide-span epirogeneous corrugation, the axis of which ran more or less in the SE-NW direction. The enormous extraction of lava in the Young Mesozoic Era is likely to have triggered a restructuring. Individual basalt bowls formed, which hollowed into the Upper Cretaceous. Only in the Tertiary did the basin take on its current structure, at the same time a strong elevation of its eastern edge began, which led to the exposure of the neoproterozoic basement (for example in the Serra do Mar ) and at the same time the entire basin tilted towards the west or south-west brought. The western rim remained relatively unaffected by these tectonic movements. Strictly speaking, the Paraná Basin is therefore not a trough-shaped basin at all, but rather a huge, south-westerly sloping rocky clod with a tectonically caused depression along its central axis. Along this central axis, a fracture occurred with a relatively low jump height (about 30 meters) , which led to the elevation of the western floe. This fault line is now followed by the Paraná in its upper course.

Other significant tectonic structures of the Paraná basin are broad anticline-like bulges of the basement ( English arches ), which bring the rocks of the Paleozoic formations to the surface, such as B. the Punta Grossa Arch , which strikes northwest from Curitiba , or further south, the parallel Rio Grande Arch in Rio Grande do Sul , the Aceguá Arch on the border with Uruguay , the Tambores Arch in the north Uruguay, as well as the north-northeast-south-southwest striking Asunción Arch on the west side of the basin.

Associated Magmatism

With the beginning of the Valanginian (Lower Cretaceous) the Paraná Basin was covered by extensive magmatism , which can be subdivided into three groups:

Alkaline rocks rich in potassium

They are related to the initial phase of the rifting of South America and South Africa. These igneous rocks formed the following rock types:

The K-rich alkaline rocks were delivered in two batches. The first occurred during the Valanginian 140 to 138 million years ago BP (before the emergence of the tholeiitic flood basalts), the second in the Barremian 128 to 126 million years ago BP after the emergence of the tholeiitic flood basalts. The area of ​​distribution of the potassium-rich alkali rocks is mainly the eastern Paraná Basin, the Punta Grossa Arch, but also the Moçamedes Arch in Angola. Geochemically they are characterized by a negative Ta - Nb - Ti anomaly, highly fractionated REE and enriched radiogenic strontium . Their volume is relatively low compared to the flood basalts.

Continental Flood Basalt Magmatism (CFB) of the Serra-Geral Formation

Selected compositions of the Paraná volcanic series (flood basalts), data from Bellieni et al. 1986. The gap ( Bunsen-Daly gap ) in andesites and dacites and the increased alkalinity of the HPT series can be clearly seen

With 1.2 million square kilometers, the Paraná flood basalts are the second most important continental flood basalts on earth after the trapezoid basalts of Siberia . In the central part of the Paraná basin they reach a total thickness of 2000 meters. They were extracted in the Hauterivium from 133 to 132 million years ago - before the actual ocean spreading in the South Atlantic, which was dated to 127 to 125 million years BP ( Barremium ) based on the magnetic anomaly M4 . The flood basalts can be divided into Ti-rich ( HPT ) and Ti-poor ( LPT ) varieties. These are mostly bimodal, sub-alkaline rocks of the basalt-rhyolite main series, which have a clear “silica gap” (SiO 2 gap) in the andesites and dacites .

Sodium-rich alkaline rocks

The following types of rock were trained:

The sodium-rich alkali stones are much more important in terms of volume than the potassium-rich ones. They were also delivered in two larger batches. The first occurred around 118 million years BP in the aptium on the western edge of the Paraná Basin in eastern Paraguay ( San Juan Bautista ) during an advanced stage of continental divergence. During the period 60 to 50 million years BP, i.e. during the Upper Paleocene and the Lower Eocene , the second thrust occurred. The second thrust was again distributed in Eastern Paraguay ( Asunción ), the northern Paraná Basin and the edge of the São Francisco Craton (Alto Paranaíba, Serra do Mar, Ipanema, Lages, Punta Grossa Arch). These rocks, unlike the potassium-rich alkaline rocks, have a small positive Ta-Nb anomaly.

Magma formation

To explain the Paraná magma province and the continental flood basalts in general, the “mantle plume” model of the hotspots, which is characterized by active material transport, has so far been used. For example the Tristan da Cunha hotspot, the trail of which can be followed over the Rio Grande ridge as far as the Punta Grossa Arch, or the trail of the Vitória - Trindade hotspot further north. However, this model cannot explain all the geochemical properties of the magmatites of the Paraná Basin. Different genetic models are currently being considered, including a so-called “ Edge Driven ” convection cell model as the sole or intervening factor, or the model of heterogeneous magma reservoirs in the lithospheric mantle , which were created solely by partial melting without active material transport. The starting rocks here are phlogopite-bearing garnet peridotites , which were partially melted in an abnormally hot asthenospheric mantle (under abnormally hot thermal regime). Furthermore, it is assumed that these mantle rocks belong to the water-containing and metasomatized vein type.

In general, based on the Sr - Nd system, it can be concluded that all igneous rocks of the Paraná Basin are a heterogeneous mixture product of two components: an enriched mantle component (EM I or EM II) and a mantle component depleted in incompatible elements (DMM or HIMU) . The latter was of crucial importance in the formation of the sodium rocks. The high strontium content of the potassium rocks and the low-Ti flood basalts also indicate contamination by crustal rocks .

Groundwater

The Guaraní aquifer is one of the largest aquifers in the world and is therefore an extremely important source of drinking water for Argentina , Brazil , Paraguay and Uruguay . The aquifer consists of the permeable sandstones of the Botucatu and Pirambóia Formations . Its catchment area covers 1.2 million square kilometers and it has an estimated volume of 37,000 cubic kilometers of drinking water.

Syngeneic natural resources

coal

Brazil's coal reserves are estimated at 32 billion tons. The coal is bituminous to slightly bituminous and mostly bound to the sandstones of the Rio Bonito formation. The main producers are or were Rio Grande do Sul (near São Jerônimo ) and Santa Catarina (near Tubarão ), with Paraná and São Paulo as well .

Oil shale

Since 1972, Petrobras has been extracting hydrocarbons from the oil shales of the Irati Formation in São Mateus do Sul, a city in the state of Paraná . The Petrosix process is used, of which Petrobras holds the patent rights . The Irati Formation's reserves in the states of São Paulo, Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul are estimated at 700 million barrels of oil , 5 million tons of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 25 billion cubic meters of shale gas and 18 million tons of sulfur .

literature

  • G. Bellieni, P. Comin-Chiaramonti, LS Marques, AJ Melfi, AJR Nardy, C. Papatrechas, EM Piccirillo, A. Roisenberg, D. Stolfa: Petrogenetic aspects of acid and basaltic lavas from the Parana Plateau (Brazil): geological , mineralogical and petrological relationships. In: J. Petrol. , 1986, 27, pp. 915-944.
  • Comin-Chiaramonti, P., Ernesto, M., Velázquez & de Barro Gomes, C. (2004): Plumes Beneath the Paraná Basin, Eastern Paraguay: Fact or Fiction?
  • R. Iannuzzi, DR Boardman: Problems in Western Gondwana Geology. - I Workshop - “South America - Africa correlations: du Toit revisited”. Gramado-RS-Brazil, August 27th to 29th, 2007.
  • RJ Pankhurst: West Gondwana. Geological Society of London. In: Geological Society Special Publication, 204, 2008, ISBN 1-86239-247-1 .
  • AJ Tankard, RS Soruco, HJ Welsink: Petroleum Basins of South America. AAPG Memoir , 62nd American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1995, ISBN 0-89181-341-1 .
  • M. Wilson: Igneous Petrogenesis - A Global Approach. Chapman & Hall, 1989, ISBN 0-412-53310-3 .

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b EJ Milani, JHG Melo, PA Souza, LA E Fernandes, AB França: Bacia do Paraná. In: Cartas Estratigráficas - Boletim De Geociencias da Petrobras . Rio de Janeiro, v. 15, n.2, May / Nov. 2007, pp. 265-287.
  2. ↑ a b P. V. Zalan, S. Wolf, MAM Astolfi, IS Vieira, JC Conceição, VT Appi, EV Santos Neto, JR Cerqueira, A. Marques: The Paraná Basin, Brazil. In: MW Leighton, DR Kolata, DF Oltz, JJ Eidel, (Eds.): Interior cratonic basins. American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa OK 1991, pp. 707-708. ( AAPG. Memoir 51).
  3. ↑ EJ Milani, ABE França, R. Á. Medeiros: Roteiros Geológicos, Rochas geradoras e rochas-reservatório da Bacia do Paraná. In: Boletim de Geociências da Petrobras , Rio de Janeiro, v. 15, n.1, Nov. 2006 / May 2007, pp. 135-162.
  4. ↑ JHG Melo: The Malvinokaffric realm in the Devonian of Brazil. In: NJ McMilillan, AF Embry, DJ Glass (Eds.): Devonian of the world. Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists, Calgary 1988, v. 1, pp. 669-704. ( CSPG Memoir, 14).
  5. ↑ IC White: Relatório final since Comissão de Estudos das Minas de Carvão de Pedra do Brasil. DNPM, Rio de Janeiro 1908, Part I, pp. 1-300; Part II, pp. 301-617. (ed. Fac-similar de 1988).
  6. ^ PR Vail, RM Mitchum, S. Thompson: Seismic Stratigraphy and global change of sea level, part 3: relative changes of sea level from coastal onlap. In: CE Payton (Ed.): Seismic Stratigraphy: applications of hydrocarbon exploration. American Association of American Geologists, Tulsa OK 1977, pp. 205-212. ( AAPG Memoir, 26).
  7. ↑ EJ Milani: Evolução tectono-estratigráfica da Bacia do Paraná e seu relacionamento com a geodinâmica fanerozóica do Gondwana sul-ocidental. 2vol. Il. Tese (Doutorado) . Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Curso de Pós-Graduação em Geociências, Porto Alegre 1997.
  8. ↑ L. Morbidelli, CB Gomes, L. Beccaluva, P. Brotzu, AM Conte, E. Ruberti, G. Traversa: Mineralogical, petrological and geochemical aspects of alkaline and alkaline-carbontite associations from Brazil . In: Earth Science Reviews , 39, 1995, pp. 135-168.
  9. ↑ G. Bellieni, P. Comin-Chiaramonti, LS Marques, AJ Melfi, AJR Nardy, EM Piccirillo, D. Stolfa, A. Roisemberg: High- and low-TiO2 flood basalts from the Paraná plateau (Brazil) . Petrology and geochemical aspects bearing on their mantle origin. In: Neues Jahrbuch Mineralogische Abhandlungen , 150, 1984, pp. 273-306.
  10. ↑ IH Campbell, RW Griffiths: Implications of mantle plume structure for the evolution of flood basalts . In: Earth and Planetary Science Letters , 99, 1990, pp. 79-93.
  11. ↑ M. Ernesto, LM Marques, EM Piccirillo, E. Molina, N. Ussami, P. Comin-Chiaramonti, G. Belliene: Paraná Magmatic Province - Tristan da Cunha plume system: fixed versus mobile plume, petrogenetic considerations and alternative heat sources . In: J. Volc. Geothermal. Res. , 130, 2002, pp. 527-553.
  12. ^ SA Gibson, RN Thompson, OH Leonardos, AP Dickin, JG Mitchell: The Late Cretaceous impact of the Trindade mantle plume; evidence from large-volume, mafic, potassic magmatism in SE Brazil . In: Journal of Petrology , 36, 1995, pp. 189-229.
  13. ↑ SD King, J. Ritsema: African Hot spot volcanism: Small-scale convection in the upper mantle beneath cratons . In: Science , 290, 2000, pp. 1137-1140.
  14. ↑ EM Piccirillo, L. Civetta, R. Petrini, A. Longinelli, G. Bellieni, P. Comin-Chiaramonti, LS Marques, AJ Melfi: Regional variations within the Paraná flood basalts (Southern Brazil): evidence for subcontinental mantle heterogeneity and crustal contamination . In: Chemical Geology , 75, 1989, pp. 103-122.
  15. ↑ LS Marques, B. Duprè, EM Piccirillo: Mantle source compositions of the Paraná Magmatic Province (southern Brazil): evidence from trace element and Sr-Nd-Pb isotope geochemistry . In: Journal of Geodynamics , 28, 1999, pp. 439-458.
  16. ↑ R. Petrini, L. Civetta, EM Piccirillo, G. Bellieni, P. Comin-Chiaramonti, LS Marques, AJ Melfi: Mantle heterogeneity and crustal contamination in the genesis of low-Ti continental flood basalts from the Paraná plateau (Brazil) : Sr-Nd isotope and geochemical evidence . In: Journal of Petrology 28, 1987, pp. 701-726.
  17. ↑ The blue gold of the Guaraní, DOK 5 - The Feature, manuscript for the WDR radio broadcast from 21./22. March 2010 (PDF; 236 kB) accessed on March 22, 2010
  18. ^ Eduard Dettmann: Brazil's upswing in German lighting . Paetel, Berlin 1908, pp. 283–287 (chapter The Brazilian hard coal and its possible uses ), here pp. 283 and 285.
  19. ↑ Companhia de Pesquisa de Recursos Minerais - Informe de Recursos Minerais (PDF) Brazilian Geological Survey Co. Report (Portuguese).
  20. ↑ Petrobras Shale Industrialization Business Unit  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (English)@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www2.petrobras.com.br