Mascarene flying fox

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Mascarene flying fox
Mascarene flying fox (Pteropus niger) in flight

Mascarene flying fox ( Pteropus niger ) in flight

Systematics
Superordinate : Laurasiatheria
Order : Bats (chiroptera)
Family : Fruit bats (Pteropodidae)
Tribe : Actual fruit bats (Pteropodini)
Genre : Pteropus
Type : Mascarene flying fox
Scientific name
Pteropus niger
( Kerr , 1792)

The mascarene flying fox ( Pteropus niger ) is a flying fox from the genus Pteropus within the family of the actual flying foxes (Pteropodidae). He is endemic to the Mascarenes . On the island of Reunion which is kind from 1772 to 1801 died . Individual animals carried there in storms or escaped from captivity have again formed a small population on Réunion, of which it is unclear whether they reproduce independently. In Mauritius , the species is considered to be a major pest for orchards and is being persecuted for allegedly increasing populations. The IUCN, however, considers the species to be endangered ( EN - Endangered ), which is the second highest risk category, and reports that populations are declining.

features

Skull of Pteropus niger

With a weight of 380 to 540 grams (average 473 grams) of non-reproducing adult females , the mascarene flying fox belongs to the medium-sized species of the genus Pteropus , while the Indian giant bat ( Pteropus giganteus ) and the kalong ( Pteropus vampyrus ) weigh more or almost that Twice, the gold-coated fruit bat ( Pteropus pumilus ) less than half. The total length reaches 270 millimeters, of which 70 millimeters are on the head. In the older literature, forearms of different lengths are reported for the sexes, 152 to 165 millimeters in males and 143 to 162 millimeters in females. In the literature since 2000, a forearm length of 143 to 165 (average 152) millimeters has been reported with no significant difference between the sexes. The wingspan of adult mascarene flying foxes is between 900 and 1020 millimeters.

The Mascarene flying fox differs from the other flying foxes in the region by its lighter colored flanks, a pronounced black eel line and its strikingly small ears.

Distribution area and habitat

Madagascar , east of it the islands of Réunion and Mauritius

The fruit bats of the genus Pteropus are distributed from the western Indian Ocean to the middle of the Pacific. Investigations of the mitochondrial DNA provided evidence of a colonization of the islands of the Indian Ocean originating from India and Southeast Asia , which occurred in at least three phases. The last two events happened a relatively short time ago and led in the second event from Indonesia to the colonization of Rodrigues Island by the Rodrigues flying fox ( Pteropus rodricensis ), and in the third event from India to the colonization of Mauritius by the Mascarene flying fox .

The natural range of the Mascarene flying fox are the Mascarene Islands and include the volcanic islands of Mauritius ( 20 ° 20 ′ 0 ″  S , 57 ° 30 ′ 0 ″  E ), Réunion ( 21 ° 7 ′ 0 ″  S , 55 ° 32 ′ 0 ″  E ) and, with a single subfossil Fund, Rodrigues 19 ° 43 '0 "  S , 63 ° 25' 0 '  O . Reports of finds in Madagascar are based on confusion. Several old specimens in zoological collections are provided with this indication of origin, partly with the place name Tamatave, the French name of the Malagasy city Toamasina and the earlier province of the same name. A village on Réunion bears the same name.

Mauritius

The Mascarene flying fox lives primarily in the remaining primary forests of Mauritius and in areas where native and introduced trees grow. Mauritius is an island about 62 kilometers long and 45 kilometers wide, a few degrees of latitude north of the Tropic of Capricorn in the western Indian Ocean, about 800 kilometers east of Madagascar. A quarter of the island's area is forested, but only two percent of the area is not affected by invasive plants. These original habitats are also highly fragmented. The fruit bats prefer the largely undisturbed forest on the leeward side of the mountains with protection from direct sunlight for their resting places.

According to the government of Mauritius, the population increased sharply in the first decades of the 21st century because the cyclones with their stock-regulating function did not take place. The size of the population of the Mascarene flying fox is controversial, but the government of Mauritius basically gives significantly higher numbers than domestic nature conservation organizations and the IUCN. Nature conservation organizations occasionally only mention the number of adult animals, whose share of the total population is estimated at 65 percent. The figures given were determined using different methods and therefore cannot be directly compared with one another. The IUCN also admits that there was an increase in the population until 2013. In previous censuses, not all resting places were known; in 2003 only fourteen resting places were known and in 2007 there were already 54 resting places, in 2013 63 resting places and in 2016 there were 83.

year government Conservationists Remarks
1974 10,000 Rough estimate based on counts of a few colonies, conversations with hunters, and anecdotal reports
2006 22,000 to 25,000
2007 more than 25,000 Extrapolation based on the count of 12,000 to 16,000 animals at 24 of 57 known resting places
2010 49,000 to 56,000
55,000
2013 90,000
92,000		 16,000 to 33,000 adults
2015 90,000 50,000
2016 58,125 to 66,875 According to government figures 62,500 animals, ± seven percent
2017 37,700 adults

Reunion

The oldest reports about the Mascarene flying fox come from Réunion. There the species has been considered extinct since the early 19th century; the population expired between 1772 and 1801. At the beginning of the 21st century, individual Mascarene flying foxes were found on Réunion, which were probably driven there by the annual cyclones from Mauritius, about 180 kilometers away. There is also the possibility that they were released in 2006 or 2007 when the Saint-Denis Zoo closed . In 2007 a small group of ten to twenty individuals were observed. In early 2015, the number of fruit bats was estimated at around 40, including several females with juveniles. So far it has not been proven that this population reproduces stably.

Rodrigues

Only one subfossil skull is known of the island of Rodrigues , which was found in a cave together with subfossil bones of the Rodrigues solitaire . The skull was given to the Indian Museum in Kolkata by James Caldwell in 1881 and was falsely identified as Pteropus rodricensis by John Anderson . It was not until 1981 that Knud Christian Anderson published a handwritten note in the margin in a copy of his catalog of bats in the British Museum, in which he referred to the skull he examined as Pteropus niger . There is no evidence of occurrence after the arrival of humans on Rodrigues.

Way of life

Migration routes (orange lines) for six female (left) and six male (right) animals, December 2014 to September 2016
Three Mascarene flying foxes at rest, La Vanille Zoo , Mauritius
Mascarene flying fox at La Vanille Zoo , Mauritius

Resting places

A selection criterion for suitable trees is the accessibility of the crown area and the presence of sufficiently strong branches at the edge of the upper tree crown to be able to carry the weight of several fruit bats. The fruit bats probably need space below in the resting places and the forage plants in order to gain speed when taking off when falling. : Five species that both imported and endemic species are preferred include eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus spp. ), Araucaria ( Araucaria spp. ), Tabebuia pallida , Lebbekbaum ( Albizia lebbek ) and the endemic Labourdonnaisia spp. In addition, preference is given to locations near which suitable forage plants are located. Most of the resting places have mixed occupancy, but there are also resting places with only males or only with females and their young. During the dry season, the resting places in the northwest of the island are used more. Many resting places are used for a very long time, with the composition of society changing due to the lack of loyalty to the location of the Mascarene flying fox. It happens that resting places that have been used for generations are given up after a serious disturbance. The nocturnal mascarene flying foxes, which only exceptionally search for food during the day, fly during the night to their feeding grounds in very different habitats, including orchards and human settlements. Many eat in the vicinity of their resting places, others cover flight distances of up to 90 kilometers in one night and change resting places for various reasons, such as the prevailing wind direction or the food available. The flight speed on approach and departure at the resting places averages 18.5 km / h with peaks of 24 km / h.

Food spectrum

The Mascarene flying fox feeds on native and introduced plants. Just a few years ago it was assumed that more than a third of the diet consists of endangered endemic species and half of introduced plant species. More recent research, which was initiated by the discussion about the damage caused in agriculture, suggests that the fruit bats feed on the fruits, flowers and leaves of native plants to a greater extent than previously known. They prefer ripe fruits and, if there is a lack of them, resort to unripe fruits. The consumption of leaves and flowers may be used to supply proteins that are lacking in the fruits.

Mascarene flying foxes contribute significantly to the spread of the seeds of native plants. Among other things, they feed on the fruits of the calvaria tree , which in the past was claimed to be dependent on the dodo for reproduction . Other fruits consumed are those of the endemic ebony trees Diospyros tessellaria and Diospyros nodosa , and the sapote family Mimusops maxima and Labourdonnaisia ​​glauca . In the case of Labourdonnaisia ​​glauca and numerous other tree species, there are indications that the species depends on the Mascarene fruit bats to spread their seeds. Fruits that grow on tall, spreading trees and whose seeds cannot be spread by birds because of their size are preferred. The seeds of the plants are either swallowed and excreted with the faeces, or the juice and pulp are freed from the fruit bats' mouth and spat out again. The Mascarene flying fox plays a crucial role in the preservation of the last natural forests in Mauritius.

Damage to lychees in comparison: burst open from natural causes (a, b); brown or putrid spots due to lack of nutrients, insect infestation or diseases (c); Bird food (df); Damage caused by flying foxes (gh)

During the dry season from September to December, the food supply for native plants is reduced. The fruit bats then turn to the crops at the precise time when the fruits are ripening and the harvest is imminent. There is evidence that the availability of imported plants reduces the influence of the dry season, which naturally limits reproductive success and regulates the population. The fruits of cultivated plants consumed by Mascarene flying foxes include primarily lychee and mango , but also longan and jackfruit . The Minister of Agriculture and Food Safety announced in October 2015 that 73 percent of the harvest in lychee plantations and 42 percent of the mango harvest had been damaged by the fruit bats, and that some banana plantations were also affected. This information and the information provided by the farmers contradict research results that have shown significantly less damage. Most of the damage was therefore caused by bad weather or the bursting of overripe fruits. A large part of the feeding damage was caused by birds.

Reproduction

The mating season is April and May, and two fruit bats temporarily separate from the rest of the colony to mate. After a gestation period of 20 to 27 weeks, the cubs are born between August and November. The mothers take the boys with them until they are three to six weeks old. The investigation of the mitochondrial DNA of individuals in different resting places suggests that the population of the entire island reproduces in a panic-stricken manner and that a considerable exchange of hereditary information takes place across the entire island.

The mortality of young Mascarene flying foxes is estimated at 50 percent in the first and 33 percent in the second year of life. The boys become sexually mature at the earliest one and a half to two years, with a generation duration of seven years. One specimen kept in captivity reached an age of 19.4 years.

Diseases and zoonotic potential

In connection with population genetic studies, the genetic material of viruses from the group of unclassified morbilliviruses (UCMV) was found in the samples , of which no pathogenic effect on humans is known to date . These viruses have also been found in numerous small mammals on other islands in the western Indian Ocean. In Madagascar, antibodies against Nipah virus , Hendra virus and Tioman virus have been found in the blood of fruit bats . In connection with the culls that have been carried out in Mauritius since 2015, there is also concern that pathogens that have not yet been transmitted to humans could enter the human population. In 2007, in southern Uganda, Marburg fever broke out in a mine with four sick people and in a cave with two sick tourists. The following year was against the advice of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention of the Uganda Virus Research Institute (UVRI) and the Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), the culling of each 40,000 to 100,000 Egyptian fruit bats ( Rousettus aegyptiacus tried) in the mine and in the cave . In August 2012 there was an outbreak in the nearby town of Ibanda with 15 sick people and four dead, the largest outbreak of Marburg fever in Uganda to date. The pathogens could be linked to the fruit bat population in the cave through genetic studies. The culling had disturbed the balance of the fruit bat population, leading to a greater proportion of animals with active infections and a greater risk of infections spreading to humans.

Repeated external examinations of shot mascarene flying foxes did not reveal any evidence of ectoparasites . No ectoparasites could be detected in closely related flying foxes on other islands, while the bats in the region are parasitized by bat flies of the genus Basilia and bugs of the family Polyctenidae .

Systematics

Drawing from Carolus Clusius , Exoticorum libri decem , 1605
Pteropus vampyrus group cladogram



P. dasymallus


   

P. pumilus



   


P. rodricensis


   

P. vampyrus



   


P. lylei


   

P. medius



   


P. aldabrensis


   

P. rufus



   


P. s. comorensis


   

P. niger


   

P. s. seychellensis


   

P. niger










Cladogram of the Pteropus vampyrus group according to Almeida et al. (2014), without P. pselaphon

As early as 1605, the Dutch naturalist Carolus Clusius described the Mascarene flying fox as Vespertilio Ingens . In the centuries that followed, travelers kept reporting the giant bats of the Mascarenes. Only in the middle of the 18th century were the two species later described as Pteropus niger and Pteropus subniger differentiated.

The first description of the mascarene flying fox was published in 1792 by the Scottish doctor, writer and zoologist Robert Kerr as Vespertilio vampirus niger . The Danish zoologist Knud Christian Andersen found in his extensive study of the genus Pteropus in 1912 that his French colleague Mathurin-Jacques Brisson had a specimen of the Mascarene flying fox when he described the genus Pteropus in 1762 . He gave Réunion as Terra typica . In 1998 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature decided that the second edition of Brisson's Regnum animale could no longer be used for taxonomic purposes. However, some of the names he used, including Pteropus , have been declared valid. In addition to the name of the genus, Brisson, 1762 as the author of the genus, and the species Pteropus niger (Kerr, 1762) as the type species were established.

The Danish zoologist Knud Christian Andersen published an extensive chapter on the genus Pteropus in his catalog of the Chiroptera of the British Museum (Natural History) in 1912 . He divided them into 17 groups based on morphological criteria. He placed the Mascarene flying fox in the Pteropus rufus group with Pteropus aldabrensis , Pteropus seychellensis and Pteropus rufus . Recent research showed that Andersen's groups are not monophyletic . A reorganization first took place in 2014, the monophyletic Pteropus vampyrus group comprises a number of closely related species:

A number of the endemic fruit bats on the islands of the western Indian Ocean, including Pteropus niger , show little genetic diversity. The species status of Pteropus aldabrensis , Pteropus niger , Pteropus rufus and Pteropus seychellensis has been questioned in favor of the downgrading to breeds of Pteropus medius .

Synonyms

  • Vespertilio vampirus niger Kerr, 1792
  • Pteropus fuscus É. Geoffroy, 1803
  • Vespertilio mauritianus Hermann , 1804
  • Pteropus rufus Tiedemann , 1808
  • Pteropus vulgaris É. Geoffroy, 1810
  • Pteropus pteropus Merriam , 1895

Danger

Dead mascarene flying fox on a power line

The existence of the Mascarene flight Dogs in Mauritius is, according to conservation organizations such as IUCN by cyclones , the loss of suitable habitats including required trees as resting and feeding areas, poaching and since 2006 repeatedly performed culls threatened.

Cyclones

The cyclones in Mauritius pose a permanent threat to the Mascarene flying foxes. In late February 1960, cyclone Carol devastated the island, killing dozens, destroying the homes of 100,000 people and a large part of the arable land. There are no censuses, but the fruit bats population has been reduced to a fraction of the original population. Because of the hunting pressure - an undiminished number of hunters, there were significantly fewer fruit bats - the population still had not recovered after twenty years. From 2003 to 2018, Mauritius was spared very severe cyclones with wind speeds over 210 km / h. Nonetheless, conservationists are concerned that the island may experience more frequent and stronger storms in the future, partly as a result of current global warming . Such natural events not only cause high mortality through direct action on the fruit bats, but also damage the populations through the loss of food by sweeping the fruit from the trees. They cause further sacrifices as the starved fruit bats seek out the windfall and are easy prey for cats on the ground. In addition, they destroy numerous resting places and reduce the cover of leaves. Elsewhere cyclones have the flying fox populations wiped out in the past, up to 99 percent, in the 1970s on a few hundred kilometers from Rodrigues Island to Rodrigues flying fox ( Pteropus rodricensis ) and possibly 1988 on the Christmas Island to Christmas Island fruit bat ( Pteropus melanotus natalis ).

Invasive species

Around a quarter of the island's area is forested, and the trend is decreasing. The state-owned forest stock is almost constant, but forest on private land is often cut down for other uses. The forest cover is impaired by at least 47 species of invasive plants, which displace native trees and thus also the natural forage plants of the fruit bats. A number of invasive animal species also disrupt the ecological balance by destroying native plants and their fruits and seeds.

In the first centuries of human settlement, only a few hundred people lived on both Mauritius and Réunion. The invasive animal species they brought with them, primarily house rats and brown rats , cats and pigs , spread rapidly across the islands and contributed to the rapid demise of numerous bird species such as the dodo . Flying foxes are less endangered than ground-breeding birds or turtles because of their way of life , but they can be harmed by food competition and habitat changes from feral cattle , goats and introduced mane deer . On Réunion, these species were removed from the fauna in the middle of the 19th century. In Mauritius, on the other hand, there are large populations of feral pigs and red deer.

Crab-eating macaques ( Macaca fascicularis ) in Mauritius

The food competition of the invasive long-tailed macaques ( Macaca fascicularis ) is of particular importance for the Mascarene flying foxes . They were probably released to Mauritius by Portuguese sailors as early as the 16th century and feed on the same local fruits as the fruit bats, but eat them when they are immature. In the case of some food plants, the fruit bats were deprived of more than 95 percent of the fruit. The monkeys cause millions of dollars in damage to agriculture every year and are considered by conservationists to be one of the most dangerous invasive species because of their damage to endemic flora and fauna. On the other hand, catching them and breeding them for export as laboratory animals is an important economic factor. They are attractive to tourists, are considered sacred by the Hindu part of the population and are kept as pets. They are occasionally consumed as light prey. Despite the numerous interactions between humans and crab-eating macaques, not much is known about public attitudes towards monkeys. The number of long-tailed macaques was estimated at 40,000 at the end of the 20th century. It was reduced to around 8,000 animals in 2006 and 2007 when numerous animals were caught for export as laboratory animals. Since then the population has increased again to an estimated 50,000 monkeys.

Hunting and culling

In 1772, JB de La Nux reported in a letter to the French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon about the hunt for fruit bats on the Mascarene Mountains. The mascarene flying fox , which became extinct in the 19th century , could easily be captured with traps as a resident of hollow trees and caves. The Mascarene flying fox rested in groups in the trees and could easily be caught or shot with nets . This practice on Réunion, which was considered unsportsmanlike in Mauritius, could have led to the extinction of the fruit bats. Historically, fruit bats were consumed as bushmeat on the Mascarene Islands , but here only rarely and never to an extent that posed a threat to the species. This tradition has been abandoned, there is now no hunting for food and no trade in the meat of the Mascarene flying foxes. Hunting the fruit bats, which are perceived as pests, or as a sport, however, contributes to the endangerment of the species. In the early 2010s, the number of mascarene flying foxes poached annually was estimated at around 2000 animals, between four and ten percent of the population. The estimate for 2015 was already 5000 poached fruit bats and it is feared that carrying out the culls will also further increase the number of poached fruit bats.

In 2005, 43 percent of the area of ​​Mauritius was agricultural land, 89 percent of which was sugar cane . The share of the production of fruits such as lychee and mango, mostly for the French and German markets, has risen sharply in recent decades. In October 2006, following complaints from plantation owners, an attempt was made for the first time to reduce the population of the Mascarene flying fox by culling selected lychee plantations. A total of 2,000 fruit bats should be killed on the plantations in the afternoons. The measure proved to be ineffective, according to government information, as most of the nocturnal flying foxes escaped pursuit. Officially, only six fruit bats were killed. In contrast, according to the IUCN, poachers kill several hundred fruit bats in one night. The culling was in contravention of the Wildlife and National Parks Act 1993 , which placed the Mascarene flying fox under protection.

In 2015, another attempt was made to cull fruit bats. In the run-up to the parliamentary deliberations on a new nature conservation law, the Minister of Agriculture and Food Safety mentioned in the island's public media absurdly high populations of up to one million animals and an increase in the population that is biologically excluded. The minister emphasized that the status of the Mascarene flying fox had changed from “endangered” to “pest” in recent years. At a meeting of the National Assembly of Mauritius on October 6, 2015, the Minister of Agriculture and Food Safety announced that culling on plantations outside of residential areas was planned again from the middle of the month. Implementation was entrusted to the Special Mobile Force, a paramilitary police unit that performs the task of the armed forces in Mauritius. She worked with the National Park Administration and the veterinary service of the Ministry of Agriculture. During the three weekends culling, it should be ensured that the species can persist in Mauritius. The aim was to reduce the population by 20 percent, which corresponds to less than 20,000 animals.

The culls provoked protests from nature conservationists at home and abroad. In particular, they complained that the government had given in to pressure from lobbyists and that there was no evidence of the damage allegedly caused by the fruit bats. Other animals, such as invasive rats, parakeets and beos , cause greater damage, but are not the target of the culls. The Mauritian ecologist and conservationist Vincent Florens held agribusiness his country in a letter to the science magazine Nature right to disregard the environment and international agreements. The culls have proven to be ineffective; after the first two culls in 2017, litchi production has slumped by around seventy percent. During the culls, a disproportionately large number of young leading mother animals are shot down, many fruit bats are only shot and die in agony. In the Black River Gorges National Park and several other nature reserves and in tourist centers such as the Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Botanical Garden , fruit bats were killed, but not in the plantations that are said to have been hit by fruit bats in large numbers. In this way, flying foxes with problematic behavior are spared, while the flying foxes remaining in the protected areas are decimated.

According to government reports, 30,938 fruit bats were killed in the cull in October and November 2015. According to conservative estimates, there are also 5,000 poached animals and 1,000 animals that have died on power lines. According to government reports, 7,380 fruit bats were killed in a second cull in December 2016. According to the IUCN and local conservationists, the population was reduced by 50 percent between October 2015 and January 2017. Assuming that there will be no more culls, no more natural disasters, and that 5,000 fruit bats will continue to be poached annually and 1,000 perish on power lines, the organization fears a population decline of 64 to 80 percent by 2030 or 2038. Regardless of the national and International protests by nature conservationists, the government of Mauritius carried out a third cull in December 2018, which in turn aimed to kill 20 percent of the fruit bats.

Risk assessment

The IUCN has repeatedly changed its risk assessment. At the beginning of the 1970s the species was considered critically endangered, in 1983 it was designated as "rare" by the IUCN. The Mascarene flying fox was considered endangered by the organization in 2008 and placed in the second highest endangered category ( EN - Endangered ). This was justified with the small size of the range and its limitation to a single, possibly two, islands, the progressive loss of suitable habitats and the decreasing number of reproductive specimens as a result of poaching and culling. In 2013, the endangered status was reduced to threatened ( VU - Vulnerable ). This was done on the basis of a new extrapolation which predicted a population decline of only 30 percent for the following three generations (21 years) as a result of habitat loss.

In 2017, after the culls in 2015 and 2016, the risk level of the IUCN was increased again to EN-Endangered . This was done in anticipation of a population decline of more than 50 percent within three generations or 21 years. The causes of this expected decline have been cited as further culls and reduced protective measures by the government, increasing poaching by the population, loss of power lines, loss of habitat and the likelihood of a strong cyclone within three generations.

protection

International

The Mascarene flying fox has been listed in Appendix II of the Washington Convention on Endangered Species (CITES) since 1990 . This means that the Mascarene flying fox is subject to severe restrictions in international trade. France in 1996 and Mauritius in 2000, the East African Region (the Convention on the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment Nairobi Convention ) ratified . France signed the Protocol on Protected Areas and Wildlife in the East African Region in 1985. The Mascarene flying fox is listed in Appendix II of the Protocol and therefore needs special protection. Mauritius has no obligations under the Protocol as it has not signed.

Protection in Mauritius

The first laws on nature conservation in Mauritius only covered birds and, since 1973, reptiles. As a first measure, the flying foxes were removed from the list of huntable game with the Wildlife Act (Act 33 of 1983) . The Wildlife and National Parks Act 1993 placed the Mascarene flying fox under national protection in Mauritius, but a poacher was never punished for killing a flying fox. In 2015, the Wildlife and National Parks Act 1993 was replaced by the Native Terrestrial Biodiversity and National Parks Act (2015) . The Mascarene fruit bat remains under protection, but the new law allows the killing of wild animals that have been classified as pests. The culls in 2015 and 2016 took place on this changed legal basis.

Protective nets over the fruit-bearing shoots of a lychee tree

In 2009 the government of Mauritius started subsidizing the purchase of up to ten protective nets by fruit growers, for which three quarters of the purchase price were reimbursed. Almost 4,500 applications were then submitted. However, the reported damage continued to rise, according to the government due to the increase in the fruit bat population. It turned out that it is easier to attach protective nets to litchi plantations than to mango trees. Pruning the sprawling mango trees in order to be able to attach the safety nets leads to a significantly lower harvest for three to four years, but then to higher yields. The Ministry of Agriculture advised fruit growers to plant small varieties of mango trees, as they are easier to protect with nets. In addition, measures for the preservation and expansion of near-natural forests were decided, which should be made more attractive for the fruit bats by planting jackfruit trees , mangoes and guavas .

There is a need to subject the size and development of the stocks, the requirements for habitats, the impairment of agriculture by the fruit bats and possible measures to protect the plantations, as well as the effects of the culling and other possible cyclones to a scientific investigation. An important goal is the development of successful strategies to protect the harvests, which also represent an alternative to killing fruit bats in the eyes of the farmers. It has been shown that the elimination of invasive plants improves the natural habitats of the fruit bats, so that they use wild plants again as a source of food. With regard to the damage caused by flying foxes in fruit growing, the improved equipment with nets and instructions on optimal handling, the optimized pruning of the trees to increase productivity, the development of fruit exports, with the focus on marketing, have all been ethically responsible - also with renunciation on the killing of fruit bats - produced goods, and an improved dialogue between the stakeholders involved.

Protection on Réunion

The small population on Réunion benefits from the strict requirements of French and European nature conservation law, as Réunion, as a French overseas department, is part of France and the European Union . The Mascarene flying fox , along with the Mauritius grave bat (Taphozous mauritianus) and the Réunion mastino bat ( Mormopterus francoismoutoui ), was given special protection by a ministerial decree of February 17, 1989. Violations of the decree are threatened with one year imprisonment or a fine of up to 15,000 euros. However, the bats on Réunion are neither subject to the Fauna-Flora-Habitat Directive nor the Agreement on the Conservation of European Bat Populations . In 2011, the first species protection concept for the Mascarene flying fox was published. In 2010 by the IUCN and the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle published red list of the fauna of Reunion is the Mascarene Flying Fox as Endangered ( CR - Critically Endangered ) listed. The very small population with its resting places close to human settlements is particularly susceptible to both anthropogenic and natural influences such as storms.

literature

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  • Wim Bergmans: Taxonomy and biogeography of African fruit bats (Mammalia, Megachiroptera). 3. The genera Scotonycteris Matschie, 1894, Casinycteris Thomas, 1910, Pteropus Brisson, 1762, and Eidolon Rafinesque, 1815 . In: Beaufortia . tape 40 , no. 7 , 1990, pp. 111–177 ( naturalis.nl [PDF; 5.5 MB ]).
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  • FB Vincent Florens, Claudia Baider, V. Marday, Geneviève MN Martin, Zeyn Zmanay, Ryszard Z. Oleksy, Gabriella Krivek, Christian E. Vincenot, Dominique Strasberg, Tigga Kingston: Disproportionately large ecological role of a recently mass-culled flying fox in native forests of an oceanic island . In: Journal for Nature Conservation . tape 40 , 2017, p. 85-93 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jnc.2017.10.002 .
  • Winifred F. Frick, Tigga Kingston, Jon Flanders: A review of the major threats and challenges to global bat conservation . In: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences . 2019, doi : 10.1111 / nyas.14045 .
  • David S. Hammond, Valery Gond, Claudia Baider, Vincent FB Florens, Sharveen Pers, Susan GW Laurance: Threats to Environmentally Sensitive Areas from Peri-Urban Expansion in Mauritius . In: V. Tang, T. Shaw, M. Holden (Eds.): Development and Sustainable Growth of Mauritius . 10.1007 / 978-3-319-96166-8_9, Cham 2019, ISBN 978-3-319-96165-1 , p. 213-237 , doi : 10.1007 / 978-3-319-96166-8_9 .
  • Robert Kerr : The animal kingdom, or zoological system, of the celebrated Sir Charles Linnaeus. Class I. Mammalia. Containing a complete systematic description, arrangement, and nomenclature, of all the known species and varieties of the mammalia, or animals which give suck to their young . S. 90-91 ( archive.org ).
  • Gabriella Krivek: The influence of invasive alien plant control on the foraging habitat quality of the Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger) . Master's thesis. Norwegian University of Life Sciences , Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Ås 2017 (43 p., Unit.no [PDF; 3.5 MB ]).
  • Peter A. Larsen, Corinne E. Hayes, Mary A. Wilkins, Yann Gomard, Rajendraprasad Sookhareea, Anne D. Yoder , Steven M. Goodman : Population genetics of the Mauritian flying fox, Pteropus niger . In: Acta Chiropterologica . tape 16 , no. 2 , 2014, p. 293-300 , doi : 10.3161 / 150811014X687251 .
  • JR Mauremootoo, S. Pandoo, V. Bachraz, I. Buldawoo, NC Cole: Invasive species management in Mauritius: from the reactive to the proactive - the National Invasive Species Management Strategy and its implementation . In: CR Veitch, MN Clout, AR Martin, JC Russell, CJ West (eds.): Island invasives: scaling up to meet the challenge. Proceedings of the international conference on island invasives 2017 (=  Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission . No. 62). IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 2019, ISBN 978-2-8317-1962-7 , pp. 503–509 , doi : 10.2305 / IUCN.CH.2019.SSC-OP.62.en ( iucn.org [PDF; 17.2 MB ]).
  • François Moutou: Note sur les chiroptères de l'île de la Réunion (Océan India) . In: Mammalia . tape 46 , no. 1 , p. 35-52 , doi : 10.1515 / mamm.1982.46.1.35 .
  • Dorte Friis Nyhagen: A study of the bat-fruit syndrome on Mauritius, Indian Ocean . In: Phelsuma . tape 12 , 2004, p. 118–125 ( islandbiodiversity.com [PDF; 190 kB ]).
  • Dorte Friis Nyhagen, Stephen David Turnbull, Jens Mogens Olesen, Carl G. Jones: An investigation into the role of the Mauritian flying fox, Pteropus niger, in forest regeneration . In: Biological Conservation . tape 122 , no. 3 , 2005, p. 491-497 , doi : 10.1016 / j.biocon.2004.08.012 .
  • Ryszard Z. Oleksy, Charles L. Ayady, Vikash Tatayah, Carl Jones, Jérémy SP Froidevaux, Paul A. Racey, Gareth Jones: The impact of the Endangered Mauritian flying fox Pteropus niger on commercial fruit farms and the efficacy of mitigation . In: Oryx . 2018, p. 1-8 , doi : 10.1017 / s0030605318001138 .
  • Ryszard Z. Oleksy, Charles L. Ayady, Vikash Tatayah, Carl Jones, Paul W. Howey, Jérémy SP Froidevaux, Paul A. Racey, Gareth Jones: The movement ecology of the Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger): a long-term study using solar-powered GSM / GPS tags . In: Movement Ecology . tape 7 , 2019, 12, doi : 10.1186 / s40462-019-0156-6 .
  • Elizabeth D. Pierson, William E. Rainey: The biology of flying foxes of the genus Pteropus: A review . In: Don E. Wilson , Gary L. Graham (Eds.): Pacific Island Flying Foxes: Proceedings of an International Conservation Conference (=  Biological Report . Volume 90 , no. 23 ). US Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC 1992, p. 176 ( dtic.mil [PDF]).
  • Simon Tollington, Zainal Kareemun, Arlaine Augustin, Kunal Lallchand, Vikash Tatayah, Alexandra Zimmermann: Quantifying the damage caused by fruit bats to backyard lychee trees in Mauritius and evaluating the benefits of protective netting . In: PLoS ONE . tape 14 , no. 8 , August 19, 2019, Article e0220955 , doi : 10.1371 / journal.pone.0220955 .

Web links

Commons : Mascarene flying fox ( Pteropus niger )  - Collection of images, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ^ A b Francisco Alejandro Lagunas-Rangel: Why do bats live so long? - Possible molecular mechanisms . In: Biogerontology . 2019, doi : 10.1007 / s10522-019-09840-3 .
  2. ↑ a b c d Dorte Friis Nyhagen et al .: An investigation into the role of the Mauritian flying fox, Pteropus niger, in forest regeneration .
  3. ^ A b c Sarah Caceres: Plan de conservation de la Roussette noire (Pteropus niger) à La Réunion . Office National de la Chasse et de la Faune Sauvage, Direction Régionale de l'Environnement de La Réunion (DIREN), Saint-Denis 2011 (62 pages + appendices).
  4. ^ A b John O'Brien, Carol Mariani, Link Olson, Amy L. Russell, Ludovic Say, Anne D. Yoder , Tom J. Hayden: Multiple colonizations of the western Indian Ocean by Pteropus fruit bats (Megachiroptera: Pteropodidae): The furthest islands were colonized first . In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . tape 51 , no. 2 , 2009, p. 294–303 , doi : 10.1016 / j.ympev.2009.02.010 .
  5. ↑ a b c d Anthony S. Cheke: An ecological history of the Mascarene Islands, with particular reference to extinctions and introductions of land vertebrates .
  6. ↑ a b c d e f g FB Vincent Florens, Claudia Baider: Mass-culling of a threatened island flying fox species failed to increase fruit growers' profits and revealed gaps to be addressed for effective conservation .
  7. ^ Wim Bergmans: Taxonomy and biogeography of African fruit bats (Mammalia, Megachiroptera). 3.
  8. ^ A b François Moutou: Note sur les chiroptères de l'île de la Réunion (Océan India) .
  9. ^ A b Robert W. Sussman, Christopher A. Shaffer, Lisa Guidi: Macaca fascicularis in Mauritius: Implications for macaque-human interactions and for future research on long-tailed macaques . In: Michael D. Gumert, Agustín Fuentes, Lisa Jones-Engel (Eds.): Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans (=  Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology . Volume 60 ). Cambridge University Press, New York a. a. 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76433-9 , chap. 1 , p. 207-235 .
  10. ↑ a b FB Vincent Florens, Claudia Baider, Nooshruth B. Seegoolam, Zeyn Zmanay, Dominique Strasberg: Long-term declines of native trees in an oceanic island's tropical forests invaded by alien plants . In: Applied Vegetation Science . tape 20 , no. 1 , 2017, p. 94-105 , doi : 10.1111 / avsc.12273 .
  11. ↑ a b c d e f g Sixth National Assembly. First session. Tuesday 06 October 2015 . In: Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) . No. 33 of 2015. Port Louis 2015, p.  64–69 ( govmu.org [PDF; 476 kB ]).
  12. ↑ a b c d e f g h i j k l Pteropus niger in the endangered species Red List of IUCN 2018. Submitted By: T. Kingston, V. Florens, R. Oleksy, K. Ruhomaun, V. Tatayah, 2017th Retrieved December 24, 2019.
  13. ↑ a b c d e Anthony S. Cheke , Jeremy F. Dahl: The Status of bats on western Indian Ocean islands, with special reference to Pteropus .
  14. ↑ a b c d e f Pteropus niger in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2013. Posted by: AM Hutson, PA Racey, 2013. Retrieved on December 24 of 2019.
  15. ↑ a b c Pteropus niger in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2008. Posted by: RKB Jenkins, V. Tatayah, PA Racey, 2008. Accessed on December 24 of 2019.
  16. ↑ a b c d Sheema Abdul Aziz et al .: The Conflict Between Pteropodid Bats and Fruit Growers .
  17. ↑ a b c Brandon P. Anthony, Vikash Tatayah, Deborah de Chazal: Taking the first steps: Initial mapping of the human-wildlife interaction of the Mauritius Fruit Bat Pteropus niger (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) in Mauritius by Conservation Organizations . In: Journal of Threatened Taxa . tape 10 , no. 8 , 2018, p. 12073–12081 , doi : 10.11609 / jott.4063.10.8.12073-12081 ( threatenedtaxa.org ).
  18. ^ Jean-Michel Probst, Mickaël Sanchez: Découverte d'une nouvelle colonie de Roussette des Mascareignes Pteropus niger (Kerr, 1792) dans l'Est de La Réunion . In: Bulletin Phaeton . tape 41 , 2015, p. 1-4 .
  19. ^ Knud Christian Andersen: A subfossil bat's skull from Rodriguez I. In: Records of the Indian Museum . tape IX , Part V, December, 1913, pp. 337 ( archive.org ).
  20. ↑ Elizabeth D. Pierson, William E. Rainey: The biology of flying foxes of the genus Pteropus: A review .
  21. ^ Ryszard Z. Oleksy et al .: The movement ecology of the Mauritian flying fox (Pteropus niger): a long-term study using solar-powered GSM / GPS tags .
  22. ↑ a b FB Vincent Florens et al .: Disproportionately large ecological role of a recently mass-culled flying fox in native forests of an oceanic island .
  23. ^ Stanley A. Temple: Plant-Animal Mutualism: Coevolution with Dodo Leads to Near Extinction of Plant . In: Science . tape 197 , no. 4306 , 1977, pp. 885-886 , doi : 10.1126 / science.197.4306.885 .
  24. ↑ a b c Ryszard Z. Oleksy: The impact of the Mauritius Fruit Bat (Pteropus niger) on commercial fruit farms and possible mitigation measures . ( rufford.org [PDF; 620 kB ] Report, no year (2015)).
  25. ↑ Dorte Friis Nyhagen: A study of the bat-fruit syndrome on Mauritius, Indian Ocean .
  26. ^ A b c Simon P. Mickleburgh, Anthony M. Hutson, Paul A. Racey: Old World Fruit Bats. An Action Plan for the It Conservation . IUCN, Gland, Switzerland 1992, ISBN 2-8317-0055-8 , pp. 119 .
  27. ↑ a b Simon Tollington et al .: Quantifying the damage caused by fruit bats to backyard lychee trees in Mauritius and evaluating the benefits of protective netting .
  28. ↑ a b c Peter A. Larsen et al .: Population genetics of the Mauritian flying fox, Pteropus niger .
  29. ↑ Kendra L. Phelps, Luke Hamel, Nisreen Alhmoud, Shahzad Ali, Rasit Bilgin, Ketevan Sidamonidze, Lela Urushadze, William Karesh, Kevin J. Olival: Bat Research Networks and Viral Surveillance: Gaps and Opportunities in Western Asia . In: Viruses . tape 11 , no. 3 , 2019, 240, doi : 10.3390 / v11030240 ( mdpi.com [PDF; 2,3 MB ]).
  30. ↑ Brian Amman, Luke Nyakarahuka, Anita K. McElroy, Kimberly A. Dodd, Tara Sealy, Amy J. Schuh, Trevor R. Shoemaker, Stephen Balinandi, Patrick Atimnedi, Winyi Kaboyo, Stuart T. Nichol, Jonathan S. Towner: Marburgvirus Resurgence in Kitaka Mine Bat Population after Extermination Attempts, Uganda . In: Emerging Infectious Diseases . tape 20 , no. 10 , 2014, p. 1761–1764 , doi : 10.3201 / eid2010.140696 .
  31. ^ A b Francisca C. Almeida, Norberto P. Giannini, Nancy B. Simmons, Kristofer M. Helgen: Each flying fox on its own branch: A phylogenetic tree for Pteropus and related genera (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) . In: Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution . tape 77 , 2014, p. 83-95 , doi : 10.1016 / j.ympev.2014.03.009 .
  32. ↑ Carolus Clusius : Exoticorum libri decem: quibus animalium, plantarum, aromatum, aliorumque peregrinorum fructuum historiae describuntur: item Petri Bellonii Observationes, eodem Carolo Clusio interprete . Raphelengius , Leiden 1605, p.  94-96 ( digitized on Gallica ).
  33. ↑ a b c Knud Christian Andersen : Catalog of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum , pp. 215-223.
  34. ^ A b Robert Kerr : The animal kingdom, or zoological system, of the celebrated Sir Charles Linnaeus.
  35. ↑ Knud Christian Andersen : Catalog of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum , pp. 61-98.
  36. ^ Opinion 1894. Regnum Animale ..., Ed. 2 (MJ Brisson, 1762): rejected for nomenclatural purposes, with the conservation of the mammalian generic names Philander (Marsupialia), Pteropus (Chiroptera), Glis, Cuniculus and Hydrochoerus (Rodentia), Meles, Lutra and Hyaena (Carnivora), Tapirus (Perissodactyla), Tragulus and Giraffa (Artiodactyla) . In: The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature . tape  55 . The International Trust for Zoological Nomenclature, 1998, p. 64-71 ( archive.org ).
  37. ↑ Lauren M. Chan, Steven M. Goodman, Michael D. Nowak, David W. Weisrock , Anne D. Yoder : Increased population sampling confirms low genetic divergence among Pteropus (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) fruit bats of Madagascar and other western Indian Ocean islands . In: PLoS Currents . 2011, article RRN1226 , doi : 10.1371 / currents.RRN1226 .
  38. ↑ Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire : Catalog des Mammifères du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle . Paris 1803, p.  46-47 ( digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A10482289~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D ).
  39. ↑ Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire : Observationes Zoologicae quibus novae complures, aliaeque animalium species describuntur et illustrantur. Opus posthumum edidit Fridericus Ludovicus Hammer . Strasbourg, Paris 1804, p.  19 ( digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3Dobservationeszoo00herm~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D ).
  40. ↑ Friedrich Tiedemann : Zoology, designed for his lectures . tape  1 . Landshut 1808, p. 535 ( digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3D~MDZ%3D%0A10309071~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D ).
  41. ^ Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire: Description of the Roussettes et des Céphalotes. Deux nouveaux genres de la famille des Chauve-souris . In: Annales du Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle . tape XV , 1810, p. 92-93 ( digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3Dannalesdumusum15mus~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D ).
  42. ^ Clinton Hart Merriam : Brisson's genera of mammals, 1762 . In: Science . New series. Volume I, No.  14 , 1895, p. 375-376 ( digitized versionhttp: //vorlage_digitalisat.test/1%3D~GB%3D~IA%3Dscience11895mich~MDZ%3D%0A~SZ%3D~doppelseiten%3D~LT%3D~PUR%3D ).
  43. ↑ Pteropus rodricensis in the endangered Red List species the IUCN 2017. Posted by: V. Tatayah, R. Jhangeer Khan, YES Bégué, CA Jones, 2016. Retrieved on December 25 of 2019.
  44. ^ Thomas J. O'Shea, Paul M. Cryan, David TS Hayman, Raina K. Plowright, Daniel G. Streicker: Multiple mortality events in bats: a global review . In: Mammal Review . tape 46 , no. 3 , 2016, p. 175-190 , doi : 10.1111 / mam.12064 .
  45. ^ Stanley A. Temple: Wildlife in Mauritius today . In: Oryx . tape 12 , no. 5 , 1974, p. 584-590 , doi : 10.1017 / S0030605300012643 .
  46. ↑ FB Vincent Florens, Claudia Baider, Geneviève MN Martin, Nooshruth B. Seegoolam, Zeyn Zmanay, Dominique Strasberg: Invasive alien plants progress to dominate protected and best-preserved wet forests of an oceanic island . In: Journal for Nature Conservation . tape 34 , 2016, p. 93-100 , doi : 10.1016 / j.jnc.2016.09.006 .
  47. ↑ a b JR Mauremootoo: Invasive species management in Mauritius: from the reactive to the proactive - the National Invasive Species Management Strategy and implementation its .
  48. ↑ Michael D. Gumert: The common monkey of Southeast Asia: Long-tailed macaque populations, ethnophoresy, and their occurrence in human environments . In: Michael D. Gumert, Agustín Fuentes, Lisa Jones-Engel (Eds.): Monkeys on the Edge: Ecology and Management of Long-Tailed Macaques and their Interface with Humans (=  Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology . Volume 60 ). Cambridge University Press, New York a. a. 2011, ISBN 978-0-521-76433-9 , chap. 1 , p. 3-44 .
  49. ↑ Simon P. Mickleburgh, Kerry Waylen, Paul A. Racey: Bats as bushmeat: a global review . In: Oryx . tape 43 , no. 2 , 2009, p. 217-234 , doi : 10.1017 / S0030605308000938 .
  50. ↑ a b F. B. Vincent Florens : Flying foxes face cull despite evidence . In: Science . tape  350 , no. 3266 , 2015, p. 1325-1326 , doi : 10.1126 / science.350.6266.1325-a .
  51. ↑ Winifred F. Frick, Tigga Kingston, Jon Flanders: A review of the major threats and challenges to global bat conservation .
  52. ^ FB Vincent Florens: Mauritius culls threatened fruit bats . In: Nature . tape 530 , 2016, p. 33 , doi : 10.1038 / 530033a .
  53. ^ A b c FB Vincent Florens, Christian E. Vincenot: Broader conservation strategies needed . In: Science . tape 362 , no. 3413 , 2018, p. 409 , doi : 10.1126 / science.aav5161 .
  54. ^ Sixth National Assembly. First session. Tuesday 24 May 2016 . In: Parliamentary Debates (Hansard) . No. 08 of 2016. Port Louis 2016, p.  48–53 ( govmu.org [PDF; 1.1 MB ]).
  55. ^ Position statement. The Culling of the Mauritius Fruit Bat Pteropus niger . IUCN Species Survival Commission, 2018 ( iucn.org [PDF; 1.7  MB ]).
  56. ↑ Gabriella Krivek: The influence of invasive alien plant control on the foraging habitat quality of the Mauritian flying fox .
  57. ↑ Recommendations on netting and management of fruit bat damage to orchards in Mauritius. An extract from a report written following a multi-stakeholder workshop held on the 15th and 16th August 2017 at the Farmers Training School, FAREI, Wooton, Mauritius . Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, 2017 ( mauritian-wildlife.org [PDF; 64  kB ]).
  58. ↑ Christian E. Vincenot, FB Vincent Florens, Tigga Kingston: Can we protect island flying foxes? Flying foxes play key ecological roles on tropical islands, yet face rising threats . In: Science . tape 355 , no. 6332 , 2017, p. 1368-1370 , doi : 10.1126 / science.aam7582 .
  59. ↑ Le Renard volant de Maurice ou Roussette noire. Pteropus niger . In: La list rouge des espèces menacées en France. Fauns de La Réunion . UICN, Comité Français and Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, 2010, p.  7 ( uicn.fr [PDF; 1,2 MB ]).