razor
A razor is a very sharp knife for wet , and less often for dry, shaving, consisting of an elongated steel blade and a handle. The blade is mostly made of non-rustproof carbon steel and ground hollow . Materials such as wood , mother-of-pearl , horn or even plastic are used for the handle . The sharp blade can be folded into the handle for storage and transport. Razors of this type dominated in the 19th century, the “golden era” of the razor, and for a long time were only used by professional barbers . For some years, however, razors have been increasingly used again in the private sector.
In contrast to safety razors and system razors, there are no additional costs for interchangeable blades after purchasing a straight razor . A razor can also be used to achieve closer shaves. However, it takes practice to use it in order to avoid injuries. The blade has on a front of each shaving strop abgeledert be reground and at regular intervals, in order to obtain the sharpness of the cutting edge.
In contrast to the classic razor with a razor is interchangeable blade as Shavette referred.
history
Bronze age
In Egypt, face shaving came into fashion in the Early Dynastic Period (3100–2686 BC), initially among the upper classes and later spread to the rest of the population. Straight razors were made of copper or bronze. The existence of barbers is documented by grave scenes, for example in the grave of Userhet ( KV45 ), a high official of the 18th dynasty (1550–1292 BC).
There is evidence that razors have been in use in Europe since the Middle Bronze Age . A distinction is made between two types, both of which spread from the eastern Mediterranean to the rest of Europe, but at different times. Double-edged razors came to Central and Western Europe, including the British Isles, in the 16th century BC. In use, single-edged straight razors were only used in Scandinavia in the 15th century BC. According to Frank Gnegel, author of a cultural history of self-shaving, the function of these knives is "clearly proven by the remains of hair left on the cutting edges". According to Gnegel, razors "apparently had an additional religious or cultic function, because they were only found in some of the men's graves and were apparently only available to heads of families or people of aristocratic origin".
Roman Empire
At the time of the Roman Empire, the use of razors was subject to the respective fashion. The Roman scholar Marcus Terentius Varro writes in his textbook De re rustica that shaving the face did not develop until around 300 BC. In Rome after Father Ticinius Menas brought a barber from Sicily, and Pliny the Elder writes in his Naturalis historia that Scipio the Younger was the first Roman to shave every day. Even in the later Roman Empire, especially from the government of Hadrian to the late Severers and from the rule of Gallienus to the Roman Tetrarchy , shaving was a rarely practiced practice.
A razor ( novacula ), like a comb ( pecten ), mirror ( speculum ), scissors ( acitia ) and curling iron ( calamistrum ) were standard equipment of a Roman barber. The knife was sharpened using oil on a stone and kept in a box after use. According to Pliny the Elder, cobwebs were used to care for cuts on the face. Specimens of early folding straight razors with 12 centimeter long trapezoidal blades and ivory handles found in Pompeii were luxury objects of the upper classes.
middle Ages
Since late antiquity , beardlessness has been a hallmark of the occidental clergy . In the monastic orders, precise regulations governed the use and safekeeping of the razors used. They were kept in a closed box and sharpened by a specially designated brother before use. To shave, the monks split up into pairs, with one monk holding the razor and the other holding a bowl of water. However, shaving was not handled consistently throughout. Medieval image sources show both clean-shaven clerics and those with full beards.
By the 14th century at the latest, the barber's trade was established , who in addition to medical activities also carried out shaving. Since the use of lather to shave did not become common until later, shaving with a knife was a painful procedure at the time. The process was made easier only in bathing rooms, in which water or steam softened the beard hair before using the razor.
Early modern age
As in all times, the importance of the razor rose and fell in the early modern times with the need to shave and with it the respective beard fashion. At the beginning of the 16th century - influenced by the fashion of the French King Franz I - the full beard became more popular again. But as early as the 1640s, the full beards were replaced by short, pointed beards, this time from the Spanish court. In France in the late 17th century, thin mustaches were initially popular, which - referring to Louis XIV - were called "Royale". The fact that Ludwig finally switched to a clean shave in the last years of his life was lamented by later authors as the "downfall of the beard in [...] Europe".
The invention of particularly pure and extremely hard cast steel in the middle of the 18th century was of particular importance for the development of the razor . A new production method , commonly attributed to Benjamin Huntsman , as well as the striving of English steel producers for higher quality made it possible to manufacture straight razors with a previously unknown sharpness and edge retention . Self-shaving, which emerged in the second half of the 18th century, was illustrated by works such as Jean-Jacques Perret's La Pogonotomie, ou l'art d'apprendre à se raser soi-même , a guide to using the razor independently from 1770, as well as comparable ones Popularized works by Benjamin Kingsbury and John Savigny .
19th century
The 19th century is considered to be the "golden era" of the razor. With the advent of serial production in the 19th century, razors became more widespread than ever before. Blades from Solingen , Sheffield and the French centers of knife manufacture in particular dominated the market. The quick editions of the instructions for the use and care of straight razors already mentioned are impressive proof of the extent to which the use of the straight razor has developed into a phenomenon that penetrates broad layers. Kingsburys Treatize on Razors alone saw a total of twelve editions between 1797 and 1837. The book had been available to the German public as early as 1800 under the title Abhandlung von Barbier-Messern .
While self-shaving lasted even longer in England, it became increasingly uncommon in Germany towards the end of the 19th century to pick up a razor yourself. Instead, they went to the barber, a trade that experienced a strong boom in Germany in the 1890s. According to Gnegel, in 1895 “43,500 people in the barber trade were opposed to only 16,900 in the hairdressing trade.” The razor was not only used for clean shaving, as mustache wearers also had parts of their faces shaved with a knife.
20th and 21st centuries
With the introduction of the safety razor with interchangeable blade developed by King Camp Gillette in the first half of the 20th century, the razor was pushed back. The razor blades manufactured by Gillette no longer had to be sharpened and thus saved the user the maintenance step required when using razors. Manufacturers such as Gillette pointed out that using safety razors was less likely to get infected with communicable skin diseases than visiting a barber using razors. In addition, shaving yourself with a Gillette safety razor saves “time and money” and thus creates “a real pleasure”, as it was called in a contemporary report.
After the end of the Second World War , the razor got additional competition with the invention of the electric dry razor . In the field of wet shaving, system razors dominate today , in which replaceable plastic assemblies with up to six blades are thrown away after repeated use.
The classic wet shave with a straight razor experienced a limited renaissance at the beginning of the 21st century. Especially after the appearance of the movie Skyfall , in which the main actor Daniel Craig is shaved with a razor by his film partner and she shaves the knife with the words "sometimes the old ways are the best" (English "sometimes the old ways are the best." “) Comments, some of the European manufacturers of straight razors were able to multiply their sales figures.
In Germany it is very rare to find hairdressers who shave with a razor.
Manufacturing
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Industrially manufactured straight razors commercially available today are made from rolled steel strips. First of all, “gaps” are cut from these steel strips, the cross-section of which corresponds approximately to that of the finished blade. These columns are heated in an oven for further processing. Then the blacksmith takes the metal blanks out of the furnace with pliers and gives them their future shape in a die under a drop hammer . Then the excess metal is removed during deburring . For this purpose, the edge is punched out with a machine .
The steel blanks created in this way are then hardened so that the later razors have sufficient edge retention . To do this, the blanks are held in a bath of liquid lead at a temperature of over 850 ° C for a few minutes. Then the blanks are cooled in a basin filled with oil, which gives the steel its hardness. The deviations resulting from the drop in temperature are then corrected by hand with a hammer and anvil .
The resulting blanks are then given their final shape in the grinding shop. The hollow grinding is done using rotating grinding stones, the diameter of which corresponds to the curvature of the hollow grinding. In a series of work steps, the razor sharpener gives the workpiece its characteristic shape, depending on the production series.
During the subsequent fine-tuning, the razor is finally sharpened further. Then the blades are polished and decorated. To apply decorative gold etchings, the steel blades are hung in an electrolysis bath .
The last work step consists of assembling the handle shells, which are individually adapted to each knife so that the sensitive blade does not touch the shells when they are folded in and out. The knife gets its final sharpness on whetstones of different grains. Then the ridge of the knife is erected on a strop and the finished piece is packaged for sale.
Technical aspects
construction
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A classic razor basically consists of two parts: the blade and the handle. The blade is connected to the handle shell via a pin in its shaft. The blade shaft - also known as the 'Erl' - ends in the tang. This finger hollow simplifies the folding out of the knife and provides support for a finger - usually the ring finger - while shaving. The shaft is often provided with a trademark, which is applied either as an engraving or by means of a stamp. In some cases, notches are made on the top or bottom of the shaft to prevent the knife from slipping.
The razor blade, which is usually made of carbon steel with a particularly high cutting capacity (less often of stainless steel ), is usually provided with a hollow grind . Many modern razor manufacturers polish the blades and add an etching with the series or designation of origin on the front. Particularly high-quality blades, such as those from the “Bergischer Löwe” series by the Solingen company DOVO , have a gold etching on their front.
The upper edge of the blade is called the 'back' and the lower edge is called the 'cutting edge'. At its end, the blade ends in the 'head', which can have different shapes (see below for more on this).
The handle of the razor usually consists of two shells that are connected to one another by two to three metal pins. The handle scales can be made of plastic , wood , mother-of-pearl or horn , more rarely of more exotic materials such as mammoth ivory. The use of higher quality materials for the handle is mostly reflected in the price of the razor.
Blade types
The different types of razor blades are differentiated on the basis of three characteristics: the head shape of the blade, the blade width and the grind of the blade.
A distinction is made between the blade head
- Straight head - the head runs out at right angles at both ends. This head shape enables more precise contour guidance, but can lead to injuries from the pointed ends if the razor is handled improperly.
- Round head - the head is rounded. This head shape is often recommended for beginners in the classic wet shave with a knife, as it has no pointed ends.
- French head - the head ends in a quarter circle that tapers towards the end of the blade. The contour guidance is as precise as with the straight head.
- Spanish head - the head has a slight inward radius, which should facilitate the contouring.
The blade width is traditionally given in eighths of an inch . The blades available commercially vary between 3/8 and 7/8 inches; narrower or wider blades are very rarely found. When shaving, wider blades take up a larger amount of shaving foam, but are more difficult to use on narrow areas of the face - such as the area between the nose and upper lip - compared to narrower blades. The most common blade width is 5/8 inches. It is particularly popular with beginners in the classic wet shave.
One of the most important quality features of a razor is the grind of the blade. The type and shape of the blade edge have a decisive influence on the quality of the shave. They influence the flexibility and sharpness of the cutting edge. Most of the razor blades that are commercially available today are hollow-ground. Depending on the thickness of the hollow, the designation of the blades ranges from coarse (flat grind) to semi-hollow to fully hollow. In addition, there are also some special cuts, such as extra-hollow knives or variants with a so-called wall to stabilize the blade. As a rule of thumb, the more hollow the cut, the higher the quality of the knife. As the hollowing increases, the blade becomes significantly more flexible and can better adapt to difficult areas of the face when shaving.
Use and care
Before the shave
To be as effective as possible, a razor needs to be as sharp as possible. Before each shave the knife should therefore on a strop be "abgeledert" to the fine ridge has the knife edge of the tiny after the last shaving bumps up again.
The leather is removed by placing the razor flat on the strop and then pulling it over the leather with little pressure towards the back of the blade. The razor can also be polished by using a cloth strop treated with an abrasive or a balsa stick.
While shaving
In preparation for the classic wet shave, the lower half of the face is lathered with a shaving brush and shaving soap or shaving cream . Some users also use a special pre-shave oil before lathering in order to allow the blade to slide better.
During the shave, the razor is held at an angle of 30 ° to the skin of the face. To do this, the razor is opened so far that the handle is at right angles to the blade. The razor can then be guided in three different positions: In the "one-to-one position", the index finger alone rests on the tang, the shaft of the knife, in the "two-to-one position" the index and the index finger lie Middle finger on the tang and index, middle and ring finger in the "three-to-one position". The choice of posture is ultimately a matter of personal preference and depends on the feeling with which posture the best balance between control over the razor and flexible blade guidance can be achieved. Depending on the position of the knife, the next finger or fingers facing away from the body lie on the hollow of the tang.
After the shave
After shaving, the blade requires special care - it must be thoroughly cleaned and dried. Since razors are usually made of non-stainless steel, they are particularly prone to rust. Therefore, the blade should be oiled with a gun oil such as Ballistol if it is not used for a long time.
Is a razor by subtracting on the leather straps not sharp enough for a shave, it must by means of a sharpening stone (z. B. Belgian chunks , Arkansas ) are sharpened. In contrast to peeling on the leather strap, you grind off material when peeling on the stone.
At a time when shaving with a razor was the preferred method of wet shaving, wealthier users acquired a set of seven knives. These knife sets were sold in special storage containers in which the individual razors were labeled “Sunday” to “Saturday”. According to Phillipp L. Krumholz, the purchase of a weekly set of knives was due to the fact that the scissor grinders traveling across the country were not always available and a larger number of knives ensured that at least one of them was sharp enough for the shave.
Cultural history
Razors in religious rituals and performances
Outside of their intended purpose, razors play a role in various religious rituals and ideas. For example, in the course of the annual Ashura rites in honor of the martyrdom of the third Imam Husain ibn traditionellAlī, there are traditionally self-flagellation , in which some of the participating young men have cuts in the forehead area with razors, among other things. Then the men walk through the streets to show their loyalty to the Shiite faith by displaying their blood-soaked clothes and blood-smeared faces .
In India razors are still in Chudakarana (also: Mundana), one of the rites of passage of Hinduism used. Children’s head is shaved in order to free them from undesirable properties from their previous lives and to guarantee them a new, long life.
Razors as a surgical tool for circumcision and childbirth
In countries where circumcision of the penis ( circumcision ) or clitoris ( clitoridectomy ) is common, the razor is often used as a surgical tool. For example, the traditional circumcision ceremony of nine- to ten-year-old boys in Samoa is said to have been performed either with a razor, a bamboo knife or a piece of broken glass. With the Efik , a people living in southeast Nigeria , the removal of the clitoris and the removal of the penile foreskin with a razor were carried out until at least the 1950s. And the Berbers living in Tunisia used razors in the first half of the 20th century to cut the umbilical cord in newborns.
Razors in modern crime history
Because of its extraordinary sharpness, a razor is also a dangerous weapon. Razors as tools of crime have been used by individual criminals as well as groups. As part of the Racecourse Wars (dt. Racetrack Wars ) challenged British bands like the Birmingham Boys Bloody in the 1920s and 1930s, battles for control of the horse racing business and built it on the most deterrent effect of the sharp razor blades. In Australia, organized gangs went down in history as the razor gangs in the late 1920s . They used razors after gun ownership in New South Wales was restricted by the Pistol Licensing Act of 1927.
There are also cases where razors have been used by lone perpetrators to mutilate or dismember their victims. In Germany, the act of the American officer Gerald M. Werner , stationed in Bayreuth , caused a sensation, who killed his girlfriend Ursula in the bathroom in March 1966 and dismembered the unconscious woman with a razor. After the Bayreuth jury court acquitted Werner of the murder charge for incapacity , the Federal Court of Justice upheld this judgment in April 1967. Both judgments sparked heated discussions among the German public.
Razors in world literature
In the world literature there are many works in which Razor play a prominent role. Razors are often used as a murder tool, for example in Edgar Allan Poe's short story The Murders in the Rue Morgue , in which an orangutan kills a woman while imitating the shaving process with a razor, or in the detective novel The Promise of Friedrich Dürrenmatt (after the Screenplay template for the film It happened in broad daylight , in which a girl is found in the forest who was murdered with a razor.
In addition to being used in crime fiction , razors appear in other works of world literature in connection with murder . In The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club by Charles Dickens one of the protagonists musing about it, to kill his wife in his sleep with a razor, but can still be in the last second of it. In William Faulkner's novel Light in August , Joanna Burden is killed with a razor and almost beheaded, although according to the literary scholar Martha Banta it is the murderer's belief in his own Black African origins that makes him use the razor instead of the pistol.
In addition, the razor plays a role as a tool for suicide . In August Strindberg's tragedy Fröken Julie , Jean, the count's servant, finally convinces Julie to commit suicide. In the final scene of the drama he gives her a razor, whereupon Julie leaves the stage with the knife in her hand.
Furthermore, razors appear in works of world literature in scenes in which a male figure is shaving. With reference to Buck Mulligan's shave prominently described at the beginning of the novel Ulysses by James Joyce , Cheryl Temple Herr points out in her essay Joyce and the Art of Shaving that the straight razor used by Mulligan and the manner in which it was very carefully handled gives the reader an opportunity to interpret it Mulligan's character provide.
And finally, razors are always introduced into the action when it comes to emphasizing the particular hardness of their steel. For example, when Captain Ahab in Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick instructs his ship-smith to use his razor (“the best of steel”) to make a particularly sharp harpoon .
In addition to their fictional use, razors also played a real role in literary suicides. For example, the Austrian writer Adalbert Stifter cut his carotid artery with a razor in 1868, and the Italian author Emilio Salgari committed suicide in 1911 with a razor in the Seppuku style .
Razors in the movie
A scene hardly surpassed in its shock effect forms the prelude to the surrealist film Un chien andalou by Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí , which was shown for the first time in Paris in 1929. The black and white film begins harmlessly with a fade-in of the words "Il était une fois ..." (Eng. "Once upon a time ..."), in order to then confront the unsuspecting viewer with a scene in which a man joins a woman sitting in front of him cuts through the eyeball with a razor. In the literature, this scene is described as the “pivot point” from which “the shock waves of the rest of the film emanate”.
In American movies, razors are often used in wet shaving scenes to emphasize the masculinity of the shaving characters. Especially in the gangster , western and adventure film genre, a number of well-known Hollywood actors such as Edward G. Robinson ( Key Largo , 1948), Humphrey Bogart ( African Queen , 1951), or Clint Eastwood ( High Plains Drifter , 1973) are involved to see the knife shave. With only a few exceptions, shaving with a knife is portrayed as a purely male occupation. When women are included in the scene, it is often to emphasize the particular danger of knife shaving (for example when Angie Dickinson shaves her film partner Dean Martin in the 1958 western Rio Bravo , or in the shaving scene in the 2012 James Bond film Skyfall , in which Naomie Harris shaves the neck of her film partner Daniel Craig against the direction of growth of the whiskers and comments on this with the words "This is the tricky part"). Occasionally, shaving with the system razor is also differentiated as "female" from the knife shave that is considered to be "male" (for example in the 1959 film North By Northwest , in which Cary Grant shaves himself in a public washroom with his film partner's system razor, while an actor standing next to him and towering over him in height practices a knife shave). And last but not least, the razor, sometimes referred to as “cut-throat” in the English-speaking world, is also used in Hollywood films as a weapon (for example in the 2003 science fiction film Matrix Reloaded ) or as a tool (for example when Uma Thurman cuts her bonds with such a knife in the 2004 film Kill Bill - Volume 2 ).
Collector scene
Especially in the Anglo-American language area, a collector's scene has developed around the razor, which is organized, among other things, via the Internet . As with other collecting activities, in many cases the aim is to collect either particularly rare or old pieces that have been preserved in their original condition. When collecting razors, the price of collector's items is often determined by the - sometimes artistically decorated - handle. Publications such as Roy Ritchie's and Ron Stewart's Standard Guide to Razors: Identification and Values (third edition published in 2007) and Robert Doyle's Straight Razor Collecting: An Illustrated History and Price Guide (1980) are important tools for collectors.
Other uses of the word "razor"
In the English language, the word "razor" is used outside of its actual context in three terms. The term " Occam's Razor " denotes a heuristic research principle from scholasticism that requires economy in the formation of explanatory hypotheses and theories. The “razor” can be understood as a metaphor: The simplest suitable explanation is preferable, all superfluous additional assumptions are cut off as if with a razor. The traditional German name for this principle is, however, “Ockhams Scalpel”, so it uses a different cutting tool for clarification. In addition, there is also the term “ Hanlon's Razor ” in English , which has become a term for the wisdom of life “Do not attribute anything to malice that can be sufficiently explained by stupidity”. This term is inspired by "Occam's Razor" and first appeared in the second half of the 20th century in the context of the American hacker culture. The population of feral domestic pigs living in the southern United States that have crossed with abandoned wild boars are called razorbacks . The name comes from a line of upright back hair that pure domestic pigs do not normally have.
List of razor manufacturers (selection)
Only manufacturers who still produce today were included. For information on former razor manufacturers, see the information in the works listed in the “Handouts for collectors” section below under literature.
| Manufacturer | Founded | Location | country | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Boker | 1869 | Solingen |
 Germany
|
ceased after the end of the Second World War, production has since resumed |
| Thiers Issard | 1884 | Thiers |
 France
|
one of the leading manufacturers of straight razors in Europe; processes blades made of Sheffield steel |
| DOVO | 1906 | Solingen |
Germany
|
The world's largest razor manufacturer, which filed for bankruptcy in April 2020 in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic |
| auditor | 1919 | Solingen |
Germany
|
traditionally handcrafted razors |
| Brave | 1940 | Solingen |
Germany
|
Traditional handcraft razor |
| Mastro Livi | k. A. | Perugia |
 Italy
|
Family business specializing in one-offs |
| Robert Williams | 2006 | East Liverpool |
 United States
|
One-off pieces made by hand |
| Hart Steel | 2009 | Palm Springs |
United States
|
individual razors based on the modular system as well as individual pieces |
| Ralf Aust | k. A. | Solingen |
Germany
|
literature
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- La pogonotomie, ou l'art d'apprendre à se raser soi-même; avec la manière de connoître toutes sortes de pierres propres à affiler tous les outils ou instumens; & les moyens de preparer les cuirs pour repasser les rasoirs, la maniere d'en faire de très-bons; … Par JJ Perret, Maître & Marchand Coutelier, Ancien Juré Garde , Yverdon 1770, available online from the Internet Archive , San Francisco.
- Treatise on the use and management of a razor: with practical directions relative to its appendages; Also a description of the advantages attending the form of the convex penknives. With additions and alterations. To which are now first added, instructions at large for making and repairing pens. By JH Savigny, Razor and Surgeon's Instrument Maker , 4th edition, London [1786].
- A treatise on razors: in which the weight, shape, and temper of a razor, the means of keeping it in order, and the manner of using it, are particularly considered; And In which it is intended to convey a knowledge of all that is necessary on this subject; By Benjamin Kingsbury, Razor-Maker , 6th edition, London 1810, available online from the Bodleian Libraries , University of Oxford.
- Benjamin Kinsbury [sic], Sr. Kings. Maj. Of Great Britain Leib-Barbierer's, Treatise of Barber's Knives: Their Selection in Shopping, Weight, Shape and Hardness; equal of the means of keeping them always in good order and the right way of using them; For the benefit of all barbers and everyone who barbs himself; In addition to an attachment to the opening of a previously unknown secret, how to always keep barber knives sharp without a whetstone and strop; From the English , Leipzig 1800, available online via the Göttingen digitization center of the Lower Saxony State and University Library.
- Shaving mirrors or the art of shaving oneself, along with the necessary instructions on razor knives, English mineral paste, brushes, soaps and everything necessary to beautify the male face. Understandably presented by Professor Legrand in Paris. From the French. translated and… increasingly by Leopold Reinig , Weimar 1846, available online from the Saxon State Library - Dresden State and University Library .
- Napoleon Leblanc: Essay on barbers' razors, razor hones, razor strops and razor honing , Parkesburg, PA 1895, available online from the Internet Archive, San Francisco.
- Max Schmidt: The razor, his career, his care , Radebeul 1939, available online via the Munich digitization center of the Bavarian State Library .
Representations
On the history of the razor
- Frank Gnegel: Beard off. On the history of self-shaving. DuMont, Cologne 1995, ISBN 3-7701-3596-2 .
To use the razor
- Shaving made easy. What the man who shaves ought to know. The 20th century correspondence school, New York NY 1905, available online from the Internet Archive .
Handouts for collectors
- Phillip L. Krumholz: A History of Shaving and Razors. Ad Libs, Bartonville IL 1987 (contains - unlike the title - only a short section on the history of the razor and otherwise a detailed list with information on knife manufacturers and brands).
- Roy Ritchie, Ron Stewart: The Standard Guide to Razors. Identification and Values. 3. Edition. Collector Books, Paducah KY 2007, ISBN 978-1-57432-550-8 .
- Robert A. Doyle: Straight Razor Collecting. An Illustrated History and Price Guide. Collector Books, Paducah KY 1980, ISBN 0-89145-126-9 .
Web links
- Search for straight razors (numerous illustrations) in the German Digital Library
- Razor basic knowledge about bart-trimmen-faorben.de
- Shave with a razor
Individual evidence
- ↑ Uwe Vetter: Solingen: Razors still in great demand. Retrieved April 20, 2017 .
- ^ Ray A. Smith: In Search of a Perfect Shave. Can New Products and Techniques Make Shaving Better? Calling Out the Myths , in: Wall Street Journal, August 29, 2012, last accessed March 21, 2014; Rodney Cutler, The Endorsement: Shaving Every Day , in: Esquire Digital Edition January 15, 2008, last accessed March 21, 2014; Susan Semenak, Return of the straight-razor shave (with video). A new generation of barbers is reviving the lost art of the straight-razor shave , in: Montreal Gazette of February 14, 2014, last accessed on March 21, 2014.
- ↑ On this and the following cf. the article "beard", in: Ian Shaw / Paul Nicholson: The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt , revised and updated paperback edition, New York 2003, p. 50f., here p. 50.
- ↑ Frank Gnegel, beard off On the history of self-shaving , Cologne 1995, p. 9.
- ↑ a b Flemming Kaul: The Nordic Razor and the Mycenaean Lifestyle , in: Antiquity 87, 336 (2013), accessed here via Questia Online Library (access with costs).
- ↑ a b Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 9.
- ↑ Ethel Hampson Brewster, Roman craftsmen and tradesmen of the early empire , Menasha WI 1917, p. 87, and David B. Kaufman, Roman Barbers , in: Classical Weekly 25, 19 (1932), pp. 145–148, here p 145.
- ^ Kaufman, Roman Barbers , p. 145.
- ↑ a b George C. Boon, 'Tonsor Humanus': Razor and Toilet-Knife in Antiquity , in: Britannia 22 (1991), pp. 21-32; the section “Razors”, pp. 27–32, deals with razors.
- ↑ a b Kaufman, Roman Barbers , p. 146.
- ^ Kaufman, Roman Barbers , p. 147.
- ↑ Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 16.
- ↑ a b Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 15.
- ↑ Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 17.
- ^ A b Alfred Martin, German Bathing Body in Past Days , Jena 1906, p. 71.
- ↑ a b c d Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 29.
- ^ Johann Christoph Adelung , Brief Concept of Human Skills and Knowledge ... , Leipzig 1779, p. 535.
- ↑ On the upheavals in English steel production in the 18th century, cf. Chris Evans / Alun Withey, An Enlightenment in Steel ?: Innovation in the Steel Trades of Eighteenth-Century Britain , in: Technology and Culture 53 (3), pp. 533-560, here: pp. 538-541.
- ↑ See Phillip L. Krumholz, A History of Shaving and Razors , Bartonville, IL 1987, p. 9.
- ^ On this, Godfrey Isaac Howard Lloyd, The cutlery trades: an historical essay in the economics of small-scale production , London 1913, p. 178 ff.
- ↑ a b Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 35.
- ↑ While Gillette still sold 51 razors and 168 blades in 1903, fifteen years later the figure was 3.5 million razors and 32 million blades. Gordon McKibben: Cutting Edge. Gillette's Journey to Global Leadership , Boston MA 1998, pp. 14 and 19.
- ↑ Gnegel, Bart ab , p. 47.
- ↑ "Anyone who has got used to the 'Gillette' saves time and money and thereby gains real pleasure", Shaving in a new light , in: Messer & Feile 14 (1907), p. 15, here quoted from Gnegel, Beard off , p. 47.
- ↑ According to Anne Rothstein from DOVO Solingen , this renaissance began in 2005: “[…] in 2005, the straight razor began“ a renaissance, ”says Dovo's Anne Rothstein. The company now sells about 30,000 a year and has a nine-month waiting list. ", Eliza Gray: Straight to the Point ( Memento June 11, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) , in: Newsweek , June 8, 2009, last accessed via HighBeam Research on March 31, 2014 (for a fee).
- ↑ Getting stroppy. James Bond and male grooming , in: The Economist, December 9, 2012, last accessed March 20, 2014.
- ↑ The following illustration is based on the film “Die Rasiermeister” from the series “Adventure Life” produced for Kabel eins , which describes the manufacture of razor blades by the Solingen company DOVO . The article is available on YouTube .
- ^ Christopher Moss: The Art of the Straight Razor Shave . Last accessed on March 16, 2014.
- ↑ The most common blade edges on razors: [1] . Last accessed on November 27, 2015.
- ↑ See the YouTube video Holding a straight razor correctly. From MrNassrasur, last accessed March 17, 2014.
- ^ Cut-Throat Razor - A Brief History . From The Executive Shaving Company, last accessed March 17, 2014.
- ↑ “The so-called“ seven day sets ”were popular at this time [1820s] […] since itinerant razor grinders came to town only periodically and men needed to alternate their razors to keep shaving”, Philipp L. Krumholz, A History of Shaving and Razors , p. 9.
- ↑ For example Augustus Richard Norton: Ritual, Blood, and Shiite Identity: Ashura in Nabatiyya, Lebanon , in: The Drama Review, 49, 4 (2005), ISSN 0273-4354 , pp. 140–155, here p. 150.
- ↑ More detailed on this: Rajbali Pandey, Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments , 2nd revised edition, Delhi 1969, ISBN 978-81-208-0434-0 , pp. 94-101.
- ↑ Lowell D. Holmes, TA'U: Stability and Change in a Samoan Village , In: The Journal of the Polynesian Society , Vol. 66 No. 4 (1957), pp. 398-435, here p. 408 ( online ) .
- ↑ Donald C. Simmons, Sexual Life, Marriage, and Childhood among the Efik , in: Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 30, 2 (1960), pp. 153-165, here: p. 159.
- ↑ R. Routil, On the spread of the umbilical hernia in Africa and its plastic representation in native art , in: Annalen des Naturhistorisches Museum in Wien 55 (1944–1947), pp. 185–206, here p. 187.
- ↑ CaseBook: Birmingham gang leader at center of London's 'Racecourse Wars' , in: Birmingham Mail of April 20, 2011, last accessed on March 22, 2014.
- ^ In addition, about Tilly Devine & the Razor Gang Wars, 1927–31 on the website of the State Records of New South Wales.
- ↑ Cf. Claus Seibert , Anatomie einer Untat - Der Fall Werner , in: JuristenZeitung 22, 10 (1967), p. 309, as well as Uwe Nettelbeck: Law in the highest instance , in: Die Zeit vom April 21, 1967, last accessed on March 22, 2014.
- ↑ Martha Banta: The Razor, the Pistol, and the Ideology of Race Etiquette. In: Faulkner and ideology: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha, Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, 1995, ISBN 0-87805-759-5 , pp. 172-216, here p. 205.
- ↑ Cheryl Temple Herr, Joyce & the Art of Shaving, The National Library of Ireland, Joyce Studies 2004, Luca Crispi and Catherine Fahy (eds.), No. 11, available online at academia.eu, last accessed on March 24, 2014.
- ↑ Moby-Dick, Chapter 113, available online at the English edition of Wikisource .
- ↑ "This image is certainly the most powerful in the film, serving as a pivotal point from which the shock waves of the rest of the film emanate.", Says Elisabeth H. Lyon, Luis Bunuel: The Process of Dissociation in Three Films , in: Cinema Journal 13, 1 (1973), pp. 45-48, here p. 46.
- ↑ a b See Shaving in Hollywood: 10 Memorable Scenes , Sharpologist, November 26, 2011, last accessed March 16, 2014.
- ↑ On Wade & Butcher cf. The Butcher Works , via Strazors.com, last accessed March 17, 2014.
- ↑ Bill Mancino: Collector's Corner: Straight Razor Collecting , EcommerceBytes.com, August 21, 2005, last accessed March 16, 2014.
- ↑ "the material used to make the handle either raises the value or causes it to stay the same.", Razors are cutting-edge collectibles ( Memento from June 11, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) , in: Chicago Sun-Times from 20. January 2002
- ↑ Dovo Stahlwaren Bracht in insolvency proceedings , via RP Online on April 21, 2020, last accessed on May 17, 2020.
