Sexual ethics

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The sexual ethics is a part of applied ethics , which deals with the sexuality of people employed, sex life and its assessment. The assessment of social norms and values for human sexual behavior, which depends on the respective society and its epoch, is based on general ethical principles . Central standards for sexual ethics are: the dignity of the person , voluntariness , responsibility and human rights .

Up until the 18th century, sexual ethics in Europe was practically identical to Christian moral teaching (see also: Morals ). In the 18th and 19th centuries and at the beginning of the 20th century, when the term sexual ethics was first used in literature, it was shaped by the examination of Christian morality, bourgeois moral concepts and the question of natural sexual morality ( biologism ). Under the influence of feminism , the birth control pill and the sexual revolution , a liberalization of sexual morality began in the 1960s , which led to a change in sexual ethics.

In the present, the diverse forms of expression of human sexuality are widely accepted and at least evaluated in terms of whether or not they cause psychological or physical harm to others. The AIDS issue has made sexual education and safe sex a major public concern in sexual ethics.

Frequently discussed topics in sexual ethics are sex education , masturbation , illegitimate relationships , homosexuality , sexual identity , prostitution and paraphilia .

Demarcation

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According to philosophical terminology, sexual ethics is the scientific preoccupation with sexual morality, i.e. the reflection on the norms and values ​​applicable in the respective society in relation to human sexuality . Both ethics and morals have an impact on legislation, they influence the age of consent , matrimonial and family law, the legal status of homosexuality and sexual criminal law . Sexual ethics has points of contact with bioethics , medical ethics and social ethics , whereby ethical questions related to reproduction ( reproductive medicine ), such as sperm and egg donation and surrogacy, are dealt with in bioethics. Family issues such as adoption, blended families, divorce and alimony are dealt with in social ethics. The issues of prostitution and pornography also raise many socio-ethical, political and legal issues because they are often related to human trafficking and economic and psychological exploitation.

When assessing moral behavior, religious ethics ( theological ethics ) is also based on the basic ethical principles of the Holy Scriptures and therefore draws different conclusions than general ethics on some questions .

Historical development of sexual ethics in Europe

Ancient to early modern times

Under the influence of Neoplatonism and the Stoa, Augustine of Hippo brought a pronounced sexual pessimism into church teaching. According to his doctrine of original sin ( concupiscence ), sexual desire seduces people to sin. Thomas Aquinas softened this attitude. He judges sexuality as inherently good, its God-given meaning is procreation. Any use that is not “natural” or “reasonable” (adultery, prostitution, masturbation, coitus interruptus, homosexuality) is sin.

Age of Enlightenment and the 19th century

Until the 17th century, despite the church's moral teaching, an affirmative attitude towards sexuality prevailed in Central Europe; The first major cuts were caused by syphilis .

At the beginning of the 18th century, the perception of sexuality changed due to the rationalism of the Enlightenment. It led to a patriarchal sexual ethic that justified subordination of women to men and double standards. The “healthy” and “decent” woman was forbidden from any natural erotic tendency. She had to be faithful; her substitute for the sex drive was love for the children and for her husband. Men, on the other hand, were allowed to need a sexual outlet in addition to their wives, which they found in prostitutes and also in maids. Biological influences changed the assessment of various behaviors, including sexual ones, as "sick" as opposed to "sinful". In medicine, for example, the view prevailed that masturbation is harmful. The churches took up this argument in turn to combat this and other forms of sexuality. Also infantile sexuality was no longer tolerated.

20th century

The psychological science that emerged at the end of the 19th century put the evaluation of human sexual behavior on a new basis and led to a breakdown of bourgeois pseudo-morality. In medicine, too, the view increasingly prevailed that not every “other” expression of sexuality, i.e. everything that does not directly contribute to reproduction, must necessarily be harmful. The sexual ethics of Christian von Ehrenfels already turned against the mendacious double standards of bourgeois morality of the 19th century. But it is still characterized by a great skepticism towards an excessively freely lived out sexuality, since in his opinion, especially in relation to masturbation, it damages health and a "natural" development.

In the first half of the 20th century, new norms prevailed in German-speaking countries: "Sexuality without feelings of guilt, based on a consensus morality, pleasurable for both partners and not necessarily reproductive". As expected, this led to violent rejection by the churches. It was in this sexually liberal climate that the findings of Sigmund Freud's ( drive theory ) and Wilhelm Reich's sex research , which had a lasting influence on the sexual revolution , arose .

The Nazis took an ambivalent sexual ethics. At first he called for conservative marriage and reproductive morals. However, on the one hand, homophobia and the racist program of Nazi sexual policy soon became apparent. On the other hand, the “master race” was encouraged to live out sexuality liberally and thus actively opposed traditional Christian morality.

In the 1950s there was a restoration of the restrictive Christian bourgeois sexual morality. a. Manifested in the prohibition of pornography and the prosecution of homosexuality.

Liberalization from the 1960s

Several factors came together in the liberalization of public sexual morality that began in the 1960s.

  • In Germany, in the course of coming to terms with National Socialism, a counter-movement against the repressive sexual morality of the 1950s developed, which was viewed as a continuation of Nazi morality. This criticism also hit the churches, which often tried to underpin their traditional morals with the “healthy popular feeling”. Christianity was simply no longer taken seriously in sexual morality or was accused of being close to fascism.
  • The second women's movement called for self-determination over female sexuality with the right to abortion and it fought pornography and prostitution as forms of patriarchal oppression of women.
  • The “ birth control pill ” and the emancipation from traditional morality ( sexual revolution ) made sex possible without fear of unwanted pregnancy, especially for young people.

All of these factors had a profound effect on sexual ethics and legislation.

The rules determined by external authorities (church, state) have been replaced by a democratic negotiating ethic (respect for autonomy, self-determination and equality).

Since the emergence of AIDS in the 1980s, the aspect of responsibility has come back to the fore in sexual ethics. Sex education in schools and comprehensive information about sexuality in the media are usually rated very positively.

Churches' response to liberalization

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The Catholic Church reacted to the liberalization with the “ban on pills” in the encyclical “ Humanae vitae ” 1968. In the Church's view, artificial contraception contradicts “personal total devotion in conjugal love”. In doing so, she solidified traditional morality and its consequences. A controversy within the church about Catholic sexual morality began, in which well-known theologians and bishops opposed the teaching of the Pope and which continues to this day. In 1997 Pope John Paul II speaks of the German abortion law as an "attack on human dignity". In 1998 Pope John Paul II forced the German bishops to no longer issue the advice certificate required for an abortion in church advice centers. As a result, the Catholic Church drops out of pregnancy conflict counseling. But Catholic lay people found the Donum Vitae association, which continues to issue the certificates necessary for an abortion.

Even after AIDS was discovered, the Catholic teaching office did not move away from the condom ban and sees abstinence and marital fidelity as the best protection against infection. Pope Benedict XVI noted, however, that condom use for male prostitutes for self-protection "can be a first step towards moralization".

A survey on marriage and the family, launched by the Vatican in 2013 in preparation for the Synod of Bishops in October 2014, came to the result: “The Church's statements on premarital intercourse, homosexuality, divorced remarried and birth control are hardly accepted by the faithful and are mostly expressly rejected. "

In 1971 the Protestant Church in Germany swung in a more tolerant direction in its “Memorandum on Questions of Sexual Ethics”. She emphasized a positive attitude towards sexuality and placed issues such as masturbation, premarital intercourse and contraception in the individual's conscience. Marriage with the will “for lifelong duration and exclusivity of the sex community” is without question at the center of sexual ethical considerations. Responsible sexuality is also emphasized in an EKD statement from 1988 on the AIDS problem.

A paper on sexual ethics planned for 2014 by the EKD, which addresses “lived Christian reality” and no longer describes lifelong marriage as the only form of family that “can hope for God's blessing”, was received due to massive criticism from the conservative side not published.

present

In the present, the advancing secularization of the western world and cultural pluralism have pushed the churches into the background as moral authorities. The social circumstances

  • Relief of the marriage from economic supply tasks,
  • professional independence of women,
  • many ways of contraception and
  • increasing age,

make an individual sexual life plan possible.

Sexual identities and behaviors that were once rejected are finding increasing acceptance or at least being openly discussed: BDSM in connection with sexuality; Bisexuality ; Fetishism ; Group sex ; Homosexuality ; Polyamory ; Pornography ; Masturbation ; self-determined sexuality of young people; Transgender and transsexuality .

The profound change in sexual morality in “Western culture” that began after the sexual revolution and is still ongoing is also known as the neosexual revolution .

Despite all the moral changes, the desire for relationship and sexual fidelity in a partnership is unbroken. A fulfilled sexuality in a partnership is, unlike in the past, a high value.

At the same time, the tabooing of sexuality in specific areas has often remained effective to this day. An indication of this is the publicly "celebrated" breach of sexual taboos in western mass media. Another typical phenomenon of upheaval in the value system is double standards, i.e. the gap between the generally required norms and values ​​and what is practiced in private.

Modern sexual ethics

The philosophical tradition has not dealt directly with sexual ethics. The ethics of the present therefore refers to statements of the ethical classics about "sensual pleasure" and about self-determination of the human being.

hedonism

For the ancient hedonism of Epicurus , the pursuit of sensual pleasure is one of the unreasonable desires, because although it gives short-term pleasure, it causes pain in the long term. A balanced life, determined by emotional serenity ( ataraxia ), is the highest goal for Epicurus.

Eudaimonism

In the Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle sensual pleasure to the lowest level of happiness, the goods of the body part. If the basic bodily needs do not become an end in themselves and are enjoyed in the right measure, they are a necessary basis for attaining the highest level of bliss, the wisdom that most closely corresponds to the soul of man.

Ethics of principles - deontology

Immanuel Kant justifies human dignity in the following way:

“Now I say: man, and in general every rational being, exists as an end in itself, not just as a means for arbitrary use for this or that will, but must in all his, both for himself and for other rational ones Acts directed towards being can always be regarded as an end. (...) "

According to Kant, every person is to be treated in such a way that he could reasonably agree to what others want from him.

The center of Kant's moral philosophy is moral self-commitment through the autonomy of reason, which is summarized in the categorical imperative . For Kant, humans are “citizens of two worlds”. He is a natural being, whose actions are motivated by needs, feelings of pleasure or displeasure, and he is a rational being. As such, it is determined by pure reason, which by itself becomes practical, i. That is, the knowledge of the moral good directly obliges us to act. Kant thus established the breakthrough to a modern understanding of universal freedom of choice and individual ethics of responsibility.

The legal emphasis on duty brought Kant the criticism that he would attach no value to inclination (= the “natural” desires and needs of man). But Kant is very much convinced that inclinations towards the dutiful can facilitate the effectiveness of moral maxims. (See also: About grace and dignity )

utilitarianism

The utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill combines the concerns of hedonism and the common good. A quote from him emphasizes human self-determination.

“The only reason why violence can be exercised against a member of society against his will and right is to protect others from harm. His own well-being - physical or moral - is not a sufficient justification. Every person is the loyal guardian of his or her own - physical, mental or emotional - health. "

Systematics

Based on these justifications of general human dignity and autonomy, normative sexual ethics today demands "that all people, regardless of sexual orientation, are to be respected in their dignity."

Recommendations for action

The following recommendations for action for sexual life can be derived from ethical tradition:

People should

  • Take responsibility for your own mental and physical health,
  • live their sexuality non-violently and without coercion,
  • live their sexuality in a relationship and in mutual free will,
  • To practice sex in agreement,
  • Take responsibility for your own fertility and that of your partner,
  • Take responsibility for the children conceived and for the family.

Sexual Ethics in Human Rights

The fundamental human rights, which are formulated on the basis of natural law and philosophical tradition, are an important basis for arguments against a moral relativism for sexual ethics , which, among other things , justifies arranged marriages and the oppression of homosexuals with culture and tradition. In the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the principle of sexual self-determination is anchored in Articles 7 - Prohibition of Discrimination, 12 - Right to Private Life, and 16 - Voluntariness in the case of marriage and divorce and protection of the family.

In several declarations on sexual orientation and gender identity (2008 and 2011), the UN reaffirmed the principle of equality and non-discrimination for all people. Human rights violations based on sexual orientation or gender identity are strongly condemned.

In Article 34 of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child , the right to protection against sexual abuse is laid down.

Love and erotic

In addition to establishing ethical rules that are supposed to protect people from harm, sexual ethics also considers the relationship aspect of human sexuality.

The ability to love and be loved is part of the essence of human beings. In the myth of the spherical man, Plato dealt with the original relationship between the sexes and described this as eros . According to Aristotle, this relationship is the natural origin of every community and society. For Hegel 's Love , "that I myself win in another person that I am considered in her what she again achieved in me."

The difference between the sexes is biologically determined and geared towards reproduction, but humans express themselves as men or women through clothing, jewelry and behavior. Eroticism is the connection of the instinctive and sensual component of human sexuality with linguistic expression, the sexual form of communication, so to speak.

From an ethical point of view, eroticism can be an honest expression of love for the other or a lie with the aim of manipulation. According to Arno Anzenbacher , human sexuality is primarily “in the meaning of love. It completes, unfolds, and realizes only when the eroticism prevailing in it expresses love. (...) Sexuality as a senseless, 'loveless' end in itself has the tendency to make the other (...) an object, a commodity, to abuse him ”.

Because man is historical, love cannot be confined to the present. It stands in the sense of loyalty. "With this, however, marriage comes into view as the community towards which human sexuality is designed."

Pleasure satisfaction and prostitution

When it comes to assessing sexual pleasure satisfaction without a relationship perspective, the difference between the two main directions of ethics, deontology and utilitarianism , becomes clear.

Deontology

Anzenbacher argues deontologically that human sexuality is primarily geared towards a lasting relationship (loyalty, marriage). From this point of view, any form of sexuality that excludes this goal from the outset, such as one-night stands or contact with prostitutes, is to be rejected. From a deontological point of view, prostitution cannot be justified ethically because the sale of sexual services contradicts human dignity, which is an “end in itself”.

Church moral teaching is based on the deontological approach in connection with the Christian image of man. She emphasizes the moral dignity of sexual encounters as a special expression of love that corresponds to human needs for affection, body contact and tenderness. A short-term egoistic interest in the body of the other violates this dignity, which is why marriage is the optimal protective space for a humane sexuality for Christian ethics.

Many feminists, especially in the early 20th century, also took a deontological point of view with an emphasis on the principles of equality and human dignity, which in turn led to criticism of feminism's hostility to pleasure. The view that a “sexual gathering of people in which mutual desire is clearly in the foreground” should be rejected because it “reifies the human subject” is also contradicted by many feminist women, which is consequently reflected in the sexual one Reflecting the emancipation of women since the 1960s.

utilitarianism

For utilitarianism, the common benefit of all parties is paramount. This theory has nothing against a one-night stand if it is based on mutual agreement and everyone draws a personal gain from it. There is nothing wrong with prostitution if it is based on a fair business relationship and the prostitutes can also reject the customer.

Intersection of deontology and utilitarianism

Both theories overlap when an action is assessed with a balance of interests. This overlap is also known as indirect utilitarianism . Ethical principles have the highest authority in this, because they offer security, but in emergencies they are checked to see whether they can still serve general happiness or avoid suffering. For a person who does not want to jeopardize a monogamous relationship, a one-night stand would not be justified because it jeopardizes the higher value of one's marriage. On the other hand, in a marriage to a man who beats the woman, divorce (and remarriage) is warranted. Separation violates the principle of fidelity in marriage, but prevents great suffering.

Both theories agree that at least the basic ethical principles as formulated in human rights should not be undercut. Sexual contact must not harm the other, and the obligations arising from the possible consequences of sexual intercourse (pregnancy, infection, financial obligations) must be assumed.

shame

The feeling of shame , which in the case of nudity has experienced very different forms in different cultures, from covering only the genitals to veiling the whole body, is the opposite of eroticism. From an ethical point of view, shame expresses the responsibility “by covering one's own body not to induce other sexual sensations and actions”.

One consequence of the feeling of shame is the generally accepted norm that sexual intercourse is only carried out in private and not in public.

The violent transgression of the shame border or the intimate sphere as a provocation and sexual approach is to be rejected especially with entrusted persons such as children, adolescents or patients. Incest is a violation of the intimate sphere that is outlawed in almost all cultures .

theory and practice

In practice, according to a study carried out in Germany by Jakobs Krönung in 2012: “A fulfilled partnership is at the top of the list of goals in life for men and women”.

However, a rigor based on commandments and prohibitions, which is mainly represented by deontological sexual ethics, offends many people who try to integrate their sexual needs into their lives responsibly. Most people in Germany know and respect the prevailing basic sexual ethical principles, mutual loyalty, love, respect and appreciation, anyway, according to the study authors.

According to Simon Blackburn, however, within the framework of these basic principles, people expect an “ethic of respect and benevolence” that adds their “special rights, norms or virtues” to the list of “relevant rights, norms or virtues” because they serve the common good. According to Simon Blackburn, indirect utilitarianism can achieve precisely this, which in his view is a great advantage over deontology.

Religious sexual ethics

Christian sexual ethics

In general, Christianity in its various currents claims that the morality of Western society is shaped by the Christian faith on the basis of the New Testament understanding of the Old Testament ; but this only applies to a very limited extent to Western sexual ethics.

historical development

In the New Testament period, Christianity made use of its understanding of the so-called Mosaic Law in the area of ​​moral prohibitions . Unmarried sexual intercourse, adultery, incest, and homosexuality were all considered unacceptable behavior for Christians. However, the commandments regarding cultic purity no longer played a role for Christians. What was new in Gentile Christianity from an early age was an appreciation of celibacy in order to be able to make oneself available to God, something that was not so well known in early Christianity or in Jewish Christianity . It was also new that not only the actual sexual act, but also deliberate thinking about a prohibited sexual act was rated as misconduct. Similarly, remarriage after divorce was considered adultery.

Abortion is not mentioned in the New Testament, but it was consistently rejected by the Church Fathers in the first centuries. In the course of church history, the Old and New Testament commandments have been emphasized to different degrees and violations have been condemned in different ways. In the Roman Catholic Church, additional rules developed that are not directly listed in the Bible, e.g. B. the celibacy of priests and the prohibition of artificial contraception.

today

Practically all Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox Christian churches reject adultery, promiscuity and pornography. On some questions of sexual ethics, however, opinions or beliefs differ widely.

Conservative Christians of all denominations still largely adhere to the sexual ethics that prevailed in the time of the New Testament and read the New Testament not just as a descriptive but as a prescriptive work. This applies to both marriage ( Eph. 5 : 21–33  EU ) and celibacy ( 1 Cor. 7 : 32–35  EU ), which acquire a deeper, religious meaning through the relationship with Christ; but also the role of women, which is characterized by a patriarchal image of women ( 1 Tim 2,8–15  EU ). The consequences of traditional sexual morality are described in the specialist literature.

Liberal Christians take greater account of the motivations of the actors in their sexual ethics and allow them to weigh against the commandment of love with regard to evangelical freedom . They don't see a code of law in the New Testament. Feminist theology , which rejects a literal interpretation / exegesis of biblical sexual ethics as patriarchal, should also be seen in this context .

Sex ethics in Judaism

In Judaism, sexuality has been given an ethical holistic expression since ancient times without the sinful attachment of Christian sexual morality . In Judaism, sexuality is clearly affirmed and has positive connotations; this also applies today to homosexual Jews in non-orthodox movements in Judaism .

Ritual impurity

The Jewish religion is based on the requirement of cultic or ritual purity. Ritual impurity in the religious Jewish sense is neither to be equated with sin , in the Jewish understanding, nor with physical pollution. Cultic purity can also be lost without conscious action, for example through ejaculation, childbirth, touching a dead person or through menstruation. Likewise someone becomes unclean in the religious ritual Jewish sense who z. B. touches a menstruating woman because a dying process has taken place in her. Therefore, sexual intercourse during menstruation also leads to a state of impurity. They can be lifted through acts of ritual cleansing, such as in a mikveh .

Sexual ethical commandments

In addition to the aspect of ritual purity, there are sexual ethical commandments in Judaism. On the one hand there are negative sexual ethical commandments, e.g. B. Bans on sexual acts that are clearly identified as misconduct in Jewish scriptures, such as B. Sex outside of marriage. Based on their interpretation of these scriptures, Orthodox Jews view practiced male sexual homosexuality as a serious impurity. In conservative and liberal Judaism , in contrast to Orthodox Judaism , the mitzvot are interpreted and observed more freely, more modernly and more easily . In Reform Judaism , for example, blessing of same-sex couples is generally permitted for homosexuals, and in conservative Judaism partially. On the other hand, there are positive sexual ethical commandments, requests to have sex in marriage and, in particular, the husband's duty to observe and satisfy female sexuality.

Sexual hygiene

The purposeful thinking about a forbidden sexual act is not regarded as sinful, only the possibly actually practiced sexual misconduct. From the point of view of psychological sexual hygiene , this is relieving for both sexes.

Islamic sexual ethics

The handling of topics in the field of sexual ethics in Islam varies greatly according to geography and social class. In general, marriage is seen as a manifestation of Divine Will. The Islamic tradition describes it as essential and regards celibacy as an evil fact that is full of evil. In Islam, oral sex is not strictly forbidden, but it is viewed by many Islamic scholars as contrary to the nature of the human being. Therefore ejaculating in the mouth is prohibited ( haram ). Anal intercourse is forbidden with the Sunnis (haram), with the Shiites, however, makruh (allowed but frowned upon). There are very different sexual moral regulations and traditions for men and women, which are primarily centered around the honor of women, initially through virginity and sexual modesty, which, conversely, are not expected of men in this form. The polygyny is in the Islamic marriage accepted in principle.

Buddhist sexual ethics

In contrast to most other beliefs, sexual ethics in Buddhism does not play such an important role in conveying values. Nevertheless, there are clear moral ideas here too. They result from the five principles:

  1. Avoid harming other life forms - be loving and kind
  2. Avoid taking what is not given - practice generosity
  3. Avoid committing sexual adultery - be content
  4. Avoid lying - be honest
  5. Avoid getting intoxicated - be careful

Although the Buddha only defined adultery as sexual misconduct in the Pali scriptures, later Buddhist commentators such as Vasubandhu and Tsongkhapa have stated sexual misconduct and the like. a. thus defined that sexual intercourse through the anus and mouth are "sexual misconduct". In his book Beyond Dogma, the Dalai Lama quoted Buddhist rules according to which homosexual sexual practices are classified as improper behavior. The Dalai Lama refers to these two authors in his statements on homosexuality. However, he sees “the opportunity to understand these rules in the context of time, culture and society. […] If homosexuality is one of the (today) accepted norms, it is possible that it could be acceptable. ”He made these statements at a meeting on this topic with a group of homosexual Buddhists on June 11, 1997 in San Francisco . Steve Blame reports on the Dalai Lama’s view: “He said there was nothing wrong with homosexuality, he said. It is about the quality of love, not its orientation. In addition, it is a basic rule for him to accept other people for who they are. No matter what it is about. "

The Vinaya forbids all forms of sexual intercourse for Buddhist monks and nuns .

Sexual ethics in a cultural comparison

In a comparison of different cultures and societies , the generally recognized sexual morality offers a more open approach to sexuality, but in others it is much stricter than in Europe.

There are normative differences, for example on the following sub-aspects:

  • Intactness of the primary sexual organs, existence of circumcision traditions or genital mutilation, their scope and timing or sanctions
  • Existence of a formal marriage and the associated judgment of adultery
  • Form of marriage ( monogamy , polygamy , polyamory , polygyny , polyandry )
  • Sexuality before or outside of marriage
  • prostitution
  • The age of marital status
  • Forms of sexual interaction without intercourse
  • Times and types of sexual intercourse

There are no “universal norms” that apply to all societies and cultures. However, some norms apply across cultures and societies in a largely consistent manner:

  • Sexual intercourse happens in private.
  • Rape is outlawed.
  • Incest is taboo.

These norms are sometimes disregarded under special rites (religion) or towards people who are viewed as inferior or not belonging to society (outlaws, opponents of war, dehumanized).

BDSM

BDSM , based on the consent of the partners involved, plays a contradicting special role . On the one hand, the social acceptance of these sexual variants in Western and some Asian societies has been increasing for several decades and artists are increasingly being used in film, literature, music and advertising. On the other hand, BDSM practices are in many countries, e.g. B. due to the vague possibilities of separating offenses against sexual self-determination and the possibly exercised bodily harm still the subject of various legislations, the protection of minors and the feminist discourse.

There are currently no clear statements on BDSM practices from the religious communities.

The legal assessment of BDSM is very different internationally. In Germany , the Netherlands , Japan and the Scandinavian countries these practices are i. d. As a rule, it does not constitute a criminal offense, whereby in Germany the limit of criminal liability is exceeded at the latest in the case of serious bodily harm, which often occurs with sadomasochistic preferences. In Austria there is no stable legal situation, while in Switzerland BDSM practices can be punishable in some cases. Pornography with BDSM elements is rated per se as harmful to young people in Switzerland and Germany. As part of the Spanner Case , the European Court of Human Rights ruled on February 19, 1997 in Case of Laskey, Jaggard and Brown v. The United Kingdom; (109/1995/615 / 703-705) February 1997 that every state of the EU may enact its own laws against bodily harm, regardless of whether the bodily harm is consensual or not.

In Switzerland, the possession of "objects or demonstrations [...] that contain sexual acts with violence" has been a criminal offense since the tightening of the Swiss Criminal Code Articles 135 and 197 on April 1, 2002.

Commercialization of BDSM

Through the novel trilogy Shades of Gray and its filming, BDSM received more public attention, e. T. Lifestyle and cult character and was discussed controversially internationally.

Criticism of BDSM

In Germany, the magazine Emma , published by the feminist Alice Schwarzer , is continuing the “ PorNO campaign against misogyny and violent pornography”. In it, Schwarzer takes the view, among other things, that sado-masochistic practices are generally to be equated with condemnable violence against women and that pornography generally serves to “propagate and realize the humiliation and contempt for women”. Schwarzer's best-known statement in this context was first published in Emma , No. 2, 1991:

"Female masochism is collaboration!"

The existence of dominant sadomasochists is just as little taken up and recognized by Schwarzer's theses as the essential, required principle of "Safe, Sane, Consensual". The idea from the history of ideas from the 1960s that the main purpose of all pornography is not the sexual arousal of the viewer, but the suppression of the sex object, the woman or the child, is supported by critics of the campaign, including reference to homosexual pornography in general and lesbian BDSM pornography in particular. Schwarzer's argument is juxtaposed with a debate that began several decades ago in the USA (cf. Samois ) and has since been fought between various feminists under the name “ Feminist Sex Wars ” about the legitimacy of pornography and BDSM, but which has rarely been fought in Europe was received.

Supporters of so-called sex-positive feminism , the former feminist and transgender activist Patrick Califa and the anthropologist Gayle Rubin argue that this line of feminist criticism of pornography reproduces traditional normative ideas of sexuality, according to which tolerance of deviant forms of sexuality has socially devastating consequences. Gayle Rubin, who is as committed to her homosexuality as she is to sadomasochism, summarized the underlying conflict over the subject of "sex" within feminism as it was presented in the USA as follows:

“There were two lines of feminist thought on the subject. One criticized the restriction of female sexual behavior and pointed to the high price paid for being sexually active. This tradition of feminist thought about sex called for sexual liberation that should work for both women and men.
The second direction viewed sexual liberation as an inherently mere extension of male prerogatives. The conservative anti-sexual discourse resonates in this tradition. "

Non-Consensual Practices

There is broad agreement on rejecting child abuse , incest, and non-consensual sadism . These sexual forms are almost universally outlawed by society, subject to a taboo and are not viewed as part of an accepted sexuality, but as deviance .

In many societies, sexual acts against the will of a person involved, i.e. rape and sexual coercion , are prosecuted . The same applies to sexual acts with children (sexual abuse of children), people with certain disabilities, helpless people and animals (see zoophilia , “sodomy”) who cannot knowingly consent . In (West) Germany, the ban on sexual acts with animals was lifted in 1969 by the major criminal law reform, but was reintroduced in principle with the amendment of July 13, 2013 (§ 3 sentence 1 no. 13 TierSchG) and is prosecuted as an administrative offense.

literature

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  • Art Levine: Whip Me, Beat Me and While You're At It Cancel My NOW Membership . In: Washington Monthly , June 1, 1987.
  • Wendy McElroy : A Woman's Right to Pornography. St. Martin's Press, New York 1995, ISBN 0-312-13626-9 .
  • Jean Roberta: Erotica and the Feminist Sex Wars: A Personal Herstory . Girlphoria.com, 1999.
  • Gayle Rubin : Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality. In: Carole S. Vance (Ed.): Pleasure and Danger: exploring female sexuality . Routledge & Kegan Paul, Boston 1984, ISBN 0-04-440867-6 , pp. 267-319.
  • Gayle Rubin: Misguided, Dangerous and Wrong: an Analysis of Anti-Pornography Politics. in: Bad Girls and Dirty Pictures: The Challenge to Reclaim Feminism . Assiter Alison and Carol Avedon (Eds.), Boulder, Colorado, Pluto, 1993. 18-40. ISBN 0-7453-0523-7 .
  • Corinna Rückert : Woman pornography - pornography by women for women. A cultural studies study (dissertation). Peter Lang (European Science Publishing House). Frankfurt am Main, 2002. ISBN 3-631-36630-2 .
  • Corinna Rückert: The new lust of women. From the relaxed way of dealing with pornography. Rowohlt. Hamburg, 2004. ISBN 3-499-61686-6 .
  • Alice Schwarzer (Ed.): PorNO. Victims & perpetrators. Resistance & backlash. Responsibility & Law. EMMA Frauenverlag, Cologne 1994
  • Jürgen Stark : No Sex: The new prudish in Germany. Moral apostles and enemies of lust on the advance. Rowohlt, 1996, ISBN 3-499-60115-X .
  • Nadine Strossen : Defending Pornography: Free Speech, Sex, and the Fight for Women's Rights. 2000, New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-8149-7 / German as In defense of pornography. For freedom of speech, sex and women's rights . Haffmans Verlag, Zurich 1997, ISBN 3-251-00380-1 .
  • Ellen Willis: Feminism, Moralism, and Pornography. , 1983. In: Ann Snitow, Christine Stansell, Sharon Thompson (Eds.): Powers of Desire: The Politics of Sexuality . (Monthly Review Press), New York, ISBN 0-85345-609-7 , pp. 460-467.

Web links

Wiktionary: Sexual morality  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Sexual ethics. In: universal_lexikon.deacademic.com. October 8, 2008, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  2. ^ Christian von Ehrenfels: Sexual ethics. In: anno.onb.ac.at. 1907, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  3. ^ Walter Schaupp: Thesis paper for the lecture: Ethics of human sexuality. ( Memento of the original from May 21, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF) Theol. Uni Graz, summer semester 2010, p. 23f @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www-theol.uni-graz.at
  4. ↑ Woman picture 19th century. In: dirnenlied.de. Retrieved January 1, 2015 .
  5. ^ Christian von Ehrenfels: Sexual ethics . 1907 ibid.
  6. ↑ ibid. P. 54
  7. ↑ ibid. P. 63
  8. ↑ Dagmar Herzog: Sexy Sixties . In: Christina von Hodenberg, Detlef Siegfried (Hrsg.): Where 1968 lies. Reform and revolt in the history of the Federal Republic. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006; P. 83. Limited preview in Google Book search
  9. ↑ Herzog ibid. P. 84
  10. ↑ Herzog ibid. P. 92 ff.
  11. ↑ Schaupp ibid. P. 10ff
  12. ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church. In: vatican.va. 1977, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  13. ↑ a b Forbidden pleasure . In: Der Spiegel . No. 24 , 1972 ( online ).
  14. ↑ Herzog ibid. P. 99 ff.
  15. ^ Topics of the Synod: Sex in Catholic. Bayerischer Rundfunk, October 20, 2014, accessed on January 1, 2015 .
  16. ↑ a b YouCat: Youth Catechism of the Catholic Church. Pattloch, 2011. No. 414, ISBN 978-3-629-02194-6 .
  17. ^ Vatican survey: German results published. In: religion.orf.at. February 4, 2014, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  18. ↑ Love can't help it . In: Der Spiegel . No. 26 , 1971 ( online ).
  19. ↑ AIDS - Orientation and Paths in Danger. A church statement, 1988 - III. Orientations. EKD - Internet editorial office, 1988, archived from the original on July 20, 2012 ; accessed on January 1, 2015 .
  20. ↑ EKD wants to avoid conflict. (No longer available online.) In: wdr5.de. February 7, 2014, archived from the original on August 12, 2014 ; accessed on January 1, 2015 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.wdr5.de
  21. ↑ Schaupp ibid. P. 12.
  22. ↑ One example is the reactions to Conchita Wurst's victory at the Eurovision Song Contest 2014 : Markus Brandstetter: Conchita Wurst: Prudence against homophobia. In: rollingstone.de. May 16, 2014, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  23. ↑ Aristotle: General opinion: three kinds of goods. In: textlog.de. October 15, 2006, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  24. ↑ Aristotle: Happiness as an end in itself and a true goal of man. In: textlog.de. October 18, 2006, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  25. ↑ a b GdMdS, 1785; Quoted from: theologie.uni-wuerzburg.de ( Memento of the original from October 6, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (PDF). @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.theologie.uni-wuerzburg.de
  26. ↑ a b Peter Köck: Handbuch des Ethikunterrichts. Auer Verlag, Donauwörth, 2002, ISBN 978-3-403-03663-0 , p. 55 f.
  27. ↑ On Liberty , 1859; Quoted from: Erwin J. Haeberle: Die Sexualität des Menschen: Handbuch and Atlas. Walter de Gruyter, 1985; P. 535. Limited preview in Google Book search
  28. ↑ Wolfgang Huber : Ethics: My freedom is also your freedom . In: Die Zeit , No. 35/2013
  29. ↑ cf. Schaup ibid. P. 37
  30. ^ Arno Anzenbacher: Introduction to Philosophy. Lower Austrian Press House: St. Pölten - Vienna. 1985; P. 232 - Source for the Hegel quote: Rph. § 158
  31. ↑ Anzenbacher ibid. With reference to P. Ricoeur
  32. ↑ Anzenbacher ibid. P. 233
  33. ↑ Anzenbacher ibid.
  34. ↑ see previous paragraph
  35. ↑ see above paragraph: ethics of principles - deontology
  36. ↑ Second Vatican Council: Pastoral Constitution "Gaudium et Spes" No. 49. The pastoral constitution on the Church in today's world GAUDIUM ET SPES. In: vatican.va. Retrieved January 1, 2015 .
  37. ↑ Nils Pickert: In bed with feminism. In: diestandard.at. May 23, 2013, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  38. ↑ cf. on the difference between deontology and utilitarianism: Simon Blackburn: Gut Sein. A brief introduction to ethics . Primusverlag, Darmstadt, 2004; S. 93ff ISBN 978-3-89678-245-8
  39. ↑ Blackburn ibid. P. 95ff.
  40. ↑ see: Bettina Schöne-Seifert In: Andreas Vieth, Christoph Halbig, Angela Kallhoff (eds.): Ethics and the possibility of a good world: A controversy about the "concrete ethics". De Gruyter, 2008; P. 208. Limited preview in Google Book search
  41. ↑ Hans Rotter: Sexuality. In: Hans Rotter, Günter Virt: New Lexicon of Christian Morals. Tyrolia, Innsbruck / Vienna 1990, ISBN 3-7022-1754-1 , p. 688
  42. ↑ Second Vatican Council: Pastoral Constitution “Gaudium et Spes” No. 49. In: jacobs-studie.de. September 1, 2011, accessed January 1, 2015 . Archive 28 MB
  43. ↑ Study: Partnership 2012 ibid. P. 28 f
  44. ↑ Blackburn, ibid. P. 98
  45. ↑ Blackburn ibid.
  46. ↑ Leviticus 15  EU
  47. ↑ Leviticus 18  EU
  48. ↑ José Ignacio Cabezón: Rethinking the Buddhist Sexual Ethics . In: Tibet and Buddhismus , No. 107, 4/2013, pp. 36–40
  49. ↑ Meeting with the Dalai Lama: "He giggled the whole time". In: one day . April 1, 2011, accessed January 1, 2015 .
  50. ↑ focus.de
  51. ^ Translated from: Gayle Rubin: Thinking Sex: Notes for a Radical Theory of the Politics of Sexuality . In: Carole S. Vance (Ed.): Pleasure and Danger: exploring female sexuality . Routledge & Kegan Paul, Boston 1984, ISBN 0-04-440867-6 ; Pp. 267-319.