Transgenerational transmission

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Transgenerational transfer (also transgenic rationality or transmission , English: Transgenerational Transmission of Trauma (TTT)) refers to an unintentional generally, often unconscious and not infrequently accidental events under which experiences of members of a generation to the members of a subsequent generation transferred to . The terms have established themselves in various scientific disciplines. The phenomena referred to are preferred to be examined and described in the social sciences , but representatives of the natural sciences are also beginning to be interested in them. First and foremost, it is about unprocessed psychological trauma that has been acquired in different contexts and the qualities of which can be passed on to the offspring in different ways and forms, directly or indirectly and with different effects. These phenomena were described particularly frequently in Holocaust survivors and their descendants. In addition to numerous negative consequences, the psychological resistance of a person called resilience can also be strengthened on the way of a transgenerational transmission.

Concept history

Inherited emotional attitudes have often already been described. However , it has not yet been investigated whether known phenomena from earlier times or from other cultures can be described as forerunners of what is now understood as transgenerational transmission. For example, Yanagi Muneyoshi , a Japanese art critic , used national art for Koreans called Han to describe a collective depression that is passed on to the descendants. Also for the Residential School in Canada or the Stolen Generations in Australia there are no studies on the effects on subsequent generations, although for Australia, for example, the suffering caused has now been recognized and the Australian government has apologized to the Aborigines - for the alienation of of one's own culture, “for the pain and suffering, for the humiliation and humiliation, for families and communities being torn apart”.

The concept of transgenerational transmission was not yet in the world when it was recognized in the 19th century that certain experiences are shared in one age cohort and passed on to the next. From there, Angela Moré , social psychologist at the University of Hanover , spanned the historical arc to the present and spoke of “time-specific ideas of inheritance”.

In his work, The Problem of Generations , Karl Mannheim suggested assigning people to a cohort regardless of age if they shared decisive and formative experiences. For Moré, the assignment of generations to cohorts is always a “social construct” because it always requires interpretation and a consensus on the question of which events are seen as defining.

In the mid-1960s, investigations into transgenerational transmission began, when the children of Holocaust survivors increasingly sought therapeutic help with symptoms that were known to those who were directly persecuted and manifested, for example, in the survivor guilt syndrome . By 2011 alone, Natan Kellermann, Israeli psychologist and member of the Board of Trustees of Amcha Germany , had put together over 500 research papers on this group. In doing so, he came across a wide variety of terms - such as “trans-generational, inter-generational, multi-generational or cross-generational” - and even suggested “parental transmission”, because it means that the transmission is specifically from the Parents are emphasized to the children who are preferred.

After the war children in Germany had spoken out, traces of a generational transmission of the “war-burdened childhoods” of their ancestors were also found in their descendants, as it was u. a. Hartmut Radebold named. Sabine Bode spoke of the “legacy of the war grandchildren ”. Angela Moré looked at the consequences of the descendants of victims, perpetrators and followers of the Nazi regime . There is now “a flood of publications on the subject of (trans) generational transmission of early trauma,” as psychosomaticist Christiane Waller wrote when she specifically dealt with the consequences for the cardiovascular system .

In 2017, the science journalist Michael Lange reported on the Deutschlandfunk about neuroepigenetics , which is trying to clarify whether and, if so, how traumatic experiences are anchored in the genome and transferred to subsequent generations. In this respect, it is now referred to as “transgenerational inheritance”.

Concepts

Beyond scientific concepts that consider a deposit in the genome to be possible, representatives of the social sciences presented many different, partly integrating and complementary concepts, but also contradicting explanatory models. Many of these concepts are based on the psychoanalytic model of transference and countertransference . It has been shown that traumatic experiences are only passed on to the next generation if the traumatized person cannot process what they have experienced and “cannot be embedded in the construction of a context of life history”.

While many authors develop linear concepts of the transmission from the preceding to the following generation, others prefer the model of a “circular process”, in which the following generation has a greater and not only perceptual meaning but also a formative role in this process is attributed.

Despite all the diversity, the authors agree that the transfer is not a deterministic process, and silence about the experience is usually mentioned as a common requirement . The Israeli psychologist and peace researcher Dan Bar-On called it the burden of silence for the children of the Nazi perpetrators , Ilany Kogan spoke of the silent screams of the children for the victims .

The experiences “out of shame, fear, or because they had been declared taboo by the prevailing political system,” said sociologist Uta Rüchel on Deutschlandfunk on the occasion of a program, said “Victims of political persecution in the Soviet occupation zone and in the GDR ”and their trauma inheritance as a theme.

Speaking creates the opportunity to break the vicious circle, so the almost unanimous recommendation. Rosmarie Barwinski, head of the Swiss Institute for Psychotraumatology , speaks of a "relationship trauma" in which the unspoken is treated like a secret and at the same time the boundaries between fantasy and reality are blurred. Only when the trauma can be openly discussed will the transgenerational traumatizing effect come to an end.

According to Kellermann, the theory of trauma transmission is based on the one hand "on strange ideas" according to which late symptoms of adult children are based on the parents' early experience, on the other hand it illustrates with the popular wisdom that the apple does not fall far from the trunk a "certain continuity of family traits". He described in detail the contributions of psychoanalysis, which “dominate clinical research on Holocaust trauma transmission” due to the preliminary work of Sigmund Freud , but also contributions from systemic approaches , socialization and biological-genetic research. Christiane Waller drew attention to possible physical consequences that would quickly be neglected when dealing with the psychological consequences.

Examined groups

According to Natan Kellermann, the process of transgenerational transmission was first described for the descendants of the Holocaust survivors, but these processes would also and "increasingly also apply to the descendants of other traumatized population groups - war invalids , surviving genocide victims , victims of terror and Torture , Slavery and Nuclear Events, Man-Made Violence and Natural Disasters  - in Many Parts of the World ”. "About the harmful effects of parental trauma on children of Southeast Asian refugees in the USA" had also been published. In this respect, there are countless groups of people who suffer damage as a result of the traumatic experiences of their ancestors, but the various groups have so far not been proportionately included in research studies, or, as is described for studies of refugees , remain scattered individual studies that have not yet been included in systematic studies Research are embedded. Most publications can still be found on the Holocaust successor generation .

Victims, perpetrators and followers of the Nazi regime

Testimonials from Lothar Kreyssig and Yehuda Poliker in the Villa Wannsee

Contributions of psychology

The psychology has contributed numerous articles on the subject. As one of their representatives, Natan Kellermann pointed out in his summary under the title Inherited trauma that it was “highly controversial” whether the “descendants of Holocaust survivors suffered more from mental illnesses”. Although this has been established in clinical studies, it is not confirmed in empirical research. Characteristic however is a high susceptibility to post-traumatic stress disorder and compared with the average increased susceptibility to stress . The trauma of the parents is not only experienced differently by the offspring, but sometimes also in opposite ways, so that one person can perceive it as both a curse and a legacy.

As another peculiarity of the offspring turned Kellermann a particular vulnerability on the one hand and at the same time a special resistance (resilience) firmly. Sometimes one or the other characteristic would predominate in different phases of life. It is therefore important, according to Kellermann, “not to regard this population as a homogeneous group that either suffers from a specific psychopathology or manifests post-traumatic growth, but rather as people whose inner life has been shaped by the duel between these forces”.

Contributions of social psychology

Based on Freud's concept of “emotional inheritance” and with a view to the relationship between perpetrators and victims of the Nazi state, Angela Moré turned in her 2013 treatise on the mechanisms and effects of transgenerational transmission of extreme trauma on the one hand and unprocessed 'guilt entanglements' on the other. In doing so, she relied on psychoanalytic case histories, autobiographies, novels, and many other sources. Metaphors were used in some of the concepts to illustrate the complex relationships, such as the “Time Tunnel” by Judith Kestenberg , the “Telescoping” by Haydée Faimberg, or the image of the “mediated trauma” by Ilany Kogan.

“What arrives from the experiences of the survivors in the second generation in dreams, affects, moods and conscious and unconscious ideas are puzzling, unintegrable images and impulses, irritations, uncertainties of one's own identity, feelings of guilt, inexplicable fears or compulsions, feelings of (self -) Strangeness and mysteriousness or compulsive acts . "

- Angela Moré : Journal of Psychology

If the members of the second generation fail to process the unprocessed experience that their ancestors passed on to them, the consequences would pass to the third generation, whereby the context of meaning faded more and more from generation to generation.

Comparable metaphors or explanatory models for the relationship of the perpetrators and followers to their children have not become established, even if they also became "unwanted heirs to the shadows of their parents' past". Relationships were usually characterized by ambivalence . In the 1950s, corporal punishment was considered an appropriate means of education. Upbringing was shaped by Johanna Haarer , whose educational guide The German Mother and Her First Child had become a bestseller. The transmission patterns in families of Nazi perpetrators described by various authors and summarized by Moré would, according to Moré, be found in a very similar way in families with unresolved crimes in civil wars or other contexts. The silence of these deeds plunged the following generations into a desperate search for a solution to the riddle that became their torment.

In her endeavor to classify the concrete events theoretically, Moré draws on the concepts of Sigmund Freud and supplements research results and knowledge provided by attachment theory and infant and toddler research as well as child analysis .

“These research results can be transferred to other experiences with (civil) wars, persecution, displacement and genocide and make it clear that the experiences made in them do not pass without the offspring of the perpetrators and victims not only physical but also emotional To leave traces behind and to implant the resulting traumas fatefully in the psyche of the following generations. Where the processing does not succeed or is only incompletely successful, the emotional inheritance becomes a burden also for the grandchildren and great-grandchildren. "

- Angela Moré : Journal of Psychology

Contributions from literary studies

The literary scholar and psychoanalyst Gabriele Schwab , Heisenberg and Guggenheim scholarship holder , teaches comparative literature at the University of California, Irvine (UCI) and in 2010 published a book on the ghost of the transgenerational transmission of trauma. In post-war Germany grew processes them in this book not only part of their own history, in her hometown Tiengen began and remained unnoticed in historically significant aspects of it for a long time but it stressed also a broad historical and global arc among other things, slavery and colonial rule , Mass and genocide . According to Schwab, all these events leave trauma behind, which take effect far beyond the moment of the concrete occurrence and on both sides. She linked the stories of post-war Germans and the descendants of Holocaust survivors with South African apartheid , the practice of torture after September 11, 2001 and the history of the Desaparecidos during the South American dictatorships, about which David Becker had reported years earlier . All these traumas, however different they are, leave traces in the psychological life of individuals as well as in the cultural memory of nations and they interact with one another, says Schwab. Sometimes the existence of a collective psychology within an individual is postulated, which consists of several generations.

In her essay The Ghost of the Past: On the Transgenerational Legacy of War and Violence , the content of which is based on her book, Schwab advocates "the concept of a 'multidirectional memory' in which collective transfer processes connect different histories of violence". In this way, a kind of “networked memory” arises, which offers “an alternative to mourning work”, “which relates exclusively to one's own story” “and in which the recognition of the suffering of the one is therefore only at the expense of the recognition of the suffering the other can perform ”.

Summary WD Bundestag

The Scientific Services of the German Bundestag (WD) presented their summary of the topic under the title Transgenerational Traumatization in 2017 , limited to the group of descendants of Holocaust survivors. A transfer of trauma to the following generations "with corresponding pathological sequelae for those affected" is "now recognized as a clinical finding".

Contemporary witnesses of the Hamburg firestorm

The Gerda Henkel Foundation provides information on its website about a research project funded by the Foundation , which dealt with the Hamburg firestorm and its transgenerational consequences in an interdisciplinary collaboration between psychosomatics , historians and child psychologists . It took place under the military code name Operation Gomorrah in the summer of 1943. Around 35,000 people lost their lives in the process. "In Hamburg, the memory of the 'firestorm' is still present in the city's public today, which, according to the research results so far, also and increasingly applies to the families of contemporary witnesses, " said the Foundation.

Ten informative videos were produced about the project and are published on LISA , the foundation's science portal . The project was supervised by the psychoanalysts Ulrich Lamparter and Silke Wiegand-Grefe from the University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf on the one hand and the contemporary historians Malte Thießen and Dorothee Wierling from the Research Center for Contemporary History in Hamburg on the other.

Using the example of the bombing of Hamburg, the aim was to work out “the interplay between latent family transmission processes on the one hand and cultural traditions on the other”. Developed jointly and supported by the foundation from 2006, the focus of the project was the question of whether and, if so, to which long-term trauma these war experiences led and how they were processed by contemporary witnesses, their families and society.

In addition to many other results, a “generational self-localization” of contemporary witnesses was identified as “identity-creating stereotyping ” and it was found that this often led to a “reproach of a lack of understanding of subsequent generations”, which often sparked conflicts between contemporary witnesses and their descendants. Overall, the project has produced numerous publications on various issues and has now been completed.

Different groups

In addition to publications in German, many individual studies have been published. The descendants of slaves - for whom a separate syndrome was requested in 2005 - and refugees, the children of soldiers and veterans , descendants of traumatized indigenous people , Indians and victims of racism , the transgenerational transmission in Korea , Cambodia or America and those of descendants were examined victims of torture, victims of child abuse or natural disasters and sometimes the search for epigenetically verifiable consequences.

When psychotherapists deal with these secondary traumatized patients, they often speak of childhood traumas, which are prototypes of “cumulative and therefore complex traumatizations”. According to Waller, a different nomenclature has become established for this. What the various terms have in common, however, is that they differentiate between active and passive types of trauma: active, for example, in the case of abuse and mistreatment , passive and the like. a. if neglected . The traumatized groups can also include people who, as small children, lost close caregivers, were premature babies or suffered serious physical illnesses and were not in good hands to cope with these experiences and possibly even emerge stronger from them. If these children remain on their own with such events, they threaten to retain at least one increased vulnerability in the future , which they may pass on to their offspring.

prevention

"In the trauma, the memory of good inner caregivers [...] as empathetic mediators between self and environment falls silent ", wrote Marianne Leuzinger-Bohleber and Sabine Andresen . "Many empirical, psychoanalytical and intercultural studies" would prove "how serious and lasting heavy stress and traumatization" have especially on pregnant women and early parental leave, according to the two authors. They refer in particular to the numerous studies on the survivors of the Shoah , which prove "the lifelong consequences of extreme traumatization and the risk of transgenerational transmission of traumatizations", which have now also been proven in other population groups.

Several projects aim at prevention and try to prevent speechlessness and the passing on of traumatic experiences, especially among young refugee mothers. For example, in November 2012 the Federal Ministry of Family Affairs launched a project called FIRST STEPS as part of the new federal early help initiative. The target group were preferably families who only recently came to Germany. They should be specifically encouraged after the birth of a child. Once accepted into the project, the children and their families were cared for for three years by employees of the children's health center at Vivantes Klinikum Neukölln - under the direction of Rainer Rossi, the chief physician of the pediatric intensive care unit there. The Sigmund Freud Institute (SFI) undertook the accompanying research under the direction of the Swiss psychoanalyst Marianne Leuzinger-Bohleber. The early prevention program u. a. by the Hertie Foundation , the Federal Office for Migration and Refugees (BAMF) and the State of Hesse .

The GETTING STARTED groups for pregnant women, mothers with babies and toddlers were based on a research project in the Sigmund Freud Institute with a dedicated Outpatient Clinic in the period from 2008 to 2014, entitled Getting Started - an integration project for young children with an immigrant background was . The results have been scientifically verified in a randomized controlled study .

At the beginning of 2016, a pilot project called STEP-BY-STEP for traumatized refugees was launched in the Darmstadt reception center . The Sigmund Freud Institute with Marianne Leuzinger-Bohleber and the Department of Education at the Goethe University with Sabine Andresen have been won as institutional cooperation partners with relevant previous experience . In 2017, Leuzinger-Bohleber and Andresen presented their final report. STEP-BY-STEP is based on five conceptual principles:

  1. Safe, reliable structures
  2. Empathy with the “unimaginable” of what people can do to people
  3. Alternative relationship experiences to strengthen resilience
  4. Instead of passive impotence, meaningful activity
  5. Regaining human dignity

Both projects, ERSTE SCHRITTE and STEP-BY-STEP helped the young mothers, among other things, to stay in contact and to resist the tendency to withdraw into a parallel society and to drop out of the language courses.

"Initiated by initiatives against child abuse and to interrupt the 'vicious circle of early traumatization' by passing on one's own traumatization to the next generation, research alliances have emerged across Germany that are concerned with researching these biopsychosocial relationships," wrote Christiane Waller. It was evidently referring to a “broad-based research project” that was brought about by the Round Table on Child Sexual Abuse and that started work in 2012 from the university clinics in Berlin, Heidelberg, Aachen and Magdeburg - under the title From Generation to Generation: The Vicious Cycle of Traumatization break through . As one result among many, the psychologist Katja Dittrich presented her dissertation in English in Berlin eight years later under the title From one Generation to the Next , which was reviewed by Felix Bermpohl, one of the lead supervisors of the research project.

literature

  • Linde Apel, Christa Holstein, Ulrich Lamparter, Birgit Möller, Malte Thießen, Silke Wiegand-Grefe, Dorothee Wierling: The family transfer of war experiences as an object of interdisciplinary research . In: Journal of Psychotraumatology, Psychotherapy Science, Psychological Medicine (ZPPM) . tape 8 , no. 1 , 2010, p. 9-24 .
  • Michaela Huber , Reinhard Plassmann (Ed.): Transgenerational Traumatization . Proceedings of the DGTD conference in September 2011 in Bad Mergentheim. Junfermann, Paderborn 2012, ISBN 978-3-87387-916-4 .
  • Natan PF Kellermann: 'Inherited trauma'. The conceptualization of the transgenerational transmission of trauma . In: Tel Aviver yearbook for German history . tape 39 , 2011, p. 137–160 ( tripod.com [PDF; 137 kB ; accessed on July 6, 2020]).
  • Ilany Kogan : Learning from the past to the trans-generational dynamics. Learning from the past to overcome trauma transmission . Lecture at the 55th Lindau Psychotherapy Weeks. In: Lindau Psychotherapy Weeks . Lindau 2005 ( lptw.de [PDF; 91 kB ; accessed on August 18, 2020]).
  • Ulrich Lamparter, Linde Apel, Malte Thießen, Dorothee Wierling, Christa Holstein, Silke Wiegand-Grefe: contemporary witnesses of the Hamburg “firestorm” and their families. An interdisciplinary research project on the transgenerational transmission of traumatic war experiences . In: Hartmut Radebold, Werner Bohleber, Jürgen Zinnecker (Eds.): Transgenerational transmission of war-torn childhoods. Interdisciplinary studies on the sustainability of historical experiences over four generations . Juventa-Verlag, Weinheim, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-7799-1735-9 , pp. 215-256 .
  • Ulrich Lamparter, Silke Wiegand-Grefe, Dorothee Wierling (eds.): Contemporary witnesses of the Hamburg firestorm in 1943 and their families. Research project to pass on experiences of war . Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, Bristol, Conn. 2013, ISBN 978-3-525-45378-0 ( vr-elibrary.de [accessed on July 9, 2020]).
  • Marianne Leuzinger-Bohleber, Judith Lebiger-Vogel (ed.): Migration, early parenthood and the passing on of traumatizations. The "FIRST STEPS" integration project . Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2016, ISBN 978-3-608-94948-3 .
  • Marianne Leuzinger-Bohleber , Constanze Rickmeyer, Judith Lebiger-Vogel, Korinna Fritzemeyer, Mariam Tahiri, Nora Hettich: Early parenting among traumatized migrants and refugees and their transgenerational consequences. Psychoanalytical Considerations for Prevention . In: Psyche . tape 70 , no. 9 , 2016, p. 949-976 .
  • Heike Lingrön: Transgenerational transmission of flight and expulsion experiences . How long is the time? AV Akademikerverlag, Saarbrücken 2015, ISBN 978-3-639-72288-8 .
  • Angela Moré: The unconscious passing on of trauma and involvement of guilt to subsequent generations . In: Journal for Psychology . tape 21 , no. 2 , 2013, ISSN  2198-6959 ( journal-fuer-psychologie.de [accessed July 1, 2020]).
  • NN: "And suddenly I was all alone". Traumatizing experiences of a young person during the “Hamburg Firestorm” and their transgenerational transmission over three generations . In: Practice of child psychology and child psychiatry . tape 61 , no. 8 , 2012, ISSN  0032-7034 , doi : 10.13109 / prkk.2012.61.8.623 .
  • Hartmut Radebold , Werner Bohleber, Jürgen Zinnecker (eds.): Transgenerational transmission of war-torn childhoods. Interdisciplinary studies on the sustainability of historical experiences over four generations . Juventa-Verlag, Weinheim, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-7799-1735-9 .
  • Marianne Rauwald (Ed.): Inherited wounds. Transgenerational transmission of traumatic experiences . 2 revised edition. Beltz, Weinheim 2020, ISBN 978-3-621-28756-2 .
  • Gabriele Schwab : Haunting Legacies. Violent Histories and Transgenerational Trauma . Columbia University Press, New York 2010, ISBN 978-0-231-52635-7 (English, google.co.th [accessed July 3, 2020]).
  • Hella Stahmann: Transgenerational transmission of war trauma. Processing patterns in the second following generation - grandchildren report using the example of the Hamburg firestorm of 1943 . Dissertation. State and University Library Hamburg, Hamburg 2015.
  • Malte Thießen: The "firestorm" in communicative memory. The transmission and transformation of aerial warfare as a life and family story . In: Jörg Arnold, Dietmar Süß, Malte Thießen (eds.): Luftkrieg. Memories in Germany and Europe (=  contributions to the history of the 20th century . Volume 10 ). Wallstein-Verlag, Göttingen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8353-0541-0 , p. 312-331 .
  • Stefan Trobisch-Lütge , Karl-Heinz Bomberg (ed.): Hidden wounds. The late effects of political traumatization in the GDR and its transgenerational transmission . With a foreword by Anna Kaminsky and a foreword by Andreas Maercker . Psychosozial-Verlag, Giessen 2015, ISBN 978-3-8379-2488-6 .
  • Paul Walenzyk: Cheated out of their future. Transgenerational transmission of trauma to sexually abused boys and options for therapy and prevention . AV Akademikerverlag, Saarbrücken 2011, ISBN 978-3-639-38452-9 .
  • Christiane Waller: (Trans-) generational transmission of early trauma to the cardiovascular system . In: Psychotherapist . tape 62 , no. 6 , 2017, p. 507-512 , doi : 10.1007 / s00278-017-0235-3 ( springer.com [accessed July 1, 2020]).
  • Jürgen Wettig: Transgenerational transmission of trauma to children . In: The Neurologist & Psychiatrist . tape 20 , no. 4 , 2019, p. 35-38 , doi : 10.1007 / s15202-019-2240-6 .

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Natascha Unfried: Biological and neurobiological backgrounds of traumatization . In: Marianne Rauwald (Ed.): Inherited wounds. Transgenerational transmission of traumatic experiences . Beltz, Weinheim, Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-621-27932-1 , pp. 47-54 .
  2. ↑ a b Scientific Services of the German Bundestag : Transgenerational Traumatization . Ed .: German Bundestag. Berlin 2017 ( bundestag.de [PDF; 290  kB ; accessed on July 6, 2020] File number: WD 1-3000-040 / 16).
  3. ↑ Wolfgang Tress: The riddle of mental health. Traumatic childhood and early protection against psychogenic disorders. A retrospective epidemiological study on people at risk . Publishing house for medical psychology in the publishing house Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1986, ISBN 3-525-45688-3 .
  4. ↑ Natan PF Kellermann: 'Inherited trauma'. The conceptualization of the transgenerational transmission of trauma . In: Tel Aviver yearbook for German history . tape 39 , 2011, p. 159 ( tripod.com [PDF; 137 kB ; accessed on July 6, 2020]).
  5. ^ A Brief History of Han. Podcast with Michael D. Shin. In: The Korea Society. May 2, 2019, accessed July 4, 2020 .
  6. ^ Penny Bailey: The Aestheticization of Korean Suffering in the Colonial Period. A Translation of Yanagi Sōetsu's Chōsen no Bijutsu . In: Monumenta Nipponica . Sophia University. tape 73 , no. 1 , 2018, p. 27–85 , doi : 10.1353 / mni.2018.0001 (English, jhu.edu [accessed July 4, 2020]).
  7. ^ Ingo Neumayer: Aborigines. Stolen Generations - the kidnapped children. In: Planet Knowledge . December 16, 2019, accessed July 18, 2020 .
  8. ↑ Prof. Dr. Angela Moré. In: Leibnitz University of Hanover. Institute for Sociology. Retrieved July 16, 2020 .
  9. ↑ a b c d e f g Angela Moré : The unconscious passing on of trauma and entanglements of guilt to subsequent generations . In: Journal for Psychology . tape  21 , no. 2 , 2013, ISSN  2198-6959 ( journal-fuer-psychologie.de [accessed July 1, 2020]).
  10. ^ Karl Mannheim : The problem of the generations . In: Sociology of Knowledge . Luchterhand, Berlin, Neuwied 1964, p.  509–565 (first edition: Kölner Vierteljahreshefte für Soziologie, No. 7, pp. 157–185, 309–330 1928).
  11. ↑ Ilse Grubrich-Simitis : Extreme traumatization as cumulative trauma . In: Psyche . tape  33 , 1979, pp. 991-1023 .
  12. ↑ Hillel Klein: Survival and Attempts at Resuscitation. Psychoanalytic studies with survivors of the Shoah and with their families in Israel and in the Diaspora . Foreword by Yehuda Bauer . Ed .: Christoph Biermann, Carl Nedelmann (=  supplements to the yearbook of psychoanalysis . Volume 20 ). 2nd Edition. Frommann-Holzboog, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-7728-2562-0 .
  13. ↑ a b Natan PF Kellermann: 'Inherited trauma'. The conceptualization of the transgenerational transmission of trauma . In: Tel Aviver yearbook for German history . tape 39 , 2011, p. 138 ( tripod.com [PDF; 137 kB ; accessed on July 6, 2020]).
  14. ↑ Natan PF Kellermann: 'Inherited trauma'. The conceptualization of the transgenerational transmission of trauma . In: Tel Aviver yearbook for German history . tape 39 , 2011, p. 139 ( tripod.com [PDF; 137 kB ; accessed on July 6, 2020]).
  15. ↑ Hartmut Radebold, Werner Bohleber, Jürgen Zinnecker (eds.): Transgenerational transmission of war-torn childhoods. Interdisciplinary studies on the sustainability of historical experiences over four generations . Juventa, Weinheim, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-7799-1735-9 .
  16. ↑ Sabine Bode: war grandson. The heirs of the forgotten generation . Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 2009, ISBN 978-3-608-94550-8 .
  17. ↑ a b c d e Christiane Waller: (Trans-) generational transmission of early trauma to the cardiovascular system . In: Psychotherapist . tape 62 , no. 6 , 2017, p. 507-512 , doi : 10.1007 / s00278-017-0235-3 ( springer.com [accessed July 1, 2020]).
  18. ↑ Doris Strahler: The interaction of body and soul in view. New chief physician for psychosomatics. In: Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy at the Nuremberg Clinic. Retrieved July 4, 2020 .
  19. ↑ Clinical-experimental stress research group. Head Prof. Dr. med. Christiane Waller. In: Ulm University Hospital. Retrieved July 16, 2020 .
  20. ↑ Michael Lange: Scars in the genome. Trauma is inherited through four generations of mice. In: Deutschlandfunk. September 1, 2017, accessed on July 4, 2020 : “War experiences, famines or personal traumatic experiences - it is assumed that the associated fears and feelings are stored in our genetic make-up. Scientists are trying to find out exactly how this works in experiments with mice. "
  21. ^ Sigrid Lauff: Transgenerational inheritance. The traumas of the war grandchildren. In: SWR Odysso . October 19, 2017, accessed on July 4, 2020 : “Researchers assume that 60 percent of children from World War II were traumatized. Some of these trauma are said to have been passed on to the next generation. "
  22. ↑ Jürgen Zinnecker: The 'transgenerational transmission' of the experience of the world war in the family . In: Hartmut Radebold , Werner Bohleber, Jürgen Zinnecker (Eds.): Transgenerational transmission of war-torn childhoods. Interdisciplinary studies on the sustainability of historical experiences over four generations . Juventa-Verlag, Weinheim, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-7799-1735-9 , pp. 107-118 .
  23. ↑ Bettina Völter: The war children generation from a biographical theoretical perspective . In: Hartmut Radebold , Werner Bohleber, Jürgen Zinnecker (Eds.): Transgenerational transmission of war-torn childhoods. Interdisciplinary studies on the sustainability of historical experiences over four generations . Juventa-Verlag, Weinheim, Munich 2008, ISBN 978-3-7799-1735-9 , pp. 95-106 .
  24. ↑ Kurt Grünberg: Silence and Ver-Schweigen. Nazi past in families of victims and of perpetrators or fellow travelers . In: Psychosocial . tape 20 , no. 68 / II , 1997, p. 9-22 .
  25. ↑ Dan Bar-On : The Burden of Silence. Conversations with children of Nazi perpetrators . edition Körber Foundation, Hamburg 2012, ISBN 978-3-89684-435-4 .
  26. ↑ Ilany Kogan: The silent cry of the children. The second generation of Holocaust victims . With a foreword by Chasseguet-Smirgel and a comment by Margarete Mitscherlich and Christian Schneider. 2nd Edition. Psychosozial-Verlag, Giessen 2009, ISBN 978-3-8379-2005-5 (English: The cry of mute children . Translated by Max Looser).
  27. ↑ Silke Hasselmann: Inheritance of trauma down to the fourth link - trauma also shape children. In: Deutschlandfunk. January 26, 2016, accessed July 4, 2020 .
  28. ↑ Prof. Dr. phil. habil. Rosmarie Barwinski. In: Swiss Institute for Psychotraumatology (SIPT). Retrieved July 3, 2020 .
  29. ↑ Rosmarie Barwinski: Split ego in the transgenerational transmission of trauma . In: Marianne Rauwald (Ed.): Inherited wounds. Transgenerational transmission of traumatic experiences . Beltz, Weinheim, Basel 2013, ISBN 978-3-621-27932-1 , pp. 109-117 .
  30. ↑ Natan PF Kellermann: 'Inherited trauma'. The conceptualization of the transgenerational transmission of trauma . In: Tel Aviver yearbook for German history . tape 39 , 2011, p. 142 ( tripod.com [PDF; 137 kB ; accessed on July 6, 2020]).
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