Transnational pollution in East Asia

The transnational pollution in East Asia deals with soil degradation and air and water pollution . A distinction must be made between natural effects (e.g. caused by the Gobi desert ) and effects caused by humans ( anthropogenic ). Therefore, it makes sense to also consider the individual states Japan , Mongolia , North Korea , Russia , South Korea , Taiwan and the People's Republic of China or parts of them as a common system due to similarities in causes or consequences .

In particular, the smog in the big cities , acid rain , increasing desertification and other soil pollution, as well as radioactive marine pollution and pollution of inland waterways should be mentioned.

Seasonal winds spread sand and acidic air pollution across all states in the region. The seas of the region are also affected, the " Yellow " and the Sea of ​​Japan . The approaches to solving increasing environmental problems can mainly be found in the field of development cooperation. In East Asia , the polluting states are not always necessarily recipients of their own pollution ( external effect ). The avoidance and control of environmental pollution cannot be done by national governments alone .

East Asia Concepts

Air pollution

global carbon monoxide emissions

Beijing after a rainy day (left) and a sunny but smoggy day (right)

In order to understand East Asia's air pollution problems, it is important to know about the westerly winds that prevail in the region in winter, which are caused by a long, strong monsoon wind . As a result of man-made air pollution, so-called greenhouse gases and other substances harmful to living beings increasingly accumulate in the atmosphere.

Particles smaller than 2 μm in diameter are mainly responsible for the poor visibility in metropolitan areas of East Asia. These particles are also inhaled by living beings and can penetrate into the respiratory organs, where they u. U. can cause damage to health. The pollutants enter the atmosphere in different ways. In addition to natural pollutant emissions (such as volcanoes ), anthropogenic emissions play an important role in air pollution.

Causes of Air Pollution

According to the South Korean Ministry of the Environment, the proportion of emissions caused by means of transport (e.g. motor vehicles) alone amounted to 48.8% of total emissions in South Korea in 1995. The proportion of purely industrial pollution was 28.8%, electricity generation provides 14.6% and private heating 8.8%. In addition to the air pollution caused on the mainland, emissions from ships also play an important role in the spread of air pollution. The pollutants of the emissions caused in East Asia are carried by the westerly winds in the spring to remote areas of the Pacific Ocean , where they have a significant impact on the atmosphere.

China's share of global sulfur emissions was estimated at 15% in 1997. The rapid development of Chinese heavy industry is primarily responsible. Emissions from China contribute to acid rain in South Korea, and South Korean emissions in turn contribute to acid rain in Japan. It is therefore difficult to look at the polluters in isolation.

Urban air pollution

Shanghai at sunset. The sun has not yet reached the horizon: it is setting behind the thick layer of pollution.

While urbanization was advancing rapidly, the environmental infrastructure and regulations in terms of sustainability could not keep pace. In 2008, significant environmental pollution was observed in the major cities of Mongolia. The air quality is particularly affected there. High levels of particulate matter and other pollutants pose a serious health risk, as evidenced by the increased incidence of respiratory diseases in young children. The sewage supply is one of the most underdeveloped in Asia and causes extensive pollution of groundwater and stagnant water, both in Ulan Bator and in other cities. The waste supply only covers a small part of the waste generated. The emergence of poor air quality in Mongolia is seen with multiple causes. The widespread use of domestic heating, inefficient boilers, power generation, industry and increasingly also the transport sector are cited. The health situation is exacerbated by the fact that only 30% of the population have access to adequate care.

acid rain

The main causes of acid rain are nitrogen oxides (NO _x ) and sulfur dioxide (SO ₂ ) emissions. Nitrogen oxides come primarily from internal combustion engines in vehicles. In South Korea, internal combustion engines make up around 50% of total nitrogen oxide emissions. In the metropolitan areas of Seoul , Taejon and Kwangju , the proportion is over 70%. SO ₂ emissions are mainly caused by the burning of fossil fuels. Coal in particular emits a high proportion of sulfur dioxide. The problem is therefore u. a. in the industrialization of the states of East Asia and the associated increased use of fossil fuels.

While the SO ₂ and NO _x emissions in Europe and North America have been significantly reduced through multilateral agreements , the problem of acid rain in East Asia has increased due to increasing industrialization . Coal is the primary source of energy in East Asia, which caused SO ₂ emissions in the region to increase from 29 million tons (1987) to an estimated 62 million tons (2010). The PRC is responsible for the sometimes most worrying proportion of the pollution. Research shows that China is responsible for two-thirds of Asia's NO _x emissions. With almost 75%, coal has the main share in the Chinese energy mix and makes the country with 19 million tons of SO ₂ emissions annually the second largest polluter in the world after the USA with more than 22 million tons per year. After the failure of the 10th five-year plan for national environmental protection in China (2002–2006), the 11th five-year plan provided for a 10% reduction in emissions by 2010 compared to 2006 values. According to a study from 2005, 43.4% of the cities tested had air quality that was “harmful to health”. In 32.6% of the cities tested, the acid rain incidence exceeded 5%.

Japan-specific effects

Chinese sulfur dioxide accounts for 49% of air pollution in Japan. Other polluters are own emissions with 21% (less than 1 million tons annually), natural emissions (e.g. volcanoes, 13%), the states of North and South Korea (12%), the rest of Southeast Asia (2%) and Taiwan ( 1 %). Acid rain intensity is measured at various measuring points across Japan. The pH values determined during the investigations are at most values ​​above 5 in remote Pacific islands. It should be noted, however, that a large part of the industrial growth and the associated pollution is due to Japanese investments.

Soil pollution

sand

A cloud of sand leaves the People's Republic for Japan and the Korean Peninsula .

Air pollution from sand particles is a phenomenon that can be observed in all countries in the North-West Pacific region. Monsoon winds blow fine sand from the deserts of Inner Asia in layers of air of more than 11 km in height and carry it far across the Pacific. The sand leads to considerable impairment of vision, especially in spring, and can cause respiratory diseases. The sand particles can reduce visibility to less than one kilometer. In all countries in the region, a significant increase in the number and intensity of storms has been observed over the past decade. According to studies by the Chinese State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA), the sand-bearing winds primarily arise in the Gobi Desert and other deserts in the southeast of Outer Mongolia, in eastern Kazakhstan , in eastern Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang's Uyghur regions. In spring and winter, the winds take three different routes from the north, northwest and west to the regions of Inner Mongolia, Shaanxi , Gansu , Ningxia , Shanxi , Hebei , Beijing , Shandong and Jiangsu . In addition to China, an increase in the frequency of sandstorms can also be observed in Japan.

Effects

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There are a number of negative effects from sand pollution. This includes, for example, damage to buildings and vehicles caused by the mechanical effects of fine particles in the wind on the surfaces. Field crops are also damaged and greenhouses lose their thermal efficiency due to the dust layer. When people can fine particles in respiratory system invade and cause disease under certain circumstances or at least amplify. In addition, other harmful substances can also be transferred and inhaled with the sand. Furthermore, the visual impairments increase the risks in air traffic, cause radio interference and make weather observation more difficult. Sand deposited on glaciers also leads to faster warming of the ice layer due to the darker surface and thus intensifies the melting of the glacier. Ultimately, there are also a number of annoying effects like soiling of laundered clothes hanging out to dry in the open air.

In some cases (e.g. in April 2001) the Asian sand was also carried in large quantities far into the North American continent. Within two weeks, clouds of dust traveled to regions east of the Rocky Mountains . There was no damage in the USA , but the first clear perception of pollution shows the increased intensity of the storms.

Effects in South Korea

South Korea is also affected by dust and sand pollution in the air, which also severely affects the air quality here and leads to poor visibility. In January 1999, sand pollution was observed all over South Korea. There had previously been no such observation during the winter. In South Korea, the semiconductor industry in particular is watching the growing intensity of the storms with concern, as a dust-free environment is required for the production of semiconductors and other fine electronics. The intensity of the storms peaked in 2002. The severity of the sandstorms led to a temporary halt in traffic and the closure of schools in Beijing and Seoul .

See also : China's Green Wall

Desert expansion in Mongolia

Sand deposits in Beijing, 2006

On the Mongolian Plateau , both in Outer Mongolia and Inner Mongolia, a rapidly increasing spread of deserts has been observed since the end of the 20th century ( desertification ). One cause is overgrazing by cattle. In the state of Mongolia , for example , many state jobs were cut in the 1990s, which led to people looking for work in the livestock industry and the number of keepers doubling. The effect was even stronger in the vicinity of larger settlement areas, but it displaced the rural population in particular. The natural conditions of dry climate, thinly overgrown soils and shortened fertility periods did the rest that large areas of the Mongolian pastures are now exposed to soil erosion . After the turn of the millennium, the livestock decreased again.

The main cause of desertification is the increasing use and development of mines on the Mongolian plateau .

Desert expansion in the People's Republic of China

About 3.3 million square kilometers or 34% of the area of ​​China were desertified at the end of the 20th century and spread at a speed of 10,400 km² per year. Between 1975 and 1987 this area grew by 25,200 km², i. H. about 2,100 km² annually. According to the China Environmental Protection Agency, the Gobi Desert had increased by 52,400 km² between 1994 and 1999 and was only 240 km away from Beijing . From 1999 to 2004, the deserts could be pushed back by 7,585 km² annually. The Secretariat of the Chinese National Committee for the Implementation of the UN Convention to Combat Desertification saw around 400 million people affected by the consequences of desertification in 2000 and estimated the economic failures to about $ 6.5 billion annually.

Other pressures in the People's Republic of China

China's agriculture is facing major challenges due to the most varied of soil contamination . According to the ministry, 12 million tons of grain are excessively contaminated with heavy metals nationwide every year. However, due to the lack of comprehensive studies, these statements only have incomplete statistics. The soil contamination leads to direct economic losses of 2.5 billion US-D. An estimated 10 million hectares of China's 120 million  hectares of arable land are polluted. Another source puts the polluted area in 1998 using comparable criteria for “pollution” at 7.7 million hectares of arable land. In addition, 100 million hectares of grassland and 0.1 million hectares of forest are affected by soil degradation .

Forest in Mongolia

The forest sector is heading for a crisis. Estimates see the reality of overforestation at around four times that of sustainable practice. Between 36 and 80% of the activities are illegal. Laws and ordinances have proven to be ineffective because there is a lack of support from the local population, who are dependent on income from the use of wood. If no alternative sources for domestic energy supply can be found, serious shortages are to be feared in the urban agglomerations. On top of that, the domestic forest industry proved unable to attract sufficient foreign direct investment to modernize itself.

water

Marine pollution

Seas of East Asia

Marine pollution from a wide variety of factors takes place in all seas of East Asia. However, the Yellow Sea and the Sea of ​​Japan are of particular importance and an increased degree of pollution . The main reasons for pollution are shipping, the use of the sea as a marine rubbish dump, leaking oil from wells and ship accidents, the discharge of industrial and household wastewater and sewage from ports as well as agriculture and the associated discharge of pesticides and fertilizers. The consequences are increased levels of nitrogen , phosphate , ammonia , copper , oil spills and strong algal blooms .

The yellow sea

The Yellow Sea is characterized by significant pollution. It has only a shallow depth of an average of 45 meters (max. Depth: 100 m). In addition, there is only a comparatively low circulation of the water. The World Watch Report counts the Yellow Sea among the seven "dying" seas, only the condition of the Black Sea is considered more critical worldwide. The discharge of wastewater from the neighboring industry and the half-hearted implementation of environmental protection laws are also damaging fishing and aquaculture in the Yellow Sea. In addition to heavy wastewater pollution from Chinese and South Korean industries, there is pollution from oil spills from local oil and gas wells. Water pollution is considered to be one of the greatest environmental problems in China today. 85% of industrial wastewater and 90% of household wastewater are discharged unfiltered directly into rivers, lakes and finally also into the Yellow Sea.

The Japanese Sea

The Sea of ​​Japan is wider and deeper than the Yellow Sea and therefore has a greater potential to absorb pollution. In addition, there are stronger currents that carry away the pollution again. Nevertheless, similar pollution occurs as in the Yellow Sea. In addition, the northern part of the Sea of ​​Japan was used to dispose of radioactive waste from the Soviet Union and Russia.

Radioactive pollution

The Soviet Union has been using the Sea of ​​Japan as a maritime rubbish dump for radioactive waste since 1950 .

It is therefore feared by the surrounding states that radioactive material will contaminate the fish and other animals that serve as a food source and thus be ingested by humans. Most of the squid consumed in Japan is caught in the Sea of Japan . Squid is particularly prone to radioactive contamination.

In addition to the Sea of ​​Japan, radioactive waste was dumped by the Soviet Union and Russia in the Pacific , near the Kamchatka Peninsula. However, currents can also carry contaminated water to the coast of Japan and beyond.

There does not seem to be any reliable data on the sinking before 1978; at least six cases have become known since 1978:

• In 1978 two nuclear reactors were sunk off the North Korean coast.
• Radioactive waste was dumped in the Pacific in 1985 (the exact location is unknown).
• In the same year, a Soviet nuclear submarine exploded and sank in the Sea of ​​Japan. It was not recovered, so radiation still leaks today.
• In 1989 the Soviet Union sank contaminated reactor parts of a nuclear submarine near Kamtchatka.
• In 1992 several containers with radioactive liquids were sunk by Russia in the Sea of ​​Japan.
• In addition to these individual cases, low-level radioactive waste was regularly dumped in the sea. It is assumed that between 1964 and 1986 the Soviet Union sank around 17,000 containers with solid and liquid radioactive material in the Barents and Kara Seas. The danger of radioactive contamination thus extends to large parts of the Arctic .
• A large number of other sinkings took place until at least 2002, some of which were also documented on video. In the autumn of 1993, for example, the NHK broadcast film material that was recorded by a Russian military reporter. In the show, the Japanese people were shocked to watch as 1,000 tons of contaminated water were dumped into the fertile fishing grounds of the Sea of ​​Japan.

According to Russian sources, the radioactive material came from the nuclear submarines of the Soviet Pacific Fleet. The Russian government also told environmental groups that radioactive waste from the Pacific Fleet had been dumped three times a year for the past twenty years.

The nuclear waste in the Sea of ​​Japan also includes Russian nuclear submarines that are stored unused on the Russian coasts. So far, 67 Russian nuclear submarines have been taken out of service and must now be defueled and dismantled. Russia depends on the help of Japan and the United States for the dismantling. Currently, one or two submarines can be dismantled annually, with the number of decommissioned submarines still higher; H. more submarines are stored unused every year (as of May 2000).

The Nakhodka tanker disaster

Popular interest in marine pollution near the Japanese coast grew significantly after the break-up of the Russian tanker Nakhodka in January 1997. The Nakhodka incident was not seen as a stand-alone event in Japan but became a symbol of continuing marine pollution. The population feared that similar incidents would repeat themselves. The main target of the criticism was the inadequate reaction of the Japanese government. The use of crisis management for the Sea of ​​Japan has been called for by local governments and civil movements. The accident led to closer cooperation between the Russian and Japanese authorities, other states in the region and the USA, as well as local governments in the region.

Inland waters in the People's Republic of China

Water quality of China's larger lakes 2006

Water quality in China 2006

In 2006, around every second of the rivers tested was certified as having a “health-damaging” water quality . Only 2 of the 27 tested lakes showed an "acceptable" quality. Cancer-related death rates from water pollution are estimated at 64 cases per 100,000 population. In addition to the health consequences, high economic failures are also reported due to agricultural irrigation with polluted wastewater; As a result, roughly half of the 2003 rice harvest failed to meet food standards.

activities

National or bilateral measures against transnational environmental pollution in East Asia are often not efficient enough because pollution is caused by more than one state or the measures, especially by states like Mongolia or China, cannot be financed. China did not begin national environmental protection until the 1990s. Although the application of new environmental laws has already had a positive impact on transnational pollution, the regulations are not sufficient to keep up with the rapidly growing industry. Due to opaque decision-making processes and corruption, economic projects are often decided at the expense of the environment.

Institutions, laws and regulations

In Japan, politics has been trying to control pollution since the early 1970s and has been a pioneer in the region. In addition to the participation of the states of China, Japan and South Korea on a global level in international organizations that deal with transnational environmental problems, such as the UN Environmental Program ( UNEP ) or the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the associated agreements (such as the Kyoto Protocol of 1997), bilateral and regional measures also play a major role in the transnational environmental policy of the states of East Asia.

The most important supra-regional institution for cooperation in marine protection is the Northwest Pacific Action Plan (NOWPAP), which was founded in 1994 under the leadership of UNEP. Members of NOWPAP are China, South Korea, Japan and Russia (North Korea was one of the founding members, but is no longer a formal member). The organization's focus is also on protecting the Yellow Sea, the Sea of ​​Japan and the Sea of ​​China. Although initially requested (and also supported by South Korea and Russia), the NOWPAP is not binding under international law. Japan and China refused to be legally bound. The Japanese Ministry of Transportation argued that the Japanese Coast Guard regulations were already sufficient. Japan's stance on NOWPAP was clearly positive after the Nakhodka tanker accident.

To combat air pollution, the countries of East Asia are following the example of Europe, where the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) has existed since 1979 . The convention serves as a valuable source of technical and institutional information.

As a measure against acid rain, Japan has implemented the following measures since the 1970s:

1. A switch from high sulfur coal to oil.
2. The development and implementation of desulfurization technologies .
3. Introduction and strict compliance with air quality laws and
4. The granting of cheap loans to finance environmental technologies.

In addition, there are regulations on NO _x reduction, such as regulations on the use of catalytic converters in motor vehicles. Measures against air pollution also include reducing fuels with a high sulfur content and increasing the use of liquefied natural gas (LNG). In South Korea, for example, environmental protection laws have been in place since the late 1980s, and sulfur dioxide emissions have been steadily reduced since 1990. Individual countries in Southeast Asia ( Thailand , Vietnam , Taiwan , Indonesia and Hong Kong ) are also planning to increasingly use natural gases. However, here too, environmental protection is of secondary importance to economic goals. In particular, the 1997 financial crisis slowed down environmental protection projects significantly.

Development of the energy mix in China since 1980

A very effective measure is replacing fossil fuels with renewable energies . According to the development plan, the People's Republic of China wants to supply 10,000 villages with 3.5 million households with electricity from renewable energy by 2010. Since it is mainly off- grid systems, the focus here is on renewable energies such as photovoltaics and wind turbines . The rural area is to receive a full power supply by 2015.

In absolute terms, most of the renewable energies are generated in China. The country made the second largest investment in this area in 2007 with $ 12.459 billion. Only Germany invested more in renewable energies than China. In 2009, Chinese investments are expected to exceed those of the Federal Republic. In the People's Republic, the share of renewable energies in the energy mix in 2006 was approx. 7%. The government intends to increase this to 10% by 2010 and to 16% by 2020. Most of the renewable energies are generated by dams . The Three Gorges Dam is the largest dam project in the world.

Technical cooperation

China receives Official Development Assistance (ODA) from neighboring Japan and South Korea, with Japanese technical assistance increasingly going to Chinese environmental projects. Aid from Japan and South Korea is being initiated and strengthened by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP). China and South Korea made agreements on cooperation in environmental protection as early as 1993. The investigation of the pollution of the Yellow Sea and the filtering of Chinese coastal wastewater play a major role in the joint environmental policy of the two countries.

The increased number of sandstorms have been recorded in Japan since 2003 in measuring stations that are spread across the entire country. In addition, measurement projects and countermeasures in China were supported with ODA funds for a number of years. Bilateral measuring stations are for example in Beijing (since 1996), Ningxia (since 1998) as well as Dunhuang and the Taklamakan desert (since 2000). The Chinese government began the largest reforestation program known to man in the 1970s. Work on China's Green Wall will continue until 2050. By then, 350,000 square kilometers of land should be planted with trees. A number of Japanese NGOs are working on reforestation projects in China. The South Korean ODA society KOICA also supports this program.

There is a similar cooperation between South Korea and Japan. In 1993, South Korea and Japan founded the Japan-Korea Environmental Conservation Joint Committee, which meets annually for an exchange of research results and technical cooperation. In the past, Japanese development aid also went into the implementation of South Korean wastewater treatment plants.

Regarding the regular dumping of radioactive water from nuclear reactors of the Soviet Pacific Fleet, Japan offered the Russian Navy in 1993 as part of a nuclear safety plan to build a floating disposal platform to filter the contaminated water. The platform cost US $ 29 million, was completed in 1997 and went into operation in 2000. Since then, 7000 m³ of water have been filtered annually through the system in Bolshoi Kamen, Russia . In addition, the Japanese government made around US $ 35 million available in 1999 for the dismantling of Russian nuclear submarines.

Interests of states

Japan

Japan is also using the development aid money in diplomacy in order to lead China towards a more liberal economy and politics. Japan also has an interest in China's responsible role in the region's environmental policy. Japan works closely with South Korea in projects to combat sandstorms (e.g. reforestation projects), as the two countries are among the most affected.

Mongolia

Mongolia is an important element in the strategy against the devastation and to avoid sandstorms. There are around 4000 employees in the Ministry of Nature and Environment (MNE) locally or at the state level. According to the World Bank, this is insufficient to achieve, monitor and enforce existing laws. The coordination between government departments is insufficient. In particular, uncontrolled livestock farming , urban air pollution and uncontrolled and largely illegal forestation are seen as increasingly problematic across national borders.

For the budget period 2008 and 2009, Germany is committed to projects on environmental protection and economic reform with € 20.5 million.

Russia

Due to the low population density in the Russian part of East Asia, the region ranks at the bottom of the Moscow government's priority list. Regional environmental protection is therefore expected to result in the lowest possible cost and high receipt of aid.

South Korea

South Korea is one of the regions most severely polluted by transnational pollution. South Korea is therefore one of the most committed initiators of transnational cooperation in environmental protection. However, the country's financial and political powers are not sufficient to push China to reduce emissions or to significantly increase development aid (ODA). South Korea therefore often takes on the role of a mediator between Japan and China in environmental policy in order not to be completely marginalized by the two neighboring countries.

People's Republic of China

China has a keen interest in not being tied to long-term contracts and therefore prefers the use of development aid funds (ODA) and the existing multilateral political framework. Furthermore, China tries to benefit as much as possible from technical and financial help in environmental protection without having to expend large resources itself.

The Chinese government is reluctant to hear accusations from Japan and South Korea that aggressive economic growth is to blame for increasing desertification . However, it has to think twice about objections in order not to endanger the urgently needed ODAs.

See also

• Anthropocene
• Ministry of Environmental Protection of the People's Republic of China

literature

• Owen Cameron: Japan and South-East Asia's Environment. In: Michael JG Parnwell, L. Bryant Raymond (Eds.): Environmental Change in South-East Asia. Routledge, London 1996, pp. 67-93.
• Reinhard Drifte: Transboundary Pollution as an Issue in Northeast Asian Regional Politics. In: Klaus Vollmer (Ed.): Ecology and environmental policy in Japan and East Asia. Transnational Perspectives. Iudicium, Munich 2006, pp. 65-84.
• Paul G. Harris (Ed.): Confronting Environmental Change in East and Southeast Asia. Eco-Politics, Foreign Policy and Sustainable Development. Sterling VA Earthscan, London 2005.
• Meehye Lee, Zafar Adeel: Managing air pollution problems in Korea. In: Zafar Adeel (Ed.): East Asian experience in environmental governance: Response in a rapidly developing region. United Nations Univ. Press, 2003.
• Anny Wong: The roots of Japan's international environmental politics. Garland Publishing, New York and London 2001.
• Makiko Yamauchi: The Japanese approach to governance of air pollution problems. In: Zafar Adeel (Ed.): East Asian experience in environmental governance: Response in a rapidly developing region. United Nations Univ. Press, 2003.

Web links

• Information text on the situation in China from the Federal Agency for Civic Education ( Sternfeld 2006)
• Position text ( memento from July 1, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) from the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development on environmental policy in China and German-Chinese cooperation .
• Position text of KfW on the environmental situation in Mongolia and German-Mongolian cooperation.
• Three projects in Mongolia at GTZ .
• goethe.de/china - Article on the topic of environmental protection in China on the website of the Goethe-Institut China (in German, English, Chinese)

Individual evidence

1. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Lee, Adeel
2. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t} Drifts 2006
3. ↑ ^{a b c d} country page with a focus on the environment for Mongolia at the World Bank
4. ↑ ^{a b c d e f g} Wong
5. ↑ ^{a b c} Cost of Pollution in China (PDF; 5.8 MB) joint report by the World Bank and SEPA, 2007
6. ↑ ^{a b} Research paper (PDF file; 976 kB) from Deutsche Bank on the “growth market” of the environmental sector in China, FRANK 2006
7. ↑ China National Environmental Protection Plan in the Eleventh Five-Years (2006-2010) (PDF; 5.79 MB) No. 39 document of the State Council 2005
8. ↑ SOE 2006 Atmospheric Environment, SEPA, 2006
9. ↑ National Institute for Environmental Studies ( Memento of February 19, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) (Japanese)
10. ^ Mining and Agriculture. The Mongolian plateau is drying up. SPIEGELonline of February 3, 2015, accessed on July 20, 2017.
11. ↑ Figures on livestock at the FAO .
12. ↑ Christoph Behrens: Mongolia. Where the desert swallows the nomads. Süddeutsche Zeitung of October 21, 2015, accessed on July 20, 2017.
13. ↑ Chen, G., Z. Dong, and P. Yam. 1996. Desert Expansion: International Research Topics and Approaches in China. Exploitation of Nature , 15, 1-5 (in Chinese). See also Map Asia Conference (PDF file; 479 kB) , Beijing 2004
14. ↑ ^{a b} China country report ( memento of November 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) of the United Nation's Convention to Combat Desertification (United Nations Convention on the Spread of Desert). UNCCD, 2000. New York.
15. ^ Zhu ZD, and T. Wang. 1993. Trends of Desertification and its Rehabilitation in China . Desertif. Contr. Bull. 22: 27-30. See also Map Asia Conference (PDF file; 479 kB) , Beijing 2004
16. ↑ China country report ( memento of November 14, 2008 in the Internet Archive ) of the United Nation's Convention to Combat Desertification . UNCCD, 2006. New York.
17. ↑ China faces “serious” soil pollution: SEPA ( Memento from September 2, 2011 in the Internet Archive ) SEPA press release relating to this publication .
18. ↑ H. Sun, H. Zhou, P. Wang: Progress in Research on Degradation Succession of Grasslands . Grassland China, vol. 1, 1998, pp. 51-56. See also Map Asia Conference (PDF; 479 kB) Beijing 2004
19. ↑ Joint paper (PDF) by WWF Mongolia and the World Bank
20. ↑ ^{a b} Trade and Environment Data Base of the American University of Washington (accessed March 18, 2007)
21. ↑ Further Japanese Investment Could Do Much for Pacific Fleet's Nuclear Security ( Memento from October 18, 2013 in the web archive archive.today ), Oslo (accessed on March 18, 2007)
22. ↑ ^{a b} Nuclear Threat Initiative , Washington DC (accessed March 26, 2007)
23. ^ ^{A b} Kim, Hyon-Jin: Hidden Shoals of Marine Environmental Cooperation in Northeast Asia ( April 2, 2009 memento in the Internet Archive ) In: Nautilus of America / The Nautilus Institute: NE Asian Marine Issues - # 4, 1999 (accessed on January 30, 2007).
24. ↑ ^{a b c d} SOE 2006 Water Environment, SEPA 2006
25. ↑ ^{a b c} REN21 Renewables 2007 Global Status Report ( Memento of May 29, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), report by REN21 , 2007
26. ↑ Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2008 Report ( Memento of October 24, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), joint publication by UNEP , SEFI and New Energy Finance
27. ↑ Press release  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. from the BMZ, April 4, 2008.