Economic History of the Han Dynasty

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The economic history of the Han dynasty is characterized by the expansion of foreign policy and the standardization of script, measurements, weights and bureaucracy, which led to an economic boom. This development was driven by the production of effective weapons and tools, the trade in high-quality silk and the state regulation of grain, iron, salt and wine. The Han Dynasty's economy was initially based almost entirely on agricultural produce. However, there were already manufacturing government companies and private traders.

population

The population figures were recorded by two censuses during the Han Dynasty.

households Residents
1/2 AD 12,233,062 59,594,978
140 AD 9,698,630 49.150.220

Most of the population lived in the countryside and from agriculture. Fishing in lakes and rivers was also a common job. In the cities, people mainly produced textiles or worked, for example, in salt production.

The population was differentiated into different ranks. The status was given as a kind of government reward. There were a total of 20 ranks, but the highest 12 could only be taken by civil servants. The higher the rank, the more privileges one enjoyed. If someone committed a crime, that rank could be revoked. In addition, there was a rank that was to be settled among the common citizens. This was given to those who had to work for the local rulers as a punishment for their crimes, and was equated with social outrage. Most of them later rose again and were incorporated into the common people.

During the Han Dynasty, there were slaves who made up about 1% of the total population. At the beginning of the dynasty they were mostly relatives of captured criminals, later many children were sold by their parents for financial reasons. Most of the slaves were freed during their lifetime.

urbanization

The exact number of people who lived in cities during the Han Dynasty is not known. Estimates vary between 6 and 18 million people living in around 1,500 cities. In the 2nd and 1st year v. The cities grew while in the Eastern Han Dynasty the numbers decreased. The exception is the city of Luoyang , where an estimated 195,504 people lived in 1–2 AD. Later up to 500,000 people lived there. Many cities were not newly founded, but rather sprung up in the vicinity of much older branches. Most of the cities were north of the Huai River and it can be assumed that there was lively exchange and trade between the cities. By counting 1–2 AD, the population of some cities is known:

households Residents
Ch'ang-an 80,000 246.200
Loyang 52,839 (195.504) *
Ch'eng-an 76,256 (282,147) *
P'eng-ch'eng 40.196 (148.725) *

Cities had, on the one hand, administrative purposes and sometimes even military headquarters, and, on the other, marketplaces. These were the main places of communication in the cities and were controlled by local authorities. At times there were extremely high crime rates and even armed youth gangs in the cities.

Social classes

Landowners and farmers

Western Han Dynasty

The early Han Dynasty , also known as the Western Han Dynasty (Chinese 西汉 , Pinyin xīhàn ), extended from 207 BC. Chr. To 9 AD. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty , Han Gazou (also called Liu Bang ) founded the Han Dynasty. As the first Han emperor, he took reforms to promote agriculture by reducing the taxes and duties of the rural population in order to rebuild the run-down empire. Many farmers got their lost land and property back.

In the early Han dynasty, taxes were levied per household with the aim of having as many small landowners as possible in order to generate more tax revenue. The subsequent Han emperors Huidi (195-188 BC), Wendi (180-157 BC) and Jingdi (157-141 BC) reformed the state apparatus and continued the policy of economic development . This was characterized, among other things, in the introduction of iron farm implements and the use of oxen as draft animals, which significantly increased agricultural productivity.

The Han dynasty flourished under the rule of Emperor Wudi . This weakened the power of the principalities considerably and increasingly centralized the state. Salt, iron and coins were declared a state monopoly. He also expanded the empire widely. In the later years of his reign, he attached great importance to the continued development of agriculture.

The subsequent Han emperors Zhaodi ( 87-74 BC) and Xuandi ( 74-49 BC) were unable to maintain the previous rule of Wudi and initiated the decline of the early Han dynasty. The reason for this was the increasing power of the large landowners. These in turn leased land to the farmers and enjoyed tax breaks, partly because of their services to the empire. As a result, government revenues fell and farmers faced increasing tax burdens. As a result of this exploitation, many farmers lost their land and were dependent on the large landowners. Therefore, they could no longer do compulsory labor for the state. Overall, the number of large landowners increased and the number of ordinary farmers continued to decrease. The growing discontent of the peasants was evident in some peasant uprisings. Eventually, Emperor Wang Mang came to power in AD 9 and founded the Xin Dynasty .

Eastern Han Dynasty

The late Han Dynasty, also known as the Eastern Han Dynasty (Chinese 东汉 , Pinyin dōnghàn ), extended from 25 to 220 AD. After defeating Wang Mang, Emperor Guangwudi (also called Liu Xiu ) ascended the throne in AD 25 and changed the name of the dynasty back to Han . Important acts of Guangwudi when he took office were the release of the slaves and the reformation of the land distribution by ordering the poor peasants to receive land and to provide them with seeds and farm implements, which helped to promote agricultural production. This led to a brief renewed heyday under the rule of Guangwudi (25-57 AD), Mingdi ( 57-75 AD) and Zhangdi ( 75-88 AD).

However, the problems of the early Han dynasty were not eliminated, but intensified. With the support of the large landowners, Guangwudi , who himself came from a large landowning family, came to power. So he had to grant them tax privileges. The power of the big landowners increased and the number of tax-paying peasants decreased. These were increasingly driven into ruin and often lost their land to the large landowners through debt. In addition, there were many natural disasters and famines, and many farmers became homeless and homeless.

As a result, from 107 AD, under the rule of Andi , peasant revolts against the suppression of the Han government took place in various parts of the country. In 184, under the rule of Lingdi, the unrest reached its climax, the uprising of the Yellow Turban . Under the leadership of Zhang Jiao , many impoverished peasants joined the uprising that spread across the empire. The Yellow Turban Uprising was the first large and well-organized peasant uprising in Chinese history. Despite initial successes, the uprising was ultimately suppressed, but the fall of the late Han dynasty was already underway.

Merchants

The increasing prosperity and improvement of trade due to the Silk Road and general peace in the country enabled merchants to trade valuable goods and get rich.

During the Han dynasty, paper and silk were invented, both of which became highly sought-after goods in countries along the Silk Road and great sources of income. Merchants from the west traded horses , fur , ivory and jade . The western Silk Road enabled them to acquire new items such as pickles and sesame seeds . They were presented with new knowledge, such as using grapes to make wine . In 98 BC A state wine monopoly was even introduced.

Merchants were seen as lowly scholars and had to wear white clothing as a sign of their low position. The merchants were prohibited from offices to compete, but they were rewarded when they contributed significantly to the economic performance. Thus it was possible for them to amass considerable wealth and acquire land. Because the Han Dynasty economy relied largely on peasant production, the government removed the heavy taxation of small landowners and imposed higher taxes on merchants.

Their success enabled merchants to take on functions in government in the early Han dynasty. Particularly successful merchants could even buy titles from the emperor , build luxurious houses and ride on carriages or wagons. However, in the late Han dynasty, merchants were overthrown and their guild was frowned upon. With their success, the envy of the other classes developed, so that the merchants became the lowest social class. Occasionally there were laws prohibiting them from engaging in certain high-level activities, such as horse-drawn carriage.

Conscription

During the Han Dynasty , the military consisted of conscripts, volunteers and convicts. The use of convicts was more common in the Qin Dynasty ; only a few cases are known of the Han Dynasty in which prisoners were amnesty and sent to the Northwest Front. All men between the ages of 23 and 56 were counted among the conscripts. After the reign of Emperor Zhao (87-74 BC) , the minimum age was briefly reduced to 20 years. Sons from higher-ranking families were able to pay others to serve in their place.

Furthermore, all draftees had to serve in the army for two years. These two years consisted of one year of training and one year of active service. The training was completed either in the infantry , the cavalry or the navy. The active service took place in the capital, in the provincial camps, which ensured local security and order, or in one of the border garrisons. The army in and near the capital was also called the Northern Army. It was led by a colonel and consisted of five regiments, each made up of several thousand soldiers.

Furthermore, most of the conscripts did their service in the infantry. Since, according to several sources, service in the cavalry was voluntary and was probably associated with members of the more privileged society because, as already mentioned, they did not always have to take part in military service.

After two years of military service, the men returned home where they founded local militias that could be mobilized immediately in times of war. There is no precise record of the total number of men who were eligible to be drafted. It is estimated that there were between 300,000 and 1,000,000 men. What is certain is that no Han government was able to convene, train, lead, let alone provide for this number of people, since it was customary for the conscripts to receive normal rations of food, clothing and equipment, but no payment. During times of war, the volunteer army could be increased. In these circumstances it was customary for a general to lead a division . The division was divided into regiments, each under the direction of a colonel .

Finances

In the Han dynasty, social and economic developments were promoted by state institutions that had a major influence on agriculture, trade and industry through extensive monetary policy. The average income of a Junker who owned a small estate with 1,000 households was about 200,000 coins, as they received 200 coins from each household. Official salaries were paid partially or completely in coins.

Taxes

Since the ruler had the highest authority, theoretically all income belonged to him. These were divided into two areas, capital for the government or the public sector , also called fu, and capital for the imperial court called tsu. These were controlled by two ministries, which managed the income and expenditure independently of each other. The main body in charge of the government's finances was the Ministry of Agriculture, whose main sources of income were various taxes imposed on the citizens and which after 119 BC. The profits from the monopoly salt and iron industry as well as profits resulting from "equal supply" and price standardization. They received income from state-owned lands and from sales made by the nobility. The largest expenses were the salaries of civil servants , public and military expenses, in addition to which the costs of state festivals and rituals had to be borne. The income of the minor treasury tsu was divided into the first instance of taxes on registered merchants and the tax on various natural products of the mountains, forests, rivers, seas, lakes and swamps as well as income from trade and industry. Exceptions were income from the extraction of salt and iron , these went to the heads of agriculture. Before the monopoly was introduced, the iron and salt taxes went to the insignificant treasury. Profits from the state land and the annual donations of gold by the kings and marquises also went to the lesser state treasury tsu.

Land taxes were an important source of income for the tsu. Since small families with landownership were the mainstay of tax revenues, the government sought to support them and limit the power of wealthy landlords and merchants . The government reduced the land tax in times of poor harvest due to natural disasters. The land tax was levied in 205 BC. Set to one fifteenth BC, possibly raised again later, but under the rule of Han Huidi in 195 BC. BC again set to fifteenth. 168 BC Half of it was decreed and in 167 BC Finally abolished completely for the next eleven years. 156 BC The state tax was reintroduced at a rate of one-thirtieth of what turned out to be the standard rate. At the time of the later Han dynasty it was a tenth due to high military spending, but was reduced to a thirtieth in 30 AD. In general, the tax is calculated according to the area of ​​the fields. The rate of one-thirtieth dropped again to one hundredth at the end of the Han Dynasty, with the result that head and property taxes were raised to cover expenses. The poll tax for adults also included the property tax, these taxes were to be assigned to the fu tax. However, you also had to do military service. Poll tax was payable on all men and women between the ages of fifteen and sixty-five and minors between the ages of three and fourteen. Family registers based on the annual population censuses were introduced for this income. These registers made it possible to see exactly who could be used by the state for taxation and military service. The k`ou-fu was a considerable source of income for the imperial court. At the beginning of the earlier Han period it was 120 ch'ien per adult, 240 ch'ien for all merchants and slaves. 189 BC BC, unmarried women between the ages of fifteen and thirty had to pay 600 ch'ien. In the subsequent rule this was reduced to 40 ch'ien. In doing so, the state wanted to achieve rapid population growth. The proportion of minors was 20 ch'ien and later 23 ch'ien. The income went to the imperial court except for the additional 3 ch'ien that went to the state treasury for military expenditures during the reign of Han Wudi . In the later Han period, this payment of minors' tax was reduced to ages 7-14. In 85 AD women were exempt from poll tax for three years and men for one year when giving birth to a child.

The property tax was adjusted to the property of the individual and amounted to 120 ch'ien for 10,000 ch'ien property . In 120 BC The number of merchants and craftsmen increased so that they had to pay 120 ch'ien for 2000 ch'ien property, later then 120 ch'ien for 4000 ch'ien property. At the same time taxes were added on vehicles and boats. The taxation of various goods is unknown, with the exception of the tax on spirits . It was 2 ch'ien for 0.2 liters. These state measures should reduce the number of merchants and fill the state treasury.

Coin types

The Han Dynasty produced many different coins.

Western Han Dynasty (西漢)

The early western Han dynasty initially adopted a few coins from the old Qin dynasty.

Ban Liang coin (半 两 钱)

The Ban Liang coin is a coin from the previous Qin Dynasty that was adopted by the Han Dynasty. It is one of the first coins of the Han Dynasty. The Ban-Liang coin weighed 3.5–4 grams, was 2.5 cm in diameter, and was made of copper. It was round and flat and had a square hole in the middle so that a lot of coins could be put together in a pile with a string. Furthermore, the coin had the character Ban printed on the left and the character Liang on the right, so that one could see its value. In the Han dynasty, people were allowed to make coins themselves. This resulted in material being removed from the coin in order to cast new coins. For this reason, the coin became thinner and thinner and did not meet the specified weight measurements. In addition, the devaluation of the coin led to inflation and chaos in the financial sector. This problem was recognized by Emperor Gao Zhu's wife, who advised her husband to introduce a new coin.

San Zhu coin (三 铢 钱)

The San Zhu coin was introduced after the Ban Liang coin. Outwardly it resembled the Ban Liang coin; only their lettering was different, with the character San on the left and the character Zhu on the right. It was also made of copper and was round with a square hole in the middle. When it was first introduced, it had the same value as the Ban Liang coin.

Wu Zhu coin of the Western Han (西汉 五 铢)

The Wu Zhu coin was made in 140 BC. After five failed monetary reforms. It partially solved the money problem of the Han dynasty and corresponded to the financial and social situation of the time. The Wu Zhu coin was the longest-lived coin in Chinese history. It survived nine dynasties and was used and implemented for 739 years. It was made of bronze, weighed 3.5-4 grams and 2.5 cm wide. Outwardly it looked exactly like the Ban-Liang coin, but the characters Wu were on the left and Zhu on the right. In addition, the coin was given a thick rim on the outside, making it more difficult to forge. This was to avoid removing material from the coin to make new coins.

Si Zhu coin (四 铢 钱)

The coin was dated 175 BC. Introduced by Emperor Wen because of high inflation in the country. The symbols Si on the left and Zhu on the right were printed on the coin. It weighed 2.2-2.8 grams and was 2.4-2.6 cm in diameter. It was made of bronze and was round with a square hole in the middle. Here, too, the material has been reduced by sanding down the coins and pouring new coins from the powder. This caused inflation again, which resulted in the coin being banned again. The Si Zhu coin was used in parallel with the Wu Zhu coin.

Huo Quan coin (泉 币)

The Huo Quan coin was from the time of Wang Mang 14 AD. Initially the coin weighed 5 grams, but was later reduced to 2.8-3.6 grams, and has a diameter of 2.2-2, 4 cm. The coins from Wang Mang's time are considered particularly beautiful and filigree. Wang Mang tried to implement four monetary reforms, but he was overthrown on the fourth reform because his reforms created chaos in society and unemployment. Wang Mang's reign was the Xin Dynasty, but it falls between the early Western Han Dynasty and the late Eastern Han Dynasty.

Eastern Han Dynasty (東漢)

At the beginning of the Eastern Han Dynasty, all coins from the old Han Dynasty as well as Wang Mang's coins were used. However, this led to chaos and economic instability.

  • Wu zhu coin

Jian Wu Wu Zhu coin (建武 五 铢)

This coin was created in AD 40 to combat the economic chaos in the country. The coin initially weighed 3 grams and was 2.6 cm wide. However, its weight decreased continuously, so that in the end the coin only weighed 2.5 grams and lost its value, causing inflation that triggered unrest among the population.

Hen Di Wu Zhu coin (恒 帝 五 铢)

To combat the ongoing inflation, the Hen Di Wu Zhu coin was introduced. It was named after the second emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty, the Emperor Hendi.

Jian Lun Wu Zhu coin (剪 轮 五 铢) / Tin huan wu zhu coin (綎 环 五 铢)

The Emperor Ling tried to solve the inflation problem by simply converting the Hen Di coin into two different coins. He punched out the inside of the coin, creating a small coin with a square hole in the middle and an outer edge, with the characters wu and zhu on both halves. The small coin was called Jian Lun Wu Zhu and the rim was called Tin Huan Wu Zhu. The Jian Lun Wu Zhu was 2.05-2.2 cm wide and 1.5 grams.

Shi Chu Wu Zhu coin (四出 五 铢)

This coin also came from Emperor Lingdi; it was 2.5 cm wide and 3.5 grams in weight. Like everyone else, it was introduced because of high inflation to stabilize the economy. The specialty of this coin, however, is that the square hole in the middle of the coin was provided with additional lines at each corner. Ie the corners looked a little longer through the line. This feature was introduced to differentiate the coin from all other coins.

Wu Wen Xiao coin (无 文 小钱)

The Wu Wen Xiao coin is the last coin introduced and put into circulation in the Han Dynasty, namely by Emperor Xian . However, at this point the country was already sunk into chaos, so that this coin was no longer relevant on the financial market.

Circulation of coins

The fixed taxes did not necessarily have to be paid through physical labor and services to the rulers, but could be paid in money. If someone didn't have enough money, the tax could still be paid through work. The so-called "Hu", the Ministry of Income, was responsible for collecting a poll tax and a land tax from the landowners. This was 120 coins per head.

In the Han dynasty, according to the current state of research, there were many rich people and a large amount of coin circulation, so that the coin stock had to be steadily increased.

It was noticeable in the course of the Han dynasty that people's wealth was no longer measured by land and employees, but by how much money someone owned. Transactions of several hundred thousand coins were not uncommon. The influence of money on people's everyday lives increased as many transactions that usually took place in the exchange of goods were now made with money. During epidemics and famine that led to the death of many people, the family members of the deceased were paid out with coins. The payout was 2000 coins for each deceased person over seven years of age.

Emperor Gāozǔ (206 - 195 BC) legalized the minting of coins by private individuals, so that in the early Han dynasty, coins were not only minted and controlled by official, state agencies, but also brought coins into circulation by private individuals. As a result, many different coins of the Han Dynasty existed. Emperor Wǔ (141 to 87 BC) tried to control the minting of coins. From 112 BC. The production of coins was limited to government agencies. Furthermore, Emperor Han Wudi tried to build state monopoly in order to create price stability. From 118 BC The government produced a total of over 28 billion coins from 9 BC to AD 5, far more than in the following dynasties.

State monopolies and crafts

State monopolies: iron and salt

Iron and salt production were very lucrative for entrepreneurs in the Han period. Since both minerals were only available to a limited extent or were difficult to extract, it was easy to establish private monopolies at this point. The few large producers who had been producing iron and salt up to then had all become very wealthy. Liu Pi, a relative of Emperor Wu (Hàn Wǔdì (漢 武帝)) earned so much that his personal fortune rivaled that of the imperial court. The government under Emperor Wu (ruled from 141 to 87 BC) therefore realized the economic importance of mineral products, as well as the need to make their development efficient.

In order to prevent the formation of private monopolies, the decision was made to have these two branches of production run by official authorities. The state itself became active in the economy: 115 or 117 BC. Central state monopolies on iron and salt were introduced, later also on alcohol and coins. The salt trade in particular became an important source of income for the state because of the need for salt as an addition to the main foodstuff of the time, grain. In order to achieve a balance of minerals, salt was simply indispensable. Since the supply of salt depended on the production in the places with natural salt deposits, a highly profitable monopoly was easy to create through effective control. The introduction of the state monopoly shows the strong competition between private and state industrialists in these areas, since in other economic sectors such as silk weaving private and public entrepreneurs could compete side by side. The introduction of the state monopolies did not, however, lead directly to the decline of the producers who had previously dominated the iron and salt industries. Most of them were now employed by the state agencies, but after a few years they had lost much of their influence as most of their former profits had been confiscated by the state and they lost their independence. They became wealthy merchants who no longer represented rivals for the imperial court.

The competition did not show up until 81 BC. BC again when the examination of whether the state monopolies were still necessary led to the “debate about salt and iron”. In this debate, the reformists, the critics of the monopolies, argued that in free competition reasonable prices were to be paid for high quality goods, while under the monopolies poor quality goods were manufactured at such high prices that ordinary citizens could no longer afford tools could. Under government guidance, there is no choice because all goods are bad.

In this debate, the reformers faced the modernists, the party that had dominated the political situation even during Emperor Wu's reign. They took the position that the government could not exist without the income from the iron and salt trade. In the end, according to Huan Kuan's recording of the “Debate on Salt and Iron,” the reformists narrowly won this debate, but in practice this hardly changed anything and did not damage the position of the modernists: the iron and salt monopolies continued to exist.

It lasted until 44 BC. Until the abolition of the iron and salt monopoly was achieved . Its abrupt repeal resulted in significant losses in government revenue, which is why it was 41 BC. Were then used a second time. The government monopolies remained in force until the beginning of the Eastern Han Dynasty, during which the iron and salt industries were divided between local governments and private entrepreneurs.

Emperor Zhang (Han Zhangdi (漢 章帝), ruled from 75 to 88 AD) briefly reintroduced the two monopolies from 85 to 88 AD. The subsequent Emperor He (Han Hedi (漢 和帝), ruled from 88 to 106 AD), however, repealed them early in his reign. As a result, the monopolies were never reintroduced, but the two industries were ultimately heavily privatized.

Government entities

The utensils and equipment made of lacquer and bronze were produced on a large scale in the state-owned companies and then distributed throughout the country. There were a number of government companies across the country that mass-produced special gifts that could only be given or received by the Emperor Han.

The finances and treasures of the imperial court were under the control of a ministry with various departments for various products. The office for arts and crafts was responsible for the production of mirrors, bronze vessels and weapons. The Office for Manufactory produced similar products to those used in the arts and crafts, with the exception that they were cheaper by their nature. There was also a weaving mill that produced clothing for the court and craftsmen who made grave goods for the imperial tombs. In addition, the Office for Manufacture controlled the production of tools for working on agricultural land as well as all construction projects through the use of various officials. There were workshops for the mining of metals such as gold and bronze. In addition, warships were built in already existing commanderies. A number of state-owned companies were also responsible for the production of high-quality silk fabrics for the farm.

Under the ruler Wudi it was decided to put some goods like coins, wine, iron and salt under the state monopoly. Most of these products were made by state-owned slaves in the state-owned companies. Iron became more and more important as a metal and replaced some products made of bronze.

State construction projects

After a central state emerged for the first time in the Qin dynasty , the tax money was used for many building projects in the Han dynasty that followed shortly afterwards in order to create a unifying infrastructure. The central government commissioned a court architect for this purpose, who should review all projects on behalf of the state. As a result, palaces, mausoleums, bridges, canals, gardens or parks and streets were built on behalf of the state. For the spread of Buddhism and other religions, multi-storey temples were constructed, but they did not differ significantly from the ordinary buildings of the time.

Forced laborers, army recruits and convicts were used to build the whole project. The state officials in charge of households had to ensure that the citizens fulfilled their obligation to serve the state as a worker for one month a year. Every man between the ages of 23 (at times 20 years) and 56 years of age was obliged to do this, with the exception of the higher-ranking. The wealthy also had the option of hiring someone to do the work for them.

Model of a watchtower in the Han Dynasty

Palaces

In 202 BC, Chang'an was named the capital by the new emperor Han Gaozu because of its favorable agricultural and geographic location. Chancellor Xiao He and his ministers then initiated the construction of an expensive and extravagant imperial palace there, as was customary at the time. Although there was still unrest after the beginning of the new dynasty, the close subjects of the new emperor insisted. The height of the structures was of particular importance. The height represented the power and prosperity of the emperor to the outside world. The height of the city wall towers of Chang'an should reflect the rank of the resident emperor and illustrate a class difference. This gave the ruler the opportunity to observe the people without being seen by the people. The imperial city was built around with several walls that separated the city, the palace quarter, the palace, the courtyard and the inner chambers of the emperor. The authority to break through a wall was seen as a sign of prestige. The commissioned city walls, however, were only completed after his death in 190 BC.

Throughout the dynasty, the emperors built many palaces, the size of which was enormous. The four palaces “Palace of Eternal Joy” (Changle Gong), “Palace of Infinity” (Weiyang Gong), the “Cinnamon Tree Palace” (Gui Gong) and the “Palace of Bright Light” (Ming Guang Gong) were in terms of area 20 times the size of the Forbidden City during the Ming and Qing Dynasties .

Mausoleums

Elaborate mausoleums were built for people of high rank. Various clay soldiers (including warriors, crossbowmen, riders), partly also elephant, horse and even fable sculptures were integrated into these. The construction method, each model was partially formed in separate parts and burned into one body, showing the high level of technology and sculpture.

bridges

Examples of the numerous bridges that were built in the Han period are the Ba Bridge in Xi'an, which was often renewed, but whose foundation remained intact for more than 2000 years due to the position of the 64 pillars and the bridge who have favourited General Wei Qing (died 106 BC) 127 BC BC built over the Wujia River in what is now Inner Mongolia. This served to transport his troops and supplies for a strike against the Xiongnu .

channels

The purpose of the canal construction and repair was to prevent floods and to enable overwater transport. Major canal repairs include the Dujiangyan irrigation system and the Zheng Guo Canal , both of which were previously built in the Qin Dynasty (221 BC - 206 BC).

Gardens

Horticulture, which was previously present, flourished in the Han Dynasty. Under Emperor Wudi, the construction of the "Forest Park" (Shanglin Yuan) was arranged. Various paths, bridges, pavilions, twelve palace hall complexes and many gardens for various occasions (for example dog races or to keep rare animals) were built here. It is considered the largest park in Chinese history.

Chronicler Sima described: "At the southernmost point all kinds of things still thrive in winter, while at the northernmost point in summer stones and legs freeze."

Streets

A route that was worked out at the time of the Eastern Han Dynasty in 63 serves as an example of the development of the infrastructure in the countryside. It led from the Qilian Shan to the then capital Luoyang . For this process 623 trestle bridges, five large bridges, roads with a length of 107 kilometers and 64 buildings (rest stops, post offices etc.) were built.

Agriculture

Grain cultivation

Depending on the climate and soil, all kinds of grains were planted during the Han Dynasty . In the south, below the Yangtze Valley, there was plenty of water available, where rice was a staple food. In the north, on the other hand, wheat and millet were mainly cultivated and in the far northwest of China it was barley .

Agricultural changes

At the time of the Han Dynasty , measures were taken to promote unification and the development of a centralized empire. The most important changes included two revolutionary innovations in the agricultural sector. While tools made of stone or wood were previously used and cattle were only used for transport, tools and implements made of iron were introduced from then on . Cattle were needed for effective cultivation with the plow , this allowed farmers to grow more and deeper in a short time, so that seeds were protected and a better harvest could be achieved.

Laws for Agriculture

During this time, the motto was that agriculture formed the basis of the world. Agricultural cultivation was given particular importance by various laws that regulated the areas of " agriculture ", " granaries " and "stables and parks". These laws described the weather and its effects on plants and crops. Regulations specified special periods of time in which certain work had to be carried out. For example, it was forbidden to chop wood outside of a certain season. Other regulations included feeding and tending to livestock and when it was allowed to remove weeds or unwanted plants from the field.

For control purposes, districts were divided into municipalities (xiang), these in turn into municipalities ( ting ) and these into small villages ( li ). In each of these instances an official head was determined locally, the lowest office was thus the village head ( likui ). If the statutes were not followed, if the results were poor, the farmers, the village head or the person in charge were punished, for example by 30 foot blows.

Task and life of the peasants

There were different types of farmers, one who owned land and the other to whom the state allocated land. The latter acted as tenants and in return for giving up to two thirds of their harvest, they were allowed to use the land, oxen and tools provided. The farmers had to pay taxes in the form of the harvest. Farm life was characterized by monotony, hard work and constant repetition. 1, p. 167.

A report by government official Chao Cuo (晁錯) shows how difficult the farm workers' lives really were. He describes that in a farming family with 5 members, in which at least 2 must do labor, a maximum of 100 mou (11.3 hectares) could be cultivated. From this they could get a maximum harvest of 100 shih (approx. 2000 liters). With this harvest they just managed to survive, although additional taxes usually had to be paid unexpectedly. During this time it often happened that farming families had to sell their belongings or take out a loan. In order to repay this, some fields or children and grandchildren had to be sold as slaves.

Alternating vaulting method

Example of a field with furrows and ridges

In the reign of Emperor Wu led cereal manager Zhao Guo (趙過) the changing Wölbäckermethode one (90 v. Chr.). The bed consisted of 6 furrows and combs, each one foot (approx. 28 to 32 cm) wide, and extending over up to 240 feet. Depending on the season, these were planted alternately. The seeds were scattered in the furrows for planting. After germination, the soil fell off the ridges during the subsequent weeding, thus protecting the seeds in the furrows. This ensured deep roots, wind was no longer a problem and water could be better preserved. At the beginning of summer the field was finally on one level again. The next year, the positions of the furrows and ridges were swapped, which was supposed to promote fertility and ultimately required less fertilizer. This method proved to be very successful after comparing it with other fields that did not produce as much harvest.

plow

Plow with two shares

A new type of plow , which was widely used in Zhao Guo's system , probably emerged at the same time . The plow had two plowshares and was pulled by two oxen. 3 men drove it and controlled the animals. Eastern farmers developed a nose ring that allowed them to control the ox and the plow with just one person. Since cattle were not always available, Zhao Guo also developed a method in which the plow could be pulled by human power alone.

trade

Domestic trade

At that time, the focus of trade was in cities and central marketplaces. Goods and services were exchanged here. Due to the economic growth of this time, many cities were built around the then capital Chang 'an (now Xi' an ) to further expand trade. Dikes were built to protect the cities and canals, and the infrastructure was improved. A canal connecting Chang 'an to the Yellow River was 125 kilometers long. This channel was a transport route for food to the rural population. Stone roads were built and stone bridges replaced the too small and mostly dilapidated yoke bridges in order to cope with the growing capacity of wagons for the transport of goods. The growth in trade in turn led to the further expansion and establishment of new villages and towns within the Han Empire.

Although attempts were made to curb trade during the late Han dynasty, around the year 100-110 AD, consumption of luxury goods was unprecedented and widespread at the time. The luxury goods sold at that time included lacquer art, bronze work and silk brocade robes.

Merchandise

Above all animals ( cattle , horses , sheep , pigs and fish ) and slaves were traded. Other products that were sold were:

Profitable branches of the company back then were:

The majority of these products were produced for and sold to the upper class.

Foreign trade

The reign of Emperor Wu von Han , Chinese漢 武帝 / 汉 武帝, Pinyin Hàn Wǔdì , (* 156 BC ; † March 29, 87 BC ) is considered the heyday of the Han dynasty and, above all, of foreign trade, he ruled for 54 years (141 to 87 BC).

Depiction of Zhang Qian's travels

138 BC BC Emperor Wu decided to make an alliance with the Yuezhi in what is now Tajikistan and entrusted General Zhang Qian with this mission. Although he had failed to form this alliance, he drew the attention of the court with his accounts of the dynamic trade of the thirty-six kingdoms west of China's borders. The emperor's business interest was mainly aroused by the description of the magnificent horses that Zhang had seen in the Ferghana Valley . They were strong and fast, so they would make the Chinese army virtually invincible. Despite diplomatic negotiations and the visit of trade delegations in the Ferghana Valley, no horses could be acquired. This failure led to two major Chinese invasions. The entire area between China and the Ferghana Valley was conquered, the Chinese not only secured the horses, but also foreign markets where they could sell their goods.

Emperor Wu undertook campaigns in Mongolia, southern China, Vietnam and Korea. In contrast to its predecessors, it went from 135 BC. Offensive against the Huns and was able to defeat them in 21 BC. Crucial beat. This victory guaranteed the safe exchange of goods with the West via the Silk Road for decades. The economy of the Han Empire was defined by significant population growth, increasing urbanization, and increasing trade. The Silk Road facilitated foreign trade.

The first foreign trade relations can be traced back to the imperial envoy Zhang Qian, he is revered as the father of the Silk Road. The opening of the trade routes to Bactria and Sogdia , which were further expanded under Emperor Wu, is linked to his person . In addition to the expected trade and the resulting profits, the interest in the west orientation was also the development of land. "Numerous border stations were set up along the Silk Road." "The advance into Central Asia was part of an almost explosive expansion of the empire under Emperor Wu." Han-China's increasing growth and its politico-military expansion favored trade between the Chinese countries and various regions of Asia . As part of the war with the archenemies, the Xiongnu , Han China expanded along the Silk Road . This was followed by the settlement of Chinese soldiers and a stream of middlemen in the region. The connection to the Indo-Iranian maritime trade was created via the canton and North Vietnam . Han China first came into contact with Persia and indirectly even with the Roman Empire .

Emperor Wu Han

Silk road

The Silk Road ( Chinese絲綢之路 / 丝绸之路, Pinyin Sīchóu zhī lù) is a network of many caravan routes that connected the east and west and various Central Asian kingdoms such as Bukhara, Samarkand , Bishkek and Islamabad in the west with the most important cities of China , but especially with the capital of the Han and Tang dynasties, Chang'an, to the east . It reached its greatest importance between 115 BC. BC and the 13th century. The trade route was more than 6,000 kilometers long and was split up into several strands. One way led from Shaanxi towards Europe to the north, another south around the Taklamakan salt desert .

The origins of the Silk Road can be traced back to the Han Empire. In addition to armies, merchants and scholars, goods such as silk, which gave the famous name of the street, came through these trade routes. Paper and black powder were also transported to the Arab countries via the trade route, and from there to Europe. Bandits and robbers became aware of the flow of goods and the wealth of the traders. As a result, the caravans of the Han Empire were equipped with escorts and the great wall was extended to the west.

In addition to the later sea routes, the Silk Road is a network of passes, hiking and trade routes, on which the "middlemen" from the individual kingdoms and countries transported the goods. On large parts of this road, humans and animals had to defy both climatic and geographical conditions. They had to pass through deserts, steppes, swamps, rivers and mountains. Forces of nature such as sandstorms, water shortages, temperature differences between day and night of up to 40 degrees and highwaymen gave the traders to create here. Transporting the goods through the Taklamakan desert alone took up to five months. In Kashgar the goods were re-sorted in order to be transported north via today's Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan to the Black Sea , further south via the Pamir to Persia or even via the Karakoram Mountains in today's Afghanistan to India . Overall, the one-way trip between China and the Mediterranean took two to three years. After all, with mountains up to 7,000 meters high, some of the highest mountain passes in the world were on the trader's path. The main route connects three of the most important cultural sites of the time: China , India and Iran . A decisive prerequisite for the opening of the empire to the east took place under Emperor Wu through its expansion in all directions. By conquering areas in the south, east and north with his army, the trade routes to the west could be opened. The boom of the booming Silk Road trade followed Wudi's conquest. Conflicts between the " Parthians " and the Roman Emperor Augustus made the road safe for the time being only in the east. After the Romans had triumphed, trade with the Far East flared up again. In late antiquity trade was again affected by the Roman-Persian wars , but this did not come to a standstill. Some of the goods may have been directed across the Arabian Peninsula .

Silk road

Silk Road trade goods

For the West and especially for the Roman Empire, silk was the most important luxury item that was transported from China to Europe. Caravans to China transported, among other things, precious stones, gold and above all glass, which in turn was supplied as luxury goods by the Roman Empire in China. Other goods on the route were porcelain, jade, bronze, ceramics, lacquer and iron. However, the caravan did not go from the borders of Rome to China, the goods exchanged owners several times on this trade route and thus also gained more in value.

Nevertheless, silk was the most important commodity for the West. China's silk fabrics have enjoyed great fame for their delicacy and beauty. They were used as clothing for many people's needs and were an essential item in ancient China's foreign trade. Until the second century BC The development of silk manufacture goes back to BC . In the Roman Empire, silk was one of the luxury items alongside purple and glass. In addition to silk, spices, perfumes, tea and seeds of exotic plants came to Europe from China. Conversely, the traders in China did their business with ivory, gold, silver or wine.

Indirect trade relations with the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was known in China as "Daqin" (Great Qin) and, due to its dominance of mythological ideas over the far west, was understood as a kind of counter-China at the other end. The Romans called the Chinese "Serer". High-quality glass was exported to Asia from Roman factories in Alexandria and Syria , including Han China. Other Roman luxury articles such as gold-colored fabrics, gold-embroidered carpets, asbestos fabrics and linen were highly valued by Chinese customers.

Roman Empire and Empire of China

However, there was never a direct contact between Rome and Han China, only an indirect one that was mediated by the steppe inhabitants. Thus, both Chinese and Roman luxury items reach the entire steppe area between Rome and China, which have spread their way into the respective world empires on many intermediate stops. The many peoples and regions of the steppe belt, who functioned as Parthian intermediaries, benefited from the indirect economic contacts.

Fall of the Han Dynasty

“As Emperor Wu in 87 BC. died, he left an empire that was financially shattered and exhausted by wars. ”The army suffered some military defeats. The decline, however, did not come from without, but from within the empire. “The farm had been shaken by a scandal, as a result of which tens of thousands of people were murdered, the farmers lived in screaming misery, and large landowners kept expanding their possessions.” Society was divided into two camps. “On the one hand there are the» modernists «or lawyers who demand a strong state, economic monopolies , active foreign trade and expansion . On the other hand, there are the Confucian “reformers” who advocate a physiocratic economic policy: they advocate self-sufficient agriculture and rule through virtue, but reject mercantilism, laws and the pursuit of profit. So the court should be humble and refrain from trading in luxury goods. Not at all, reply the modernists, it is precisely the luxury at court that impresses foreign peoples; foreign trade is therefore essential for foreign policy. "

literature

  • Hans Bielenstein: The Bureaucracy of Han Times . Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1980, ISBN 0-521-22510-8 .
  • Chun-shu Chang: The Rise of the Chinese Empire. Volume II: Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 BC - AD 157. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor 2007, ISBN 978-0-472-11534-1 .
  • Maria H. Dettenhofer : The Roman Empire and the China of the Han period. Approaches to a historical comparative literature. In: Latomus . 2006, ISSN  0023-8856 .
  • Patricia Ebrey: The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-66991-X .
  • Rafe de Crespigny: Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). Koninklijke Brill, Leiden 2007, ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0 .
  • Uta Heinzmann, Manuela Loeschmann, Uli Steinhauer, Andreas Gruschke : Sand and silk. Fascination of the Chinese Silk Road. Freiburg i. Br. 1990, ISBN 3-89155-095-2 .
  • Thomas O. Höllmann: The Silk Road. Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-50854-5 . ( Rec. )
  • Robert P. Kramers: The Development of the Confucian Schools. In: Denis Twitchett, Michael Loewe: Cambridge History of China. Volume I: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC - AD 220. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1986, ISBN 0-521-24327-0 , pp. 747-756.
  • Donald Daniel Leslie, Kenneth HJ Gardiner: The Roman Empire in Chinese Sources. Bardi, Rome 1996.
  • Mark Edwards Lewis: The Early Chinese Empires - Qin and Han. 2010, ISBN 978-0-674-05734-0 .
  • Michael Loewe: The Government of Qin and Han Empires 221 BCE-220 CE. Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN 978-0-87220-818-6 .
  • Michael Loewe: Faith, myth and reason in Han China. Hackett Publishing Company, 2005, ISBN 0-87220-757-9 .
  • Michael Loewe: Everyday life in early imperial China. Hackett Publishin Company, 2005, ISBN 0-87220-758-7 .
  • Michèle Pirazzoli-t'Serstevens: China's Early Empires. Part I, 2010.
  • Raoul McLaughlin: Rome and the distant East. Trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum, London 2010, ISBN 978-1-84725-235-7 .
  • Nishijima Sadao: The economic and social history of former Han. In: The Cambridge History of China. Volume I: The Ch'in and Han Empires. 1986, chapter 10.
  • Helwig Schmidt-Glintzer: History of China up to the Mongolian Conquest R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Munich 1999, ISBN 3-486-56402-1 .
  • Denis Twitchett, Michael Loewe: The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 1: The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC-AD 220. Cambridge University Press, 1986, ISBN 0-521-24327-0 .

Web links

Individual evidence

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