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{{ infobox philosopher
{{Short description|German philosopher (1874–1945)}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[Western Philosophy]]
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = [[20th-century philosophy]]
| era = [[20th-century philosophy]]
| color = #B0C4DE
| image = Ernst Cassirer.jpg
| image = Cassirer.jpg
| alt = Black and white profile picture of Ernst Cassirer
| image_size = 220px
| caption = Cassirer in about 1935
| alt = Black and white profile picture of Ernst Cassirer
| name = Ernst Alfred Cassirer
| caption =
| name = Ernst Cassirer
| other_names =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1874|07|28|mf=yes}}
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1874|07|28|mf=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Wrocław|Breslau]], [[Silesia]], [[Prussia]]<br>(now [[Wrocław]], [[Poland]])
| birth_place = [[Wrocław|Breslau]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[German Empire]]<br>(now [[Wrocław]], Poland)
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1945|04|13|1874|07|28|mf=yes}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1945|04|13|1874|07|28|mf=yes}}
| death_place = [[New York]], [[United States of America]]
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| education = [[University of Marburg]]<br>(PhD, 1899)<br>[[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]]<br>([[Dr. phil. habil.]], 1906)
| school_tradition = [[Neo-Kantianism]]
| main_interests =
| institutions =
| school_tradition = [[Neo-Kantianism]] ([[Marburg School]])<br>[[Phenomenology (philosophy)|Phenomenology]]<br>
| notable_ideas =
| influences = [[Hermann Cohen]]
| main_interests = [[Epistemology]], [[aesthetics]]
| notable_ideas = Philosophy of symbolic forms<br>''[[Animal symbolicum]]''<br>
| influenced = [[Leo Strauss]]
| influences = [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], [[Hermann Cohen]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling]]
| signature =
| influenced = [[Leo Strauss]], [[Wilbur Marshall Urban]], [[Susanne Langer]], [[Eric Weil]]
| signature_alt =
| academic_advisors = [[Hermann Cohen]]<br>[[Paul Natorp]]
}}
| thesis1_title = Descartes' Kritik der mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis (Descartes' Critique of Mathematical and Scientific Knowledge)
| thesis1_url = https://archive.org/details/descarteskritik01cassgoog
| thesis1_year = 1899
| thesis2_title = Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit: Erster Band (The Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and Science in the Modern Age: Volume I)
| thesis2_url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E6KBuAEACAAJ&dq=
| thesis2_year = 1906
|birth_name=Ernst Alfred Cassirer}}
'''Ernst Alfred Cassirer''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ɑː|ˈ|s|ɪər|ər|,_|k|ə|ˈ|-}} {{respell|kah|SEER|ər|,_|kə|-}},<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/cassirer "Cassirer"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈɛʁnst kaˈsiːʁɐ|lang}};<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Ernst_maennlicher_Vorname|title=Duden {{!}} Ernst {{!}} Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition|work=[[Duden]]|quote=Ẹrnst|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.duden.de/rechtschreibung/Cassirer|title=Duden {{!}} Cassirer {{!}} Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition|work=Duden|quote=Cass<u>i</u>rer|access-date=20 October 2018|language=de}}</ref> July 28, 1874 – April 13, 1945) was a German philosopher. Trained within the [[Neo-Kantian]] Marburg School, he initially followed his mentor [[Hermann Cohen]] in attempting to supply an idealistic [[philosophy of science]].


After Cohen's death in 1918, Cassirer developed a theory of symbolism and used it to expand [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] of [[epistemology|knowledge]] into a more general [[philosophy of culture]]. Cassirer was one of the leading 20th-century advocates of philosophical [[idealism]]. His most famous work is the ''Philosophy of Symbolic Forms'' (1923–1929).
'''Ernst Cassirer''' (July 28, 1874 &ndash; April 13, 1945) was a [[Germans|German]] [[philosopher]]. He was one of the major figures in the development of philosophical [[idealism]] in the first half of the 20th century. Influenced by [[Hermann Cohen]] and rooted in the Marburg tradition of [[Neo-Kantianism]], Cassirer developed a philosophy of culture as a theory of symbols founded on a [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] of [[epistemology|knowledge]].


Though his work received a mixed reception shortly after his death, more recent scholarship has remarked upon Cassirer's role as a strident defender of the [[moral idealism]] of the [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment era]] and the cause of [[liberal democracy]] at a time when the rise of [[fascism]] had made such advocacy unfashionable. Within the international Jewish community, Cassirer's work has additionally been seen as part of a long tradition of thought on ethical philosophy.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://ndpr.nd.edu/news/book-1-ernst-cassirer-the-last-philosopher-of-culture-book-2-the-symbolic-construction-of-reality-the-legacy-of-ernst-cassirer/|access-date=April 13, 2020|title=(Book 1) Ernst Cassirer: The Last Philosopher of Culture; (Book 2) The Symbolic Construction of Reality: The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer|first=Peter E.|last=Gordon|periodical=Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews|date=8 September 2009 }}</ref>
== Biography ==
Cassirer was born in [[Wrocław|Breslau]] ([[Wrocław]]), [[Silesia]], into a Jewish family. He studied literature and philosophy at the [[University of Berlin]]. After long years as [[Privatdozent]] at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]] (Cassirer turned down the offer of a visiting professorship at [[Harvard]] which he and his wife considered obscure and remote), he was elected to a chair of [[Philosophy]] at the newly-founded [[University of Hamburg]] in 1919, where he lectured until 1933, and supervised the doctoral thesis of [[Leo Strauss]], among others. Because he was Jewish, Cassirer was forced to leave Germany when the [[Nazism|Nazi]]s came to power.


==Biography==
After leaving Germany he found first refuge as a lecturer in [[Oxford]] 1933&ndash;1935; he was then professor at [[Gothenburg University]] 1935&ndash;1941. When Cassirer&mdash;who considered Sweden too unsafe by then&mdash;tried to go to the United States and specifically to Harvard; the university turned him down because he had turned Harvard down thirty years earlier. Thus, he first had to work as a visiting professor at [[Yale University]], [[New Haven]] 1941&ndash;1943, and then moved to [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]], where he lectured from 1943 until his death in 1945. As he had been naturalized in [[Sweden]], he died a Swedish citizen.
Born in [[Wrocław|Breslau]] in [[Silesia Province|Silesia]] (modern-day southwest Poland), into a [[Jew]]ish family, Cassirer studied literature and philosophy at the [[University of Marburg]] (where he completed his doctoral work in 1899 with a dissertation on [[René Descartes]]'s analysis of mathematical and natural scientific knowledge entitled {{lang|de|Descartes' Kritik der mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis}} [''Descartes' Critique of Mathematical and Scientific Knowledge'']) and at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] (where he completed his [[habilitation]] in 1906 with the dissertation {{lang|de|Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit: Erster Band}} [''The Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and Science in the Modern Age: Volume I'']).<ref>A second volume appeared in 1907, a third one in 1920, and a fourth one in 1957.</ref>


Politically, Cassirer supported the liberal [[German Democratic Party]] (DDP).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Larry Eugene |title=Crossing Boundaries: The Exclusion and Inclusion of Minorities in Germany and the United States |date=2001 |publisher=Berghahn Books |page=125}}</ref> After working for many years as a {{lang|de|[[Privatdozent]]}} at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in Berlin, Cassirer was elected in 1919 to the philosophy chair at the newly founded [[University of Hamburg]], where he lectured until 1933, supervising amongst others the doctoral theses of [[Joachim Ritter]] and [[Leo Strauss]].
His son, [[Heinz Cassirer]], was also a Kantian scholar.
On 30 January 1933, the [[Nazi Regime]] [[Machtergreifung|came to power]]. Cassirer left Germany on 12 March 1933 - one week after the first [[March 1933 German federal election|Reichstagswahl]] under that Regime - because he was Jewish.<ref>[[Die Zeit]] 4/2020: [https://www.zeit.de/hamburg/2020-04/ernst-cassirer-philosoph-universitaet-hamburg-antisemitismus/komplettansicht ''Der Geistesgegenwärtige'']</ref>


After leaving Germany he taught for a couple of years at the [[University of Oxford]], before becoming a professor at [[Gothenburg University]]. When Cassirer considered Sweden too unsafe, he applied for a post at [[Harvard University]], but was rejected because thirty years earlier he had rejected a job offer from them.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} In 1941 he became a visiting professor at [[Yale University]], then moved to [[Columbia University]] in New York City, where he lectured from 1943 until his death in 1945.
== Thought ==
=== Spengler ===
Cassirer opposed the Prussian nationalism of [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880–1936). Instead of being apolitical, Cassirer applauded the rise of the [[Weimar Republic]], while Spengler criticized parliamentary and constitutional rule, as well as individual rights, as un-German. Spengler never became a university academic, but his ''Decline of the West'' (1918) was a best-seller. Spengler saw technology as a means to transform Western society into a unified collective, while Cassirer was suspicious of technology's ability to exalt the group over the individual. Spengler saw civilization as the decline of culture, according to the physical law of entropy, while Cassirer disagreed with the application of physics to philosophy. Though both thinkers were inspired by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's concept of the symbol, Spengler wrote about cultural souls that can only be observed, not created, while Cassirer saw symbols as being created by individuals. After the rise of Nazism, Cassirer became more committed to changing society and more political. Although Spengler himself opposed the Nazis, Cassirer saw Spengler's anti-liberal philosophy as contributing to Nazi goals.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Dina |last=Gusejnova |title=Concepts of Culture and Technology in Germany, 1916-1933: Ernst Cassirer and Oswald Spengler |journal=Journal of European Studies |year=2006 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=5–30 |doi=10.1177/0047244106062557 }}</ref>


Cassirer died of a heart attack in April 1945 in New York City. The young rabbi [[Arthur Hertzberg]], who was a student of Cassirer's at Columbia University, conducted the funeral service.<ref>Arthur Hertzberg: ''A Reminiscence of Ernst Cassirer'' The Leo Back Institute Year Book, Volume 15, Issue 1, January 1970, pp.245-246, [https://doi.org/10.1093/leobaeck/15.1.245]</ref> His grave is located in [[Westwood, New Jersey]], on the Cedar Park Beth-El Cemeteries in the graves of the Congregation Habonim. His son, [[Heinz Cassirer]], was also a Kantian scholar.
=== Enlightenment ===
Cassirer was a defender of the notion that reason's self-realization leads to liberation and [[human rights|human]] and [[civil rights]]. Mazlish (2000) argues that in ''Die Philosophie der Aufklärung'' (''The Philosophy of the Enlightenment'') (1932) Cassirer approached his subject as an idealist, interested only in the analysis of ideas and their influence, without regard to the intellectual, political, or social context in which they were produced. Nevertheless, his interest in the use of symbols and the possibility of new techniques for the transmission of ideas links him to contemporary cultural studies. Cassirer's book has several serious blind spots and omissions but it is an original and fresh approach to an understanding of the Enlightenment project.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Bruce |last=Mazlish |title=Ernst Cassirer's Enlightenment: An Exchange with Robert Wokler |journal=Studies In Eighteenth Century Culture |year=2000 |volume=29 |issue= |pages=349–359 |doi=10.1353/sec.2010.0297 }}</ref>


Other members of his prominent family included the neurologist [[Richard Cassirer]], the publisher and gallery owner [[Bruno Cassirer]] and the art dealer and editor [[Paul Cassirer]].
=== Heidegger ===
When Cassirer left Germany in 1933, he left his antagonist [[Martin Heidegger]] to dominate postwar Continental philosophy.


== Works ==
==Influences==
Donald Phillip Verene, who published some of Cassirer's papers kept at Yale University, gave this overview of his ideas:
In 1921 Cassirer, stimulated by Einstein's [[General relativity|general theory of relativity]], addressed the subject of scientific epistemology.<ref>''Zur Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie. Erkenntnistheoretische Betrachtungen.'' Berlin: Bruno Cassirer. Translated as ''Einstein's Theory of Relativity.'' Chicago: Open Court, 1923.</ref> Cassirer found that Einstein's theory gave overwhelming support to his neo-Kantian conception of knowledge which rejected the fixed and embraced the evolutionary development of ideational structures. [[Moritz Schlick]] responded (foreshadowing logical empiricism) with a review<ref>Schlick, M. (1921) "Kritizistische oder empiristische Deutung der neuen Physik?" ''Kant-Studien'', 26: 96-111. Translated as "Critical or Empiricist Interpretation of Modern Physics?".</ref> of Cassirer's book in which he argued that the general theory of relativity in fact refutes Kantian thought in all its permutations. But Cassirer soon extended his thoughts on Einstein's theory to a more general relativity of "symbolic form": aesthetic, ethical, religious, and scientific. He spent the rest of his career elaborating his ideas regarding symbolic forms.
<blockquote>"Cassirer as a thinker became an embodiment of Kantian principles, but also of much more, of an overall movement of spirit stretching from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and on to Herder’s conception of history, Goethe’s poetry, Wilhelm von Humboldt’s study of the Kavi language, Schelling’s {{lang|de|Philosophie Der Mythologie}}, Hegel’s ''Phenomenology of Spirit'', and Vischer’s conception of the aesthetic symbol, among many others. Cassirer’s own position is born through a mastery of the whole development of this world of the humanistic understanding, which included the rise of the scientific world view &mdash; a mastery evident both in his historical works and in his systematic philosophy."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cassirer|first1=Ernst|editor1-last=Verene|editor1-first=Donald Phillip|title=Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer 1935-1945|url=https://archive.org/details/symbolmythcultur0000cass |url-access=registration |date=1979 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, Conn. |isbn=0-300-02666-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/symbolmythcultur0000cass/page/6 6–7]}}</ref></blockquote>


==Work==
=== ''Philosophy of Symbolic Forms'' ===
Cassirer was both a genuine philosopher and an [[historian]] of philosophy. His major work, ''Philosophy of Symbolic Forms'' (3 vols., 1923–1929) is considered a benchmark for a philosophy of culture. Man, says Cassirer later in his more popular ''Essay on Man'' (1944), is a "symbolic animal". Whereas animals perceive their world by [[instinct]]s and direct sensory perception, man has created his own universe of [[symbol]]ic meaning that structures and shapes his [[perception]] of [[reality]] - and only thus, for instance, can conceive of [[utopia]]s and therefore progress in the form of shared human culture. In this, Cassirer owes much to [[Kant]]'s [[transcendental idealism]]. For Cassirer, the human world is created through symbolic forms of thought which are linguistic, scholarly, scientific, and artistic, sharing and extending through communication, individual understanding, discovery and expression.


=== ''The Myth of the State'' ===
===History of science===
Cassirer's first major published writings were a [[history of science|history of modern thought]] from the Renaissance to [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]. In accordance with his Marburg neo-Kantianism he concentrated upon epistemology. His reading of the [[Scientific Revolution]], in books such as ''The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy'' (1927), as a "Platonic" application of mathematics to nature, influenced historians such as [[E. A. Burtt]], [[E. J. Dijksterhuis]], and [[Alexandre Koyré]].
Cassirer's last major work was ''The Myth of the State''. The book was published posthumously in 1946 after Cassirer's sudden death. Cassirer argues that the idea of a totalitarian state evolved from ideas advanced by [[Plato]], [[Dante]], [[Machiavelli]], [[Gobineau]], [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]] and [[Hegel]]. He concludes that the Fascist regimes of the 20th century were symbolised by a myth of destiny and the promotion of [[irrationality]].


===Philosophy of science===
== Partial bibliography ==
In ''Substance and Function'' (1910), he writes about late nineteenth-century developments in physics including [[relativity theory]] and the [[foundations of mathematics]]. In ''Einstein's Theory of Relativity'' (1921) he defended the claim that modern physics supports a neo-Kantian [[conception of knowledge]]. He also wrote a book about [[Quantum mechanics]] called ''Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics'' (1936).
* ''Substance and Function'' (1910), English translation 1923 [http://www.archive.org/details/substanceandfunc033163mbp (at archive.org)]
* ''Kant's Life and Thought'' (1918), English translation 1981
* ''Philosophy of Symbolic Forms'' (1923&ndash;29), English translation 1953&ndash;1957
* ''Language and Myth'' (1925), English translation (1946) by Susanne K. Langer
* ''Philosophy of the Enlightenment'' (1932), English translation 1951
* ''The Logic of the Cultural Sciences'' (1942), English translation 2000 by S.G. Lofts (previously translated in 1961 as ''The Logic of the Humanities'')
* ''An Essay on Man'' (written and published in English) (1944)
* ''The Myth of the State'' (written and published in English) (posthumous) (1946)
* ''The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel'' (1950) [http://www.questia.com/read/56851373?title=The%20Problem%20of%20Knowledge%3a%20Philosophy%2c%20Science%2c%20and%20History%20since%20Hegel online edition]
* ''Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer, 1935-1945'' ed. by Donald Phillip Verene (1981)


===Philosophy of symbolic forms===
== See also ==
At Hamburg Cassirer discovered the Library of the Cultural Sciences founded by [[Aby Warburg]]. Warburg was an art historian who was particularly interested in ritual and myth as sources of surviving forms of emotional expression. In ''Philosophy of Symbolic Forms'' (1923–29) Cassirer argues that man (as he put it in his more popular 1944 book ''Essay on Man'') is a "[[symbolicum|symbolic animal]]". Whereas animals perceive their world by [[instinct]]s and direct [[sensory perception]], humans create a universe of [[symbol]]ic meanings. Cassirer is particularly interested in natural language and myth. He argues that science and mathematics developed from natural language, and religion and art from myth.
* [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
* [[Aby Warburg]]
{{academia
|teachers=[[Hermann Cohen]]<br/>[[Paul Natorp]]
|students=[[Hans Reichenbach]]<br/>[[Leo Strauss]]<br>[[Susanne Langer]]<br>[[Nimio de Anquín]]
}}


===The Cassirer–Heidegger debate===
== Notes ==
{{Main|Cassirer–Heidegger debate}}
In 1929 Cassirer took part in a historically significant encounter with [[Martin Heidegger]] in [[Davos]] during the Second [[Davos Hochschulkurs]] (the [[Cassirer–Heidegger debate]]). Cassirer argues that while Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' emphasizes human temporality and finitude, he also sought to situate human cognition within a broader conception of humanity. Cassirer challenges Heidegger's relativism by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered by the exact and moral sciences.

===''Philosophy of the Enlightenment''===
Cassirer believed that reason's [[self-realization]] leads to human liberation. Mazlish (2000){{citation needed|date=August 2019}}, however, notes that Cassirer in his ''The Philosophy of the Enlightenment'' (1932) focuses exclusively on ideas, ignoring the political and social context in which they were produced.

===''The Logic of the Cultural Sciences''===
In ''The Logic of the Cultural Sciences'' (1942) Cassirer argues that objective and universal validity can be achieved not only in the sciences, but also in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomena. Although inter-subjective objective validity in the natural sciences derives from universal laws of nature, Cassirer asserts that an analogous type of inter-subjective objective validity takes place in the cultural sciences.

===''The Myth of the State''===
Cassirer's last work, ''The Myth of the State'' (1946), was published posthumously; at one level it is an attempt to understand the intellectual origins of [[Nazi Germany]]. Cassirer sees Nazi Germany as a society in which the dangerous power of myth is not checked or subdued by superior forces. The book discusses the opposition of [[logos]] and [[mythology|mythos]] in Greek thought, [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'', the medieval theory of the state, [[Machiavelli]], [[Thomas Carlyle]]'s writings on [[Great Man theory|hero worship]], the racial theories of [[Arthur de Gobineau]], and [[Hegel]]. Cassirer claimed that in 20th-century politics there was a return, with the passive acquiescence of [[Martin Heidegger]], to the irrationality of myth, and in particular to a belief that there is such a thing as destiny. Of this passive acquiescence, Cassirer says that in departing from Husserl's belief in an objective, logical basis for philosophy, Heidegger attenuated the ability of philosophy to oppose the resurgence of myth in German politics of the 1930s.

==Partial bibliography==
*''Leibniz' System in seinem wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen'' (1902)
*''The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel'' [''Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit''] (1906–1920), English translation 1950 ([https://www.questia.com/read/56851373?title=The%20Problem%20of%20Knowledge%3a%20Philosophy%2c%20Science%2c%20and%20History%20since%20Hegel online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605022041/https://www.questia.com/read/56851373?title=The%20Problem%20of%20Knowledge%3a%20Philosophy%2c%20Science%2c%20and%20History%20since%20Hegel |date=2011-06-05 }})
*"Kant und die moderne Mathematik." ''Kant-Studien'' (1907)
* ''Substance and Function'' [''Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff''] (1910) and ''Einstein's Theory of Relativity'' [''Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie ''] (1921), English translation 1923 ([https://archive.org/details/substanceandfunc033163mbp online edition])
* ''Freedom and Form'' [''Freiheit und Form''] (1916)
* ''Kant's Life and Thought'' [''Kants Leben und Lehre''] (1918), English translation 1981
* ''Philosophy of Symbolic Forms'' [''Philosophie der symbolischen Formen''] (1923–29), English translation 1953–1957
** ''Volume One: Language'' [''Erster Teil: Die Sprache''] (1923), English translation 1955
** ''Volume Two: Mythical Thought'' [''Zweiter Teil: Das mythische Denken''] (1925), English translation 1955
** ''Volume Three: The Phenomenology of Knowledge'' [''Dritter Teil: Phänomenologie der Erkenntnis''] (1929), English translation 1957
* ''Language and Myth'' [''Sprache und Mythos''] (1925), English translation 1946 by [[Susanne Langer|Susanne K. Langer]]
* ''The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy'' [''Individuum und Kosmos in der Philosophie der Renaissance''] (1927), English translation 1963 by Mario Domandi
*"Erkenntnistheorie nebst den Grenzfragen der Logik und Denkpsychologie." Jahrbücher der Philosophie 3, 31-92 (1927)
*''Die Idee der republikanischen Verfassung'' (1929)
*"Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik. Bemerkungen zu Martin Heideggers Kantinterpretation." ''Kant-Studien'' 26, 1-16 (1931)
* ''Philosophy of the Enlightenment'' [''Die Philosophie der Aufklärung''] (1932), English translation 1951
* ''Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics: Historical and Systematic Studies of the Problem of Causality'' [''Determinismus und Indeterminismus in der modernen Physik''] (1936), English translation 1956
* ''The Logic of the Cultural Sciences'' [''Zur Logik der Kulturwissenschaften''] (1942), English translation 2000 by Steve G. Lofts (previously translated in 1961 as ''The Logic of the Humanities'')
* ''An Essay on Man'' (written and published in English) (1944) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=x46qiaccZLYC books.google.com])
* ''The Myth of the State'' (written and published in English) (posthumous) (1946) ([https://books.google.com/books?id=0QNxMcwNu7cC&source=gbs_book_similarbooks books.google.com])
* ''Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer, 1935-1945'', ed. by [[Donald Phillip Verene]] (March 11, 1981)
* ''[http://www.nlx.com/collections/461 Ernst Cassirer: Gesammelte Werke. Hamburger Ausgabe. Electronic Edition.]'' (2016) – The electronic version of the definitive edition of Cassirer's works, published in print by Felix Meiner Verlag, and electronically in the ''[http://www.nlx.com Past Masters series]''.
* ''The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, Vol. 4, The Metaphysics of Symbolic Forms''. Edited and translated by John Michael Krois and Donald Philip Verene from manuscripts left after Cassirer's death. Published 1996, New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
* ''The Warburg Years (1919-1933): Essays on Language, Art, Myth, and Technology''. Translated and with an Introduction by S. G. Lofts with A. Calcagno. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


== Further reading ==
==Further reading==
*Aubenque, Pierre, et al. "Philosophie und Politik: Die Davoser Disputation zwischen Ernst Cassirer und Martin Heidgger in der Retrospektive." ''Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie,'' 2: 290-312
* Barash, Jeffrey Andrew. ''The Symbolic Construction of Reality: The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer'' (2008) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0226036863 excerpt and text search]
* Friedman, Michael. ''A Parting of the Ways: Carnap, Cassirer, and Heidegger'' (2000) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0812694252 excerpt and text search]
*Barash, Jeffrey Andrew. ''The Symbolic Construction of Reality: The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer'' (2008) ([https://www.amazon.com/dp/0226036863 excerpt and text search])
*[[Edwin Arthur Burtt|Burtt, Edwin Arthur]]. ''The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science,'' London: Paul Trencher (2000)
* Eilenberger, Wolfram. ''Time of the Magicians: The invention of modern thought, 1919–29'', Allen Lane (2020)
* Folkvord Ingvild & Hoel Aud Sissel (eds.), ''Ernst Cassirer on Form and Technology: Contemporary Readings'', (2012), Basingstoke, Palgrave MacMillan ({{ISBN|978-0-230-36547-6}}).
* [[Michael Friedman (philosopher)|Friedman, Michael]]. ''A Parting of the Ways: Carnap, Cassirer, and Heidegger'' (2000) ([https://www.amazon.com/dp/0812694252 excerpt and text search])
* Gordon, Peter Eli. ''Continental Divide: Heidegger, Cassirer, Davos'' (2010)
* Gordon, Peter Eli. ''Continental Divide: Heidegger, Cassirer, Davos'' (2010)
* Krois, John Michael. ''Cassirer: Symbolic Forms and History'' (1987)
* Krois, John Michael. ''Cassirer: Symbolic Forms and History'' (Yale University Press 1987)
* Lassègue, Jean. Cassirer’s Transformation: From a Transcendental to a Semiotic Philosophy of Forms. Springer, 2020. (Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics book series. volume 55) Online {{ISBN|978-3-030-42905-8}}
* Schultz, William. ''Cassirer & Langer on Myth'' (2nd ed. 2000) [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0815324650 excerpt and text search]
* Lipton, David R. ''Ernst Cassirer: The Dilemma of a Liberal Intellectual in Germany, 1914-1933'' (1978)
* Skidelsky, Edward. ''Ernst Cassirer: The Last Philosopher of Culture'' (Princeton University Press, 2008) 288 pp.&nbsp;ISBN 978-0-691-13134-4. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0691131341 excerpt and text search]
* Lofts. Steve G. ''Ernst Cassirer: A "Repetition" of Modernity'' (2000) [[SUNY Press]], {{ISBN|978-0-791-44495-5}}: [https://books.google.com/books?id=zP0lX5Tgu7wC at Google Books]
* Magerski, Christine. "Reaching Beyond the Supra-Historical Sphere: from Cassirer's Philosophy of Symbolic Forms to Bourdieu's Sociology of Symbolic Forms." ´´Pierre Bourdieu and the Field of Cultural Production.´´ Ed. J. Browitt. University of Delaware Press (2004): 21-29.
* [[Paul Arthur Schilpp|Schilpp, Paul Arthur]] (ed.). ''The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer'' (1949) [https://archive.org/details/philosophyoferns033109mbp archive.org]
* Schultz, William. ''Cassirer & Langer on Myth'' (2nd ed. 2000) ([https://www.amazon.com/dp/0815324650 excerpt and text search])
* Skidelsky, Edward. ''Ernst Cassirer: The Last Philosopher of Culture'' (Princeton University Press, 2008), 288 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|978-0-691-13134-4}}.
*Hardy, Anton G. "Symbol Philosophy and the Opening into Consciousness and Creativity" (2014)


== External links ==
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Library resources box|viaf=106965171}}
* {{sep entry|cassirer|Ernst Cassirer|Michael Friedman}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=cassirer |title=Ernst Cassirer |last=Friedman |first=Michael}}
* [http://cassirer.metastudies.net/ History of the Cassirer family]
* [http://meta-studies.net/pmg/index.php?n=Main.CassirersFoundingYears History of the Cassirer Family]
* [http://www.cis.arts.gla.ac.uk/cassirerproject.htm Centre for Intercultural Studies]
*[http://www.informationphilosopher.com/solutions/philosophers/cassirer/ Information Philosopher on Ernst Cassirer on Free Will]
* [http://meta-studies.net/pmg/index.php?n=Main.BreslauToBerlin Ernst Cassirer in family context]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060429125409/http://www.cis.arts.gla.ac.uk/cassirerproject.htm Centre for Intercultural Studies]
* {{Gutenberg author | id=35115| name=Ernst Cassirer}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Ernst Cassirer}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/003056}}
* [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.cassirer|Ernst Cassirer Papers]]. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. Yale University.
* [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.cad|Ernst Cassirer Papers - Addition]]. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University.


{{Philosophy of religion}}
{{Philosophy of religion}}
{{Continental philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}


{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. -->
| NAME = Cassirer, Ernst
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = July 28, 1874
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Wrocław|Breslau]], [[Silesia]], [[Prussia]]<br>(now [[Wrocław]], [[Poland]])
| DATE OF DEATH = April 13, 1945
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[New York]], [[United States of America]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cassirer, Ernst}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cassirer, Ernst}}
[[Category:Ernst Cassirer| ]]
[[Category:Kantian philosophers]]
[[Category:Kantian philosophers]]
[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:1945 deaths]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Silesia]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Silesia]]
[[Category:People from Wrocław]]
[[Category:Writers from Wrocław]]
[[Category:German Jews]]
[[Category:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century philosophers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin]]
[[Category:German philosophers]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Hamburg]]
[[Category:German-language philosophers]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers]]
[[Category:Columbia University faculty]]
[[Category:Yale University faculty]]
[[Category:University of Gothenburg alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Gothenburg]]
[[Category:20th-century German philosophers]]
[[Category:German historians of philosophy]]
[[Category:German historians of philosophy]]
[[Category:Phenomenologists]]
[[Category:Phenomenologists]]
[[Category:German semioticians]]

[[Category:Idealists]]
{{Link GA|de}}
[[Category:Jewish philosophers]]

[[Category:Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States]]
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Latest revision as of 01:12, 26 March 2024

Ernst Alfred Cassirer
Black and white profile picture of Ernst Cassirer
Cassirer in about 1935
Born
Ernst Alfred Cassirer

(1874-07-28)July 28, 1874
Breslau, Prussia, German Empire
(now Wrocław, Poland)
DiedApril 13, 1945(1945-04-13) (aged 70)
New York City, U.S.
EducationUniversity of Marburg
(PhD, 1899)
University of Berlin
(Dr. phil. habil., 1906)
Era20th-century philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
SchoolNeo-Kantianism (Marburg School)
Phenomenology
Theses
Academic advisorsHermann Cohen
Paul Natorp
Main interests
Epistemology, aesthetics
Notable ideas
Philosophy of symbolic forms
Animal symbolicum

Ernst Alfred Cassirer (/kɑːˈsɪərər, kəˈ-/ kah-SEER-ər, kə-,[1] German: [ˈɛʁnst kaˈsiːʁɐ];[2][3] July 28, 1874 – April 13, 1945) was a German philosopher. Trained within the Neo-Kantian Marburg School, he initially followed his mentor Hermann Cohen in attempting to supply an idealistic philosophy of science.

After Cohen's death in 1918, Cassirer developed a theory of symbolism and used it to expand phenomenology of knowledge into a more general philosophy of culture. Cassirer was one of the leading 20th-century advocates of philosophical idealism. His most famous work is the Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (1923–1929).

Though his work received a mixed reception shortly after his death, more recent scholarship has remarked upon Cassirer's role as a strident defender of the moral idealism of the Enlightenment era and the cause of liberal democracy at a time when the rise of fascism had made such advocacy unfashionable. Within the international Jewish community, Cassirer's work has additionally been seen as part of a long tradition of thought on ethical philosophy.[4]

Biography[edit]

Born in Breslau in Silesia (modern-day southwest Poland), into a Jewish family, Cassirer studied literature and philosophy at the University of Marburg (where he completed his doctoral work in 1899 with a dissertation on René Descartes's analysis of mathematical and natural scientific knowledge entitled Descartes' Kritik der mathematischen und naturwissenschaftlichen Erkenntnis [Descartes' Critique of Mathematical and Scientific Knowledge]) and at the University of Berlin (where he completed his habilitation in 1906 with the dissertation Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit: Erster Band [The Problem of Knowledge in Philosophy and Science in the Modern Age: Volume I]).[5]

Politically, Cassirer supported the liberal German Democratic Party (DDP).[6] After working for many years as a Privatdozent at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, Cassirer was elected in 1919 to the philosophy chair at the newly founded University of Hamburg, where he lectured until 1933, supervising amongst others the doctoral theses of Joachim Ritter and Leo Strauss. On 30 January 1933, the Nazi Regime came to power. Cassirer left Germany on 12 March 1933 - one week after the first Reichstagswahl under that Regime - because he was Jewish.[7]

After leaving Germany he taught for a couple of years at the University of Oxford, before becoming a professor at Gothenburg University. When Cassirer considered Sweden too unsafe, he applied for a post at Harvard University, but was rejected because thirty years earlier he had rejected a job offer from them.[citation needed] In 1941 he became a visiting professor at Yale University, then moved to Columbia University in New York City, where he lectured from 1943 until his death in 1945.

Cassirer died of a heart attack in April 1945 in New York City. The young rabbi Arthur Hertzberg, who was a student of Cassirer's at Columbia University, conducted the funeral service.[8] His grave is located in Westwood, New Jersey, on the Cedar Park Beth-El Cemeteries in the graves of the Congregation Habonim. His son, Heinz Cassirer, was also a Kantian scholar.

Other members of his prominent family included the neurologist Richard Cassirer, the publisher and gallery owner Bruno Cassirer and the art dealer and editor Paul Cassirer.

Influences[edit]

Donald Phillip Verene, who published some of Cassirer's papers kept at Yale University, gave this overview of his ideas:

"Cassirer as a thinker became an embodiment of Kantian principles, but also of much more, of an overall movement of spirit stretching from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, and on to Herder’s conception of history, Goethe’s poetry, Wilhelm von Humboldt’s study of the Kavi language, Schelling’s Philosophie Der Mythologie, Hegel’s Phenomenology of Spirit, and Vischer’s conception of the aesthetic symbol, among many others. Cassirer’s own position is born through a mastery of the whole development of this world of the humanistic understanding, which included the rise of the scientific world view — a mastery evident both in his historical works and in his systematic philosophy."[9]

Work[edit]

History of science[edit]

Cassirer's first major published writings were a history of modern thought from the Renaissance to Kant. In accordance with his Marburg neo-Kantianism he concentrated upon epistemology. His reading of the Scientific Revolution, in books such as The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy (1927), as a "Platonic" application of mathematics to nature, influenced historians such as E. A. Burtt, E. J. Dijksterhuis, and Alexandre Koyré.

Philosophy of science[edit]

In Substance and Function (1910), he writes about late nineteenth-century developments in physics including relativity theory and the foundations of mathematics. In Einstein's Theory of Relativity (1921) he defended the claim that modern physics supports a neo-Kantian conception of knowledge. He also wrote a book about Quantum mechanics called Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics (1936).

Philosophy of symbolic forms[edit]

At Hamburg Cassirer discovered the Library of the Cultural Sciences founded by Aby Warburg. Warburg was an art historian who was particularly interested in ritual and myth as sources of surviving forms of emotional expression. In Philosophy of Symbolic Forms (1923–29) Cassirer argues that man (as he put it in his more popular 1944 book Essay on Man) is a "symbolic animal". Whereas animals perceive their world by instincts and direct sensory perception, humans create a universe of symbolic meanings. Cassirer is particularly interested in natural language and myth. He argues that science and mathematics developed from natural language, and religion and art from myth.

The Cassirer–Heidegger debate[edit]

Main article: Cassirer–Heidegger debate

In 1929 Cassirer took part in a historically significant encounter with Martin Heidegger in Davos during the Second Davos Hochschulkurs (the Cassirer–Heidegger debate). Cassirer argues that while Kant's Critique of Pure Reason emphasizes human temporality and finitude, he also sought to situate human cognition within a broader conception of humanity. Cassirer challenges Heidegger's relativism by invoking the universal validity of truths discovered by the exact and moral sciences.

Philosophy of the Enlightenment[edit]

Cassirer believed that reason's self-realization leads to human liberation. Mazlish (2000)[citation needed], however, notes that Cassirer in his The Philosophy of the Enlightenment (1932) focuses exclusively on ideas, ignoring the political and social context in which they were produced.

The Logic of the Cultural Sciences[edit]

In The Logic of the Cultural Sciences (1942) Cassirer argues that objective and universal validity can be achieved not only in the sciences, but also in practical, cultural, moral, and aesthetic phenomena. Although inter-subjective objective validity in the natural sciences derives from universal laws of nature, Cassirer asserts that an analogous type of inter-subjective objective validity takes place in the cultural sciences.

The Myth of the State[edit]

Cassirer's last work, The Myth of the State (1946), was published posthumously; at one level it is an attempt to understand the intellectual origins of Nazi Germany. Cassirer sees Nazi Germany as a society in which the dangerous power of myth is not checked or subdued by superior forces. The book discusses the opposition of logos and mythos in Greek thought, Plato's Republic, the medieval theory of the state, Machiavelli, Thomas Carlyle's writings on hero worship, the racial theories of Arthur de Gobineau, and Hegel. Cassirer claimed that in 20th-century politics there was a return, with the passive acquiescence of Martin Heidegger, to the irrationality of myth, and in particular to a belief that there is such a thing as destiny. Of this passive acquiescence, Cassirer says that in departing from Husserl's belief in an objective, logical basis for philosophy, Heidegger attenuated the ability of philosophy to oppose the resurgence of myth in German politics of the 1930s.

Partial bibliography[edit]

  • Leibniz' System in seinem wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen (1902)
  • The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel [Das Erkenntnisproblem in der Philosophie und Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit] (1906–1920), English translation 1950 (online edition Archived 2011-06-05 at the Wayback Machine)
  • "Kant und die moderne Mathematik." Kant-Studien (1907)
  • Substance and Function [Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff] (1910) and Einstein's Theory of Relativity [Einsteinschen Relativitätstheorie ] (1921), English translation 1923 (online edition)
  • Freedom and Form [Freiheit und Form] (1916)
  • Kant's Life and Thought [Kants Leben und Lehre] (1918), English translation 1981
  • Philosophy of Symbolic Forms [Philosophie der symbolischen Formen] (1923–29), English translation 1953–1957
    • Volume One: Language [Erster Teil: Die Sprache] (1923), English translation 1955
    • Volume Two: Mythical Thought [Zweiter Teil: Das mythische Denken] (1925), English translation 1955
    • Volume Three: The Phenomenology of Knowledge [Dritter Teil: Phänomenologie der Erkenntnis] (1929), English translation 1957
  • Language and Myth [Sprache und Mythos] (1925), English translation 1946 by Susanne K. Langer
  • The Individual and the Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy [Individuum und Kosmos in der Philosophie der Renaissance] (1927), English translation 1963 by Mario Domandi
  • "Erkenntnistheorie nebst den Grenzfragen der Logik und Denkpsychologie." Jahrbücher der Philosophie 3, 31-92 (1927)
  • Die Idee der republikanischen Verfassung (1929)
  • "Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik. Bemerkungen zu Martin Heideggers Kantinterpretation." Kant-Studien 26, 1-16 (1931)
  • Philosophy of the Enlightenment [Die Philosophie der Aufklärung] (1932), English translation 1951
  • Determinism and Indeterminism in Modern Physics: Historical and Systematic Studies of the Problem of Causality [Determinismus und Indeterminismus in der modernen Physik] (1936), English translation 1956
  • The Logic of the Cultural Sciences [Zur Logik der Kulturwissenschaften] (1942), English translation 2000 by Steve G. Lofts (previously translated in 1961 as The Logic of the Humanities)
  • An Essay on Man (written and published in English) (1944) (books.google.com)
  • The Myth of the State (written and published in English) (posthumous) (1946) (books.google.com)
  • Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer, 1935-1945, ed. by Donald Phillip Verene (March 11, 1981)
  • Ernst Cassirer: Gesammelte Werke. Hamburger Ausgabe. Electronic Edition. (2016) – The electronic version of the definitive edition of Cassirer's works, published in print by Felix Meiner Verlag, and electronically in the Past Masters series.
  • The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, Vol. 4, The Metaphysics of Symbolic Forms. Edited and translated by John Michael Krois and Donald Philip Verene from manuscripts left after Cassirer's death. Published 1996, New Haven & London: Yale University Press.
  • The Warburg Years (1919-1933): Essays on Language, Art, Myth, and Technology. Translated and with an Introduction by S. G. Lofts with A. Calcagno. New Haven & London: Yale University Press.

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Cassirer". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  2. ^ "Duden | Ernst | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition". Duden (in German). Retrieved 20 October 2018. Ẹrnst
  3. ^ "Duden | Cassirer | Rechtschreibung, Bedeutung, Definition". Duden (in German). Retrieved 20 October 2018. Cassirer
  4. ^ Gordon, Peter E. (8 September 2009). "(Book 1) Ernst Cassirer: The Last Philosopher of Culture; (Book 2) The Symbolic Construction of Reality: The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer". Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews. Retrieved April 13, 2020.
  5. ^ A second volume appeared in 1907, a third one in 1920, and a fourth one in 1957.
  6. ^ Jones, Larry Eugene (2001). Crossing Boundaries: The Exclusion and Inclusion of Minorities in Germany and the United States. Berghahn Books. p. 125.
  7. ^ Die Zeit 4/2020: Der Geistesgegenwärtige
  8. ^ Arthur Hertzberg: A Reminiscence of Ernst Cassirer The Leo Back Institute Year Book, Volume 15, Issue 1, January 1970, pp.245-246, [1]
  9. ^ Cassirer, Ernst (1979). Verene, Donald Phillip (ed.). Symbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer 1935-1945. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 0-300-02666-8.

Further reading[edit]

  • Aubenque, Pierre, et al. "Philosophie und Politik: Die Davoser Disputation zwischen Ernst Cassirer und Martin Heidgger in der Retrospektive." Internationale Zeitschrift für Philosophie, 2: 290-312
  • Barash, Jeffrey Andrew. The Symbolic Construction of Reality: The Legacy of Ernst Cassirer (2008) (excerpt and text search)
  • Burtt, Edwin Arthur. The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Physical Science, London: Paul Trencher (2000)
  • Eilenberger, Wolfram. Time of the Magicians: The invention of modern thought, 1919–29, Allen Lane (2020)
  • Folkvord Ingvild & Hoel Aud Sissel (eds.), Ernst Cassirer on Form and Technology: Contemporary Readings, (2012), Basingstoke, Palgrave MacMillan (ISBN 978-0-230-36547-6).
  • Friedman, Michael. A Parting of the Ways: Carnap, Cassirer, and Heidegger (2000) (excerpt and text search)
  • Gordon, Peter Eli. Continental Divide: Heidegger, Cassirer, Davos (2010)
  • Krois, John Michael. Cassirer: Symbolic Forms and History (Yale University Press 1987)
  • Lassègue, Jean. Cassirer’s Transformation: From a Transcendental to a Semiotic Philosophy of Forms. Springer, 2020. (Studies in Applied Philosophy, Epistemology and Rational Ethics book series. volume 55) Online ISBN 978-3-030-42905-8
  • Lipton, David R. Ernst Cassirer: The Dilemma of a Liberal Intellectual in Germany, 1914-1933 (1978)
  • Lofts. Steve G. Ernst Cassirer: A "Repetition" of Modernity (2000) SUNY Press, ISBN 978-0-791-44495-5: at Google Books
  • Magerski, Christine. "Reaching Beyond the Supra-Historical Sphere: from Cassirer's Philosophy of Symbolic Forms to Bourdieu's Sociology of Symbolic Forms." ´´Pierre Bourdieu and the Field of Cultural Production.´´ Ed. J. Browitt. University of Delaware Press (2004): 21-29.
  • Schilpp, Paul Arthur (ed.). The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer (1949) archive.org
  • Schultz, William. Cassirer & Langer on Myth (2nd ed. 2000) (excerpt and text search)
  • Skidelsky, Edward. Ernst Cassirer: The Last Philosopher of Culture (Princeton University Press, 2008), 288 pp. ISBN 978-0-691-13134-4.
  • Hardy, Anton G. "Symbol Philosophy and the Opening into Consciousness and Creativity" (2014)

External links[edit]

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