Charakene

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Location Charakenes around 51 BC Chr.

The Charakene (also Mesene ), located on the Persian Gulf, was a small vassal state within the Parthian Empire , the capital of which Charax Spasinu was an important trading center on the way from India to Mesopotamia and also on the Silk Road . The empire came into being around 130 BC. And went under with the conquest of the region by the Sassanids around AD 224.

The Parthian Empire of the Arsacids was a kind of feudal state , which was made up of various more or less independent vassal states that served the Parthian rulers as sub-kings. The history of these vassal states is often only passed down in fragments. Little research has been done into their influence and interaction. The Charakene is one of these small kingdoms and, along with Hatra and Armenia, is one of the more well researched, as it had its own coinage and thus at least the names of the rulers are known. Nevertheless, little has been passed down and can be obtained from ancient sources, which reflects the poor state of research on the Parthian Empire in general.

geography

The character is described by various ancient authors, mostly geographers, who mostly assign them to Arabia . It is the region in the south of Babylonia , in what is now Iraq , Iran and Kuwait . The borders mentioned are the Arabian desert in the west, the Chaldean swamps in the north and the Persian Gulf in the south . In the east the Charakene borders on the Elymais , where Pliny even calls them part of the Elymais. The capital of the Charakene was called Charax-Spasinu and was on the Shatt al-Arab (about 50 km north of today's Basra ). The city was a major trading center between Mesopotamia and India . It was known in antiquity for its extensive dam systems, which also gave it its name. Charax-Spasinu is called Palisade des Hyspaosines . The city could be localized in a survey and had considerable dimensions (approx. 2.8 × 1.3 km). Walls made of earth are still up to 4.6 m high today. Bastions can still be seen. Other ports were Forat , Teredon and Apologos . Forat was about 1.8 × 1.3 km, making it a sizable city. It was a little south of Charax-Spasinu. On the northern border of the empire was the city of Apamea , which was founded by Seleucus I and named after his wife. Pliny also mentions the places Barbatia and Dumatha for the Charakene, but these are only attested to by him and about which nothing is known.

The entire south of Babylonia forms an alluvial land , which was created by the deposits of the Euphrates and Tigris . Due to the sediment deposits of the rivers that merged here, the coast pushed further and further into the sea over time, and already in post-Christian times Charax-Spasinu was no longer close to the coast, but at some distance from it, so that it was The newly founded Forat, located by the sea, has developed into another important port city. Two other rivers came from the east and connected the Charakene with the Elymais . These are the Karche (ancient: Eulaios) and the Karun . The territory of the rulers of the Charakene also included the Omani , an Arab people known almost only from ancient sources who must have lived in the area between the Charakene and the Nabatean empires . Various islands in the Persian Gulf, including Bahrain in particular , also belonged to the realm of the Charakene. Numerous characteristic coins were found here, a building inscription by King Hyspaosines , and here the Palmyric merchant Yarhai was appointed as satrap by King Meredates . Bahrain was an important stopover on the sea route to India.

The Charakene was known in ancient times for its dull winters and extremely hot and humid summer months. Precipitation was rare, but the rivers were rich in water. They often caused devastating floods, but also made the land very fertile.

The names

The terms Mesene (also Messene, Aramaic Mayshan ) and Charakene are almost synonymous in antiquity. Charakene is derived from the name of the capital Charax-Spasinu and originally perhaps only referred to the area around the actual city, but over time it has also been used for the entire kingdom. The origin of the name Mesene, however, is uncertain. Maybe the word is Akkadian . Initially it is probably the name of the landscape of southern Babylonia. In the post-Parthian period the term Mesene (Arabic Maisan , Hebrew Mesan or Meson , Armenian Meschun ) was retained , while the term Charakene disappeared.

history

prehistory

Alexander the Great founded a city called Alexandria in the south of Babylonia, at the confluence of the Euphrates and Karche, which is usually referred to as Alexandria on the Tigris. Macedonian soldiers and people from the nearby town of Durine were settled as residents. Alexandria on the Tigris quickly developed into an important trading center. There was probably a naval base of the Seleucid Empire here .

In the Seleucid Empire all of Babylonia formed its own satrapy . Antiochus III. divided it and created with the division in the south the satrapy of the Erythrean Sea , to which the island Failaka probably also belonged. Alexandria on the Tigris became the capital, with the city being destroyed by a flood and rebuilt under Antiochus IV . It was named Antioch after its new builder.

Since the middle of the 3rd century BC More and more provinces ( Parthia , Bactria ) fell away from the Seleucid Empire, which stretched from India to the Mediterranean. In the middle of the 2nd century BC The empire was finally in a phase of state dissolution. The east of the empire was lost forever. Babylonia was ruled several times by new masters. From 162 to 161 BC BC Timarchus , the former satrap of media, was in power here . However, he was defeated by the Seleucid king Demetrios II . Twenty years later, the Elymais went into business for themselves and tried to conquer parts of the Seleucid Empire. Their troops are 142 BC. In South Babylonia. In 141 BC The Mesopotamia was conquered by the Arsakid Parthian king Mithridates I. Around 139/38 BC There was a temporarily successful counter-offensive by the Seleucids. With the battle death of Antiochus VII, however , their rule over Mesopotamia ended forever a few years later.

founding

Hyspaosine's coin

Around 165/64 BC A certain Hyspaosines was appointed by Antiochus IV. As governor ( eparch ) of the satrapy of the Erythrean Sea , he was to rule the region for about 40 years. According to Pliny, Hyspaosines was the son of Sagdodonacus, "King of the Arabs". The name Hyspaosines is probably the Greek form of the Iranian Vispa-canah ( taking pleasure in everything) . This name is attested several times in the Greek world, but nothing else can be said about the origin of the name and thus of Hyspaosines. He may have been sent by Antiochus IV to this troubled province as a particularly capable man. From approx. 140 BC Hyspaosines undertook various campaigns and even ruled parts of Persia and Babylonia for a short time . He sent his son Timotheus to Seleucia on the Tigris , but was quickly pushed back again. In any case, the city of Babylon belonged temporarily to his domain, because there are texts from there that are dated after him. Hyspaosines might have coined as early as 140 BC. His own coins on which he appears as a king, but his status and the exact dating of these coins and thus the acceptance of the title of king is controversial in research. Certainly Hyspaosines first appeared on May 30, 127 BC. BC attested as king in a cuneiform text. The exact time of the takeover of the royal title and thus the establishment of the character as a (partially) autonomous state remain uncertain. One possible point in time is the period shortly after 129 BC. In this year the Seleucid Antiochus VII made one last attempt to regain the Mesopotamia, but failed. In this chaos the Charakene were able to establish themselves as king with Hyspaosines. From Hyspaosines and his wife Thalassia there is a building inscription from Bahrain that names a temple of the Dioscuri and the Strategos of Bahrain with the name Kephisodoros. Bahrain was probably already part of the satrapy of the Erythraean Sea . With the establishment of the Charakene as a separate kingdom, this part of the satrapy was automatically a province of this new state, with its own provincial administration. Hyspaosines died on June 11, 124 BC. At the ripe old age of 85, after having fallen ill four days earlier. He can be described as the actual founder of the Kingdom of Charakene. Coins with his name were still used until 122/1 BC. BC, which led earlier research to believe that he reigned until this year. However, his exact date of death is recorded in the astronomical diaries.

The position of the Parthians in the Charakene at the time of the rise of Hyspaosines is largely unknown. They were already around 140 BC. BC invaded and conquered Mesopotamia, but at the same time had to fight with invading nomads in the east, so that their forces were bound elsewhere and their rule in Mesopotamia was not secure. Hyspaosines may have submitted to the Parthians from the beginning, only to tear himself away from them again in times of their weakness. His campaigns of conquest may be seen as an attempt on the part of the Seleucids to regain the country. The elevation of Hyspaosines to king then proves that they are acting in their own interest.

First century BC

Coin of Apodacus

After the death of Hyspaosines, his widow Thalassia tried to put their son on the throne, but from the cuneiform sources that transmit the episode, it is not clear whether it was successful. The son's name is not recorded. The next king known by name is Apodacus , who from 110/09 BC. BC is documented on dated coins, and under which, after an interruption of approx. 10 years, minting begins again. It remains uncertain whether he is identical with the son of Hyspaosines, who was appointed as successor by his mother. It can now be assumed that the character was part of the Parthian Empire and had vassal status. In any case, the Parthian king Mithridates II (123 to 88 BC) had coins of the Hyspaosines overminted, which is mostly interpreted as a demonstration of power. The following kings are mostly only known by name. Some of them are mentioned by Lukian (around 120 to approx. 200 AD) because of their old age , but Lukian offers little further information. The coinage is also rather monotonous and provides little evidence of political events. The names of the rulers appear to be either Iranian (Tiraios, Artabazos, Orabazes) or Aramaic / Semitic (Attambelos - Bel gave ; Abinergaos - servants of Nergal ). In the forms that have come down to us, the names are engraved.

First and second centuries AD

The first century AD was the heyday of the Parthian Empire. From this period and the first half of the second century, most of the Palmyric inscriptions come from, which name individual places of the Charakene, especially Charax-Spasinu, and prove a flourishing trade. Abinergaos I (around 10/11 to 13/14 and again 22/23 AD) is mentioned by the Jewish historian Flavius ​​Josephus . According to Josephus, a prince of Adiabene, Izates, son of King Monobazos, is said to have lived at the court of the Charakene and was married to Samacho, daughter of Abinergaos I. Samacho came into contact with the Jewish trader Ananias, who converted her to Judaism and who was finally able to convert Izates. The presence of Jewish traders in the Charakene is not surprising, as Jews in Mesopotamia are well documented and the Messene is mentioned several times in the Talmud , but only for Sassanid times. The episode also proves the friendly relationship between Parthian vassal states, at least for a while. In this context, it is hardly surprising that from 200 AD onwards, Christians can be expected in the Charakene. In the Chronicle of Arbela Forat is mentioned as a bishopric.

Almost all other kings of the first century, with the exception of Orabazes I , are only known from their coins. At the end of the first century, however, there was a 30-year (from 73/4 to 101/2 AD) interruption in coinage. In the absence of further sources, one can only speculate what this means. It may suggest that the Charakene was ruled directly by Pakoros , the Parthian king of the time. In fact, around 130 AD, a son of Pakoros is found on the throne of the Charakene. Perhaps the rulers of the Charakene were simply forbidden to mint coins at this time.

Coin attributed to the maga; in Parthian style

Throughout the second century AD, the Parthian Empire had to contend with the invading Romans and internal difficulties. It remains unknown to what extent the character was affected. When the Roman Emperor Trajan conquered parts of the Parthian Empire in AD 117, the Charakene surrendered without a fight under Attambelus VII . No coinage has been documented for the following years. They only started again in the year 143/4 with Meredates. Since Meredates was the son of a Parthian king, it has been assumed that during these years the Charakene was ruled directly by the Parthians without their own king. There is a remarkable monument to Meredates. The bronze statue of Hercules comes from Seleucia and tells of the deposition of Meredates by the Parthian king Vologaeses IV in 151 AD. Again, one can only speculate about the reasons for this intervention. The inscription is silent about this, but one might suspect that Meresdates was not loyal to the Parthians, so that they had good reason to intervene directly in Charakene.

The subsequent rulers are only known from their coins. It is noteworthy that in the middle of the second century the Greek coin inscriptions were replaced by those in Aramaic . The coins of Orabazes II (approx. 160 AD) still show both languages, those of his successor Abinergaos II (approx. 180 AD) are then only described in Aramaic. Coin dates also disappear with Abinergaos II. Aramaic certainly corresponds to the language spoken in the Charakene. This development shows the final turning away from Hellenistic to Iranian traditions, as can be observed throughout the Parthian Empire. The inscriptions are now often corrupt and therefore difficult to read. Maga (reading uncertain) describes himself as the son of Attambelos (probably Attambelos VIII. ), Which proves a dynastic connection at this time. Maga is known from numerous coins and probably ruled for a relatively long time. He is also the last documented ruler of the Charakene. His reign is tentatively set at 200. The last ruler is then only known from an Arabic historical work that describes the victory over the Charakene. The ruler is referred to as a Bandu, which is perhaps a corrupt version of Abinergaos ( i.e. Abinergaos III ). The conquest should fall in the year 222 AD. With the rise of the Sassanid Empire , the Charakene disappeared as an independent political unit.

Status of the characters

It can usually only be speculated to what extent the Parthians also intervened in the internal political affairs of the kingdom. The degree of autonomy remains uncertain. While some research regards the character as a nearly independent state, there are other scholars who find no evidence of it. For Artabazos (ruled around 49/48 BC) it is reported in Lukian that he came to power through Parthian support. The aforementioned inscription on the statue of Hercules is also instructive. Accordingly, the Parthian king Vologaeses IV had undertaken a campaign in the Charakene in 151 AD and deposed the local king Meredates: Obviously there were phases in which the Charakene made itself independent, but was then conquered again by the Arsacids . It should be noted that Meredates was a son of the Parthian king Pakoros , so was of Arsakid descent and was appointed by them. This suggests a policy similar to that in other parts of the Parthian Empire, where, especially for Armenia, there is evidence that kings installed their own sons as sub-kings in important provinces. The fall of Meredates suggests that not all of these Arsakid princes were loyal and therefore had to be reprimanded by the Parthian central government. Otherwise it is completely unknown how the succession was arranged. Repeated names of rulers could at least point to ruling families that had several kings. In the same direction, Maga (around 180 AD) appears on his coins as the son of Attambelos VIII and that the widow of Hyspaosines tried to put a son on the throne.

economy and trade

Agriculture certainly played a major role. Ancient sources repeatedly emphasize the fertility of the region. Wine, fruit and especially dates are named as export goods. According to Chinese sources, when these refer to the Charakene, rice was also grown. Pearls dipped in the Persian Gulf were another important export item.

Long-distance trade was of particular importance. The ports on the Persian Gulf connected Mesopotamia and Rome with India, South and Central Asia. In numerous inscriptions from Palmyra , cities of the Charakene are mentioned as the endpoint of caravans. The Palmyric traders even had branches in Charax-Spasinu and Forat. Trade goods were mainly luxury goods from the East, such as silk, pearls, valuable woods, ivory, spices and incense; gold, silver, glassware, corals, wine and grain were delivered to the east from the west. Other important trading partners were various cities and countries in Arabia . Forat is explicitly mentioned as a meeting point for dealers from Petra . The rise of the Charakene as an important factor in trade in the Persian Gulf can perhaps also be related to the development of Gerrha . Gerrha, located on the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula, has been used since the 4th century BC. Mentioned several times as a rich trading city. The city controlled the trade routes between Petra, Egypt, and Babylonia on the one hand, and southern Arabia and perhaps India on the other. With the advent of the Charakene, however, these routes were diverted and this trade increasingly took place via the Charakene. Gerrha is no longer mentioned in ancient sources after the first century AD.

Coins of the Charakene were found in numerous places on the Persian Gulf, for example on Failaka and the neighboring islands of al-Akaz , Umm an-Naman and in ad-Dur ( Oman ), they were also found in Susa and Uruk and provide archaeological evidence of the trade.

Trade with China probably also played a role. The character lay on a route on the Silk Road. There were various Chinese delegations who tried to get to Rome, but were prevented from proceeding by the Parthians. From the Chinese side there are reports that mention a country subjugated by the Parthians with the name Tiaozhi ( Chinese  條 枝, 條 支 , Pinyin Tiáozhī ). Tiaozhi is said to have been on the western sea . There is much to suggest that Tiaozhi refers to the Charakene, as it had direct access to the Persian Gulf; but this cannot be proven.

Culture

The only author known by name from the Charakene is Isidoros von Charax , who prepared a travelogue (Parthian stations) of the Parthian Empire on behalf of Emperor Augustus . The work provided Roman generals with first-hand information on the Parthian Empire and was certainly commissioned for precisely this purpose. There is also a report from Isidoros of Charax on pearl divers in the Persian Gulf.

Coin of Orabazes II.

Since there have not been excavations in any place in the heartland of the Charakene, little can be said about material culture.

However, finds from Bahrain can be used, as the island belonged to the sphere of influence of the Charakene. Gravestones decorated with the deceased were found here. The steles usually show a standing man. The craft level of these works ranges from some mediocre to more modest works. These tombstones follow two art traditions. There are figures shaped according to Hellenistic models and those who are clearly in the Parthian tradition. These are the two art circles that are well documented in the rest of the Parthian Empire. The art of the Charakene is likely to have largely followed the rest of the Parthian Empire. The pottery found on Bahrain is also very similar to the pottery found in Susa, in southwest Iran and in Babylon. The whole area thus formed its own cultural space.

The coins, which are well known and provide an indication of the development of art in the Charakene, are an exception in artistic creation. What is striking about the coins of the Charakene is the long adherence to Hellenistic traditions. Parthian coins show Iranian style elements early on. A portrait created according to Hellenistic models was replaced early on by more stylized depictions in a purely Parthian style. This change in style is fully completed around the birth of Christ. In the Charakene even the coins of Orabazes II, who reigned shortly after 150 AD, clearly follow the Hellenic model. Macedonian soldiers were settled in Charax-Spasinu, which suggests that the city retained Hellenistic traditions for a long time. This seems to be confirmed by the writer Isidoros of Charax, who wrote in Greek and who lived around the birth of Christ.

swell

The character is described several times by ancient geographers who also occasionally provide historical information. Above all, the statements by Pliny the Elder are informative here. On the other hand, mentions by ancient historians are very rare, which is certainly mainly due to the fact that the relevant works have not survived and the traditional works mainly focus on the states of the Mediterranean and their events. The Astronomical Diaries from Babylon are of great importance for the reign of Hyspaosines . These are cuneiform texts that combine political events with stargazing and fixed dates. They came to us only mutilated, but they provide precise data to the day and convey events that have not been found anywhere else. So far there are hardly any excavations in the area of ​​the Charakene. A survey could at least locate the capital and Forat. Further information comes from inscriptions from Palmyra, which are especially important for the history of trade, but also mention royal names.

Coins

Thionesios'I coin.

Although dependent on the arsakid great king , the lower kings of the Charakene enjoyed the privilege of striking their own coins. These coins are of particular importance because they allow the succession of rulers to be followed very well. They are dated to the Seleucid era and thus form a fixed chronological framework. Only the coins from the second half of the second century AD no longer show any dating.

The coins are usually designed uniformly. They show a picture of the ruler on the obverse and have initially Greek, but later Aramaic legends. The ruler usually looks to the right. This is noteworthy since on Parthian coins the king usually looks to the left. There is often an image of Heracles on the back . Other representations, such as the tyche or an anchor, are rare and are often associated with changes in the policy of individual kings in research. The conclusions drawn from this are usually very speculative.

exploration

Charakene coins have been in European collections since at least the 18th century. They were mostly referred to as Parthian, Armenian or Bactrian. Ennio Quirino Visconti was able to definitively assign them to the Charakene for the first time in 1811. The first attempt to come to terms with the history appeared in 1817 (but only published posthumously) by MJ Saint-Martin, who correctly located the characters at the northern end of the Persian Gulf. William Henry Waddington created a first succession of rulers in 1866, but it was still incomplete. Nor did he differentiate between different kings with the same name. Only in the following years could these rulers be distinguished in individual studies. Fundamental especially the publication of the coins was the British Museum by George Francis Hill . The inscriptions from Palmyra have been systematically published since 1930, and they yielded numerous new insights, especially on the trade relations of the Charakene. An essay by Sheldon A. Nodelmann published in 1960 compiled a history of the characters that united all sources known to date and was for a long time the most important study on the subject. The most extensive study was finally published in 2000 by Monika Schuol . It combines all text sources found up to this point in time. Above all, the cuneiform texts provided numerous new insights into the reign of Hyspaosines and thus at the beginning of the Charakene. The most important new archaeological find after the appearance of this extensive publication is the Greek building inscription of Hyspaosines of Bahrain, who occupies the island as part of his empire and gives the name of his wife, previously known only from cuneiform texts.

The rulers of the Charakene

Surname Term of office Remarks image
Hyspaosines approx. 127-124 BC Chr. Founder of the Charakene Hyspaosines.jpg
Apodacus approx. 124-104 / 03 BC Chr. known only from coins Apodakos.jpg
Tiraios I. 95 / 94-90 / 89 v. Chr. known only from coins Tiraiosi.jpg
Hippocrates autocrator Nikephorus 81/80 BC Chr. only known from one coin, classification as King of the Charakene not certain
Tiraios II. 79 / 78-49 / 48 v. Chr. According to Lukian, died at the age of 92, otherwise only known from coins Tiraiosii.jpg
Artabazos 49 / 48-48 / 47 v. Chr. After Lukian came to the throne at the age of 86, otherwise only known from coins
Attambelus I. 47 / 46-25 / 24 v. Chr. known only from coins Attambelosi.jpg
Theonesios I. approx. 25/24 - 19/18 BC Chr. known only from coins ThionesiosI.jpg
Attambelus II. approx. 17/16 BC BC – 8/9 AD known only from coins
Abinergaos I. 10/11 Mentioned by Flavius ​​Josephus, otherwise only known from coins
Orabazes I. approx. 19 is only mentioned in an inscription in Palmyra
Abinergaos I. 22/23 Second period of rule of the ruler
Attambelus III. approx. 37 / 38-44 / 45 known only from coins
Theonesios II. approx. 46/47 known only from coins
Theonesios III. approx. 52/53 known only from one coin
Attambelus IV. 54 / 55-64 / 65 known only from coins
Attambelus V. 64 / 65-73 / 74 known only from coins
Pakoros (II.) (Parthian king) approx. 80 / 81–101 / 02 Period of direct Parthian control PacorusII.jpg
Attambelus VI. approx. 101/02–105/06 known only from coins
Theonesios IV. 110 / 11-112 / 113 known only from coins
Attambelus VII. approx. 113 / 14–116 / 17 Submitted to the Roman Emperor Trajan, is called Dio by Cassius, otherwise only known from coins
Interregnum?
Meredates approx. 130 / 31–150 / 51 Defeated by Parthians, is mentioned in the victory inscription and in the inscription in Palmyra, otherwise only known from coins Meredates.jpg
Orabazes II. approx. 150 / 51–165 known only from coins Orabazesii.jpg
Abinergaos II. approx. 165-180 known only from coins
Attambelus VIII. approx. 180-195 known only from coins
Maga (?) approx. 195-210 Only attested on undated coins Magacha.jpg
Abinergaos III. (?) approx. 210-222 mentioned only by Arab historians

literature

  • Sheldon A. Nodelman: A Preliminary History of Characene , In: Berytus 13 (1960), pp. 83-121
  • Monika Schuol : The characters. A Mesopotamian Kingdom in the Hellenistic-Parthian Period , Stuttgart 2000, ISBN 3-515-07709-X . meeting

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ For comparison, the Atropatene or Elymais are mentioned, of which in fact much less is known.
  2. ↑ Pliny : Natural History, VI, 135-147; Ptolemy , VI 3.2; Strabo XVI 4, 1 (767)
  3. ↑ Strabon XVI 4, 1 (767); see: Schuol: Characene , 94
  4. ^ Natural history, VI, 129
  5. ↑ Pliny: Natural History, VI, 139
  6. ↑ Hansman: Charax and the Karkheh , In: Iranica Antiqua , 7 (1967), 36-45
  7. ↑ Pliny: Natural History, VI, 146
  8. ^ Strabo, XVI, 4, 1
  9. ^ Second water , see: GF del Monte: Tesi della Babilonia ellenistica I , Pisa / Rome 1997, 117, 137
  10. ↑ first in Strabon , II, 1, 31 (84-85); XVI, 1, 8 (739)
  11. ↑ Schuol: Characene , 276-80
  12. ↑ Schuol: Charakene , 33
  13. ↑ Galier, Lomvard, al-Sindi: In: Arabian archeology and epigraphy 13 (2002), 223-26
  14. ↑ Lukan, Macrobi XVI 16
  15. ↑ cuneiform text British Museum 33024, 33045, translation: Schuol: Characene , p 40
  16. ↑ Lukian, Macrobi 16-17
  17. ↑ Flavius ​​Josephus: Jüdische Antiquities , XX, 22-23, 34-35
  18. ^ WI Al-Salihi: The Weary Hercules of Mesene , In: Mesopotamia 22 (1987), 159-67
  19. ↑ z. B. Schuol: Charakene , 455
  20. ^ Stefan R. Hauser
  21. ^ Pliny, Natural History, VI, 145
  22. ↑ Schuol: Charakene , pp. 423-25
  23. ^ The Kingdom of Tiaozhi
  24. ↑ Schuol: Charakene , 149-151
  25. ↑ Parthian Stations (English translation)
  26. ↑ Harriet Crawford / Michael Rice (edits): Traces of paradise: the archeology of Bahrain 2500B.C.-300A.D. , London 2000, no.360, at p. 200
  27. ↑ Harriet Crawford / Michael Rice (edits): Traces of paradise: the archeology of Bahrain 2500B.C.-300A.D. , London 2000, No. 361, at p. 201; see. the picture on this website: (under Travaux en cours) ( Memento of November 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  28. ↑ Natural History, VI, 129-30, 135-47
  29. ↑ WQ Visconti: ancienne Iconographie, III , Milano 1811
  30. ^ MJ Saint-Martin: Recherches sur l'histoire et la geographie de la Mesene et de Characene , Paris 1938
  31. ^ WH Waddington: Numismatique et chronologie des Rois de la Characene , In: Revue Numismatique NS 11 (1866), 303–333
  32. ^ GF Hill: Catalog of the Greek Coins of Arabia, Mesopotamia, and Persia , London 1922
  33. ↑ Nodelmann, Berytus
  34. ↑ Schuol: Charakene
This version was added to the list of articles worth reading on November 24, 2008 .


Coordinates: 31 °  N , 48 °  E