Germans in Australia

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Percentage of people of German descent to the total population of Australia in 2011

Germans in Australia , including those of German origin in Australia , were the sixth largest ethnic group in Australia according to the 2011 census . The relationship between Germans and Australians is centuries old. Researchers and missionaries came to Australia as early as the early 19th century. One of the most famous Germans in Australia is the explorer Ludwig Leichhardt . People of German origin played a not insignificant role in the settlement of Australia, especially in agriculture. German winemakers played a significant role in the development of Australian viticulture . But German cultural customs are also valued in Australia, for example the choral societies founded early by Germans, such as the Adelaide Liedertafel 1856 , are still very popular today. The German immigrants were respected. This reputation suffered considerably in Australia as a result of the two world wars when Germany became an enemy and numerous Germans and people of German origin were interned. After the end of World War II, it was not until 1952 that Germans could immigrate to Australia again. German-born immigrants are now a recognized part of the Australian community and are understood as an integral part of multicultural Australian society.

Terminology

The emergence of the term "German" has a long term history to look back and used contradictory. Before 1871 there was no Germany, only numerous small states in which German dialects were spoken. The first settlers came from Prussian provinces such as Brandenburg, Schleswig and Posen. Thus Johann Reinhold Forster , mentioned below, who was the first "German" to set foot on the Australian continent with his son , was a Prussian . In 1838 Prussians, who emigrated to Australia for religious reasons, settled for the first time in the Barossa Valley and founded places there where German was spoken in everyday life and their culture was cultivated. The first place they founded was Klemzig . In the years 1848/1849 people came from various small states who were involved in uprisings against the authorities or who did not want to join the military. Another wave of Germans came in 1851, during the Australian Gold Rush , a large number of whom settled in Australia. It was not until 1871 that the German Empire emerged from the many small states .

German-Australian prehistory

First contacts

German-Australian relations have a long tradition.

When the Dutch Abel Tasman (1603-1659) discovered Van Diemens Land with his two ships on November 24, 1642, the second ship, Heemskerck , was commanded by the German-born Captain Holleman.

When James Cook landed in Australia on his second voyage of discovery (1772–1775) with the HMS Resolution , the Prussian natural scientist Johann Reinhold Forster (1729–1798) and his son Georg Forster were on board. They were the first Germans to set foot on the Australian continent. Johann Forster reported in his diaries about Cook's third voyage of discovery (1776–1780) that four people of German origin had been on board.

Life-size bronze sculptures in memory of convicts as road builders from 1815 through the Blue Mountains

The British government decided to colonize Australia with convicts in the 1780s. Arthur Phillip , the first British governor of New South Wales , had a father who was Hessian and his mother an Englishwoman. The family lived in England. With the first ships of the so-called First Fleet , which Phillip commanded, German-speaking convicts came to Australia for the first time in 1788 and had to do detention there. During the time of the Australian convict colony, England deported 73 convicts of German descent to Australia.

The first chief surveyor of the new colony of New South Wales was Augustus Alt (1731-1815), whose father was born in Hessen-Kassel. Phillip Schäffer, who came to Australia with the First Fleet, was a lieutenant in a Hessian regiment that fought on the side of the English in the American War of Independence . He was used as a supervisor for the convicts in Sydney . Since he proved unsuitable for this task, he settled as a settler and planted the first vines in Australia in 1792 .

The explorer and naturalist Ludwig Leichhardt (1813–1848), the botanical draftsman Ferdinand von Müller (1825–1896), the geophysicist and polar explorer Georg von Neumayer (1826–1909) and the mineralogist Johannes Quantity (1788–1852 ) were involved in the exploration of Australia ) involved.

First immigration of people of German origin

Missionaries and researchers of German origin first came to Australia in the early 19th century .

Religious seekers of freedom

The first settlers of German origin came from the Prussian eastern regions . The Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III. wanted to unite the Lutheran and Reformed Churches to form a regional church and issued a new order of worship. Despite the announcement of severe penalties for violating the new order, the believers wanted to continue to practice their old Lutheran order of worship. Since the king did not give in, many people emigrated to Australia or America. From November to December 1838 several ships carrying German emigrants reached Port Adelaide in South Australia .

In 1838 people came who had emigrated from Silesia , Prussia and Posen to the Barossa Valley in search of religious freedom and settled in Klemzig and Bethany . Further settlements of the German emigrants took place in the central part of the Barossa Valley in the 1840s. Most of the settlers came from the Prussian provinces of Brandenburg, Silesia and Posen; others came from Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hanover and Saxony. The settlers who came from Saxony were Wends and Slavs. Joseph Seppelt (1813–1868), a Prussian, laid the foundation stone of the oldest Australian winery in 1851 . Numerous other German winegrowers followed him.

Political refugees

After the revolutionary uprisings against German princes in the years 1848 to 1849, which were suppressed, numerous freedom fighters fled abroad and also to Australia. These emigrants are referred to as 48s in English-language literature . They had an idea of ​​a state and a nation that guaranteed civil and human rights and democratic participation in the development of a nation. The 48s felt themselves to be Australian nationalists and early Republicans. Their identity was linked to the German language and its culture. They had experience of confrontations with authoritarian governments that British immigrants in Australia did not have, and they had an idea that Australia would develop along the lines of the US . The British of Australian descent were loyal to absolutist rulers and queens. Significant German-speaking personalities at the time, these were u. a. the composer Carl Linger (1810–1862), the newspaper publisher and journalist Carl Mücke (1815–1898) and the botanist Moritz Richard Schomburgk (1811–1891).

Prospectors

The rush for gold began in the middle of the 19th century . This led to an enormous population growth in Australia. Numerous Germans who had already settled down also tried their luck. But the euphoria soon ended. The German-born gold prospector Bernhardt Holtermann (1838–1885) became famous, who in 1872 found the largest piece of gold and quartz rock ever found containing around 3,000 ounces of gold, the so-called "Holtermann Nugget".

Further development

Charles Rasp (1846–1907), who emigrated to Australia in 1870 and probably a deserted officer of the German Empire in the Franco-Prussian War 1870–1871, was not only one of the founders of BHP , one of the largest mining companies in the world, but also gave a "decisive impetus for the transition [of South Australia] from a purely agricultural to a rich industrial nation".

After the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, Germany became a new great power in Europe. Up until that point, Germans were undoubtedly a recognized and integral part of Australian immigration society. This changed slowly for the first time in Australia when a German national feeling and patriotism developed for the old homeland. For example, two place names of Australian places testify to this; Sedan ( Battle of Sedan ) and Bismarck (German Chancellor). Based on the German fleet construction, a " German Fleet Association " was established in Brisbane in 1899 , which aroused suspicion and mistrust in Australia.

Immigration declined in the 1880s. In 1883 more than 2,000 Germans had immigrated to Australia and the minor islands. In 1890 there were only 474, in 1898 153 and in 1899 141 people. German immigration ended with the First World War.

  • A German settler with his family in front of their own "house" in Queensland around 1880

  • Klemzig was the first German settlement in Australia in 1846

  • Franz Schramm : Painting of an Encounter between a German Emigrant Family and Aborigines (1850)

  • Vineyard near Lobethal, founded in 1841

First World War

Political conditions

The so-called camp chapel in the internment camp on Rottnest Island , which consisted of German prisoners of war

At the beginning of the First World War, around 4.5 million people lived in Australia, including around 100,000 Germans. On October 29, 1914, the Australian Parliament passed the War Precautions Act , which gave the military extensive powers to arrest war opponents in Australia. This law also applied to Germans who had lived in Australia for generations. The suspicion of disloyalty was sufficient for this.

Until the outbreak of war, the Germans were very respected. In the early days of settlement by immigrants, researchers and scientists such as Johannes Quantity , Ludwig Leichhardt , Ferdinand von Mueller , Moritz Richard Schomburgk , Ludwig Becker and Charles Rasp made a major contribution to the exploration and development of Australia, especially South Australia, whose population was almost 10 Percent of German origin was done. With the outbreak of the First World War, Germany became an opponent of the Commonwealth and a nationwide anti-German hysteria developed similar to the one in the USA. While most British Australians identified with "Mother England", the Germans were assumed to support the German Kaiser . Despite the great German contribution to the development of the country, there was a lot of discrimination against German-born Australians during the war. Many people of German origin were interned. The work situation became difficult for Germans, as quite a few were forced to go to internment camps themselves, because Australians of British origin no longer wanted to work with “Germans”. Celebrities like Hermann Homburg, the Justice Minister of South Australia, had to quit their jobs, although many of them had lived in Australia for several generations. Many people of German origin were also forced to use other names.

In the period from the First World War to the Second World War , the Germans were regarded as the “ enemy aliens ”. Some were exiled or interned .

There were also various attacks on German-Australian institutions. All German schools in Australia were closed; In South Australia alone, 49 Lutheran schools were affected in 1917. Many of these schools were later reopened with new teachers as state schools, where no more German or religious instruction was given. The German language was banned at all state schools . The Prime Minister of South Australia even went so far as to order an employment ban in the Ministry of Culture for people with a German background or German name. In part, the war propaganda against everything German took on grotesque features, so in 1916 the mayor of Melbourne was asked to remove a street lamp because the words "Made in Germany" could be read on it.

In the course of the First World War, numerous renaming of German place names took place , which had originated in large numbers, especially in South Australia and came from German pioneers. The German place names were either Anglicized or replaced by Aboriginal place names or names of famous people or battlefields from the First World War. The renaming was done either by petition or by law. The government in South Australia changed a total of 69 place and landscape names. In Tasmania, the localities of Bismarck and German Town were renamed Collinsvale and Lilydale .

The Germans were proud of their German culture, but politically they fully supported Australia. Most British Australians could not understand this, however. While the majority of ethnic Germans felt they were Australians, they saw themselves as members of the British Empire.

Internment camp

Badge from the Torrens Island Detention Center
A group of interned Germans in the Berrima camp who play tremors and guitars
Building of Trial Bay Gaol

The internment camps during World War I were run and administered by the Australian Army. They were also known as concentration camps in Australia during World War II . Camps were initially used in old prison buildings at Berrima and Trial Bay Gaol in New South Wales .

The largest camp during World War I was the Holsworthy Internment Camp , west of Sydney . During World War I there were Australian internment camps in Berrima , Bourke , Holsworthy and Trial Bay (all New South Wales ), Enoggera ( Queensland ) and Langwarrin ( Victoria ), Molonglo ( Australian Capital Territory ), Rottnest Island ( Western Australia ) and Torrens Island ( South Australia ). There were other temporary and small internment camps on Bruny Island ( Tasmania ), Fort Largs (South Australia) and Garden Island (Western Australia). For example, on Rottnest Island, which operated from late 1914 to late 1915, a total of 989 people were housed in September 1915, including 841 Australian and Austrian internees and 148 prisoners of war. According to a statement by the Australian War Memorial organization, 7,000 people were interned in the course of the First World War, including around 4,500 German and British people with German roots who had lived in Australia for a long time. As a result, around 4.5 percent of German Australians were in detention.

Trial Bay Gaol was one of the largest internment camps for captured officers and soldiers of the Imperial Navy from war zones in the Pacific , China and Southeast Asia . Among the internees were also German and Austrian business people who had been captured on ships, as well as wealthy and socially superior Germans and Austrians who lived in Australia and who were believed to sympathize with the war opponents. The internment camp was first occupied in August 1915. At peak times, up to 580 men were in detention. Most of the internees were housed in solitary cells in the prison building. Those of high social or military rank were held in huts by the bay. People in the prison were able to swim, fish, sunbathe on the beach or play tennis in the prison yard. They had built the tennis court. In 1916 they organized a theatrical performance of the comedy " Minna von Barnhelm " by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing . They had their own orchestra and from 1917 onwards they published their own weekly newspaper “Welt am Montag”. The internees erected a monument on the hill of Trial Bay for the four Germans who died in this camp . In 1918 the internees were relocated because it was feared that German warships might land. They were taken to the Holsworthy Internment Camp, now Holsworthy Barracks , near Sydney . In the same year the monument was destroyed after it became known in Australia that graves of the Allied forces in Germany had been vandalized. The monument was rebuilt in 1960. A path leads to the memorial on the hill in the bay.

Some Australians considered this treatment too good. However, the internees were under constant surveillance, their mail was censored and external contacts were not allowed, as was no contact with internees in other camps.

Many internees from Western Australia were transported to camps in New South Wales, including the 193 German marines from the small cruiser SMS Emden , which the light cruiser HMAS Sydney sank.

After the end of the World War, the camps were closed and most of the inmates were deported. German immigration was prohibited until 1925. It then developed slowly and dried up when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933.

Second World War

Jews

About 7,000 Jews from Germany were able to save themselves from the persecution of the Jews by the National Socialists in Australia before the Second World War, of which about 2,000 came from Vienna.

NSDAP / AO

In the early 1930s, party branches of the NSDAP / AO (foreign organizations of the NSDAP ) emerged in Australia in Brisbane , Melbourne , Sydney and Tanunda . The main initiator was Johannes Heinrich Becker, who was appointed regional leader of the NSDAP / AO for Australia and the Pacific region from 1932 to 1936. A focus of the NSDAP / AO was in South Australia, because at that time most of the Germans lived there.

According to this organization, only the so-called Reichsdeutsche who were born in Germany were allowed to become members . People of German origin who were born in Australia or who had acquired Australian citizenship were classified as ethnic Germans. They could not become members of the NSADAP / AO. Since most of the people of German origin living in Australia were born there, this had an impact on the number of members of this party. Becker's political ideas about how to gain members and how to conduct politics did not correspond to the ideas of the German Consul General Rudolf Asmis . He fell out with him and also with his political leadership from Berlin. In 1936 Becker was removed from office.

During the Second World War, as Barbara Poniewierski showed in a publication, there were secret service spies in the NSADAP / AO in Tanunda and Adelaide from the early 1930s until the end of the war. Gestapo spies monitored German sailors arriving in Adelaide, as well as Lutheran pastors and visitors to Australia. Australian companies that employed non-Aryans did not receive orders from Germans, while companies that followed the Nazi ideology did. Australian losses in the course of the war were not regretted but are said to have been celebrated.

internment

Group of people

Georg Auer, a Jew from Austria, who came to Australia with the Dunera and was interned until 1942. He then joined the Australian Army.

During the First World War there were mainly Germans in internment camps. In the course of the Second World War, Australia interned a large number of Italians and Japanese in addition to the Germans. The internees, including women and children, came from more than 30 countries including Finland, Hungary, Portugal and the Soviet Union . Germans and Japanese from overseas were also interned. They came from England, Palestine , Iran , what is now Singapore , Malaysia and Indonesia , New Zealand and New Caledonia . The first of them came from England in 1940 on the ship HMT Dunera . Their destination was the Hay internment camp .

During World War II Australia set up internment camps for three reasons: residents were to be discouraged from assisting Australia's enemies, public opinion was appeased, and those interned overseas who were transported to Australia were to be housed. Japanese were immediately arrested. Germans and Italians were only sent to internment camps after the war criminals of the National Socialists in Germany and Italy became known. This was especially true for those people who lived in the north of Australia, as the enemy of the war was expected to invade there. More than 20 percent of Italians in Australia were in detention, as were a total of 7,000 people with ties to the war opponents, 1,500 of whom were British. 8,000 people from overseas were detained in the Australian camps. In 1942, the peak of 12,000 internees in Australia was reached. In addition to the British of German descent, the Australian fascists, leading members of the Australia First Movement , including Adela Pankhurst and Percy Reginald Stephensen, were interned .

camp

An example of the construction of a POW camp in Cowra , in which mainly Japanese were detained.

In the first time, the internees were housed in existing prison buildings that were already used for this purpose during the First World War, for example in Long Bay Gaol . Internment camps were later set up and spread across Australia. Such camps were located in Cowra , Holsworthy (all New South Wales), Enoggera near Gaythorne (Queensland), Loveday , (South Australia), Rottnest Island and Harvey (Western Australia) and Tatura near Rushworth (Victoria). There were also small and temporary camps in Bathurst , Long Bay , Orange (all New South Wales), Dhurringile near Murchison (Victoria), Parkeston (Western Australia). Camps for prisoners of war only were located at Yanco in New South Wales, Murchison and Myrtleford in Victoria, Marrinup in Western Australia and Brighton in Tasmania. However, there were both prisoners of war and internees in the other camps. This is important because, according to international law, prisoners of war are allowed to work and internees are not.

A special group among the internees were the mostly Nazi-friendly members of the members of the temple society who had already been interned in Palestine . They came to Australia in 1941 and were housed in Camp Tatura (Camp 3) in the Australian state of Victoria . After the camp was closed in 1947, the Templars there accepted the offer of the Australian government and stayed in the country.

Among the first German prisoners of war were the 315 German marines of the auxiliary cruiser Kormoran , which HMAS Sydney sank off the coast of Western Australia in November 1941. They were housed in huts of 30 men each in the Harvey camp until 1942. When this camp was closed due to the inability of the local military administration, the relocation to Parkeston near Kalgoorlie and then to Loveday in South Australia took place.

The camps were under the responsibility of the military. As the number of internees increased, the first camps became too small and special camps were set up. The situation in the camps differed according to the equipment, the geographical location, the composition of the camp inmates and the management of the camp by the officer responsible on site.

Before the end of the World War, the Italians were released from the camps after Italy switched to the Allies' side and became an opponent of the Third Reich . After the end of the hostilities of the respective nations concerned, there were early dismissals.

After the Second World War

Internees from Great Britain and Europe were allowed to leave Australia after the end of the war, as were those who were detained by the British. The Japanese, including those born in Australia, had to leave Australia in 1946. Most European prisoners of war were repatriated by mid-1947 despite having been given permission to remain in Australia.

After the Second World War , Australia received a large influx of displaced persons from Europe, to a small extent also of German-speaking origin. After the Australian immigration policy was relaxed, Germans have been able to immigrate to Australia again since 1952. In the following 20 years, 150,000 migrants from the Federal Republic of Germany emigrated to Australia. Another 30,000 German speakers came from Switzerland and Austria. As prosperity developed in the above-mentioned countries, there was a high return rate, as around a third returned. In 1991 there were 112,000 German-born immigrants in Australia. Since the 1980s, the immigration of German speakers has decreased to around 1,000 people per year. At the same time, there was also an increased return migration. This fact is attributed to the consequence of the rigid Australian migration policy in Australia .

Culture

The cultural relations between Germany and Australia have a long tradition. In areas with particularly strong German immigration, for example in the Barossa Valley in South Australia , this heritage is cultivated more intensively than elsewhere. German clubs, mainly singing and shooting clubs and other clubs, are spread all over Australia.

The Goethe-Institut is represented with locations in Sydney and Melbourne . There are also two schools in the same locations and other German Saturday schools in Australia. The German International School Sydney has existed since 2002. In 2008 a primary school was founded in Melbourne, which today is attended by around 100 students in bilingual classes. There are bilingual Froebel kindergartens in Melbourne and Sydney. After French, German is currently the most popular European foreign language among school leavers.

Relationships in higher education are intense. The cooperation between Australian and German universities has risen to over 550 in the last ten years. There are scholarship programs that are mainly funded by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation (AvH) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). The Ranke-Heinemann Institute in Essen and Berlin is the point of contact in Germany for information about Australian and New Zealand universities, schools and professional academies.

2017 is the year in which the Australian cultural year "Australia Now" takes place in Germany. There was a cooperation project with a large opera gala by the Canberra Theater and Saarland State Theater in July 2017.

German companies

Numerous companies based in the Federal Republic of Germany currently (2017) have branches in Australia (the following entries do not claim to be exhaustive):
Automotive sector : Audi , Daimler , BMW , Bosch , Continental .
Construction : Hanson ( HeidelbergerCement ).
Banks, insurance companies : Allianz , Deutsche Bank .
Medicine : Fresenius Kabi .
Technology, software : Infineon , Siemens , SAP , Giesecke & Devrient .
Transport & Logistics : DB Schenker , Kühne & Nagel , Hamburg-Süd Group .

German-language newspapers, radio and television programs

The German-language newspaper “Deutsche Post für die Australian Colonien” appeared for the first time in 1848, but was discontinued in 1850. It was the first non-English language newspaper in Australia. After that, short-lived publications kept appearing. In 1954 the Austrian journalist Mark Siegelberg , who reached Australia in 1938 as one of the Nazis persecuted, founded the “New World” in Melbourne . After that, the newspaper appeared as Die Woche in Australien until 2013 . Since then, the paper has been published under new owners and with a new editorial team under the title The New Week in Australia .

The German-Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, based in Sydney, publishes the quarterly German-Australian Business Journal in German and English. Regular radio broadcasts in German have been broadcast by the station EA3 in Sydney since 1975 and by the station 3EA in Melbourne since 1978. German-language documentaries and feature films can be received via the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS).

statistics

According to the 2011 census, people of German origin are a large ethnic group with a share of 4.5 percent of the total Australian population. In 2011, 108,000 people living in Australia said they were born in Germany. This ranked this group of people in 10th place in Australia. The average age of this group of people is 62 years. In 2011, 898,700 people stated that they had German ancestors, making them the sixth largest ethnic group in Australia.

In 2006, 821,540 people in Australia were of German descent. In 2001, 76,400 people spoke German as their mother tongue. This made German the 8th most widely spoken language in Australia after English , Chinese , Italian , Greek , Arabic , Vietnamese , Spanish and Tagalog .

According to estimates, around 15,000 Australians lived in Germany in 2001.

Personalities

literature

  • Robin Bennett: Public Attitudes and Official Policy towards Germans in Queensland in World War 1 . Honors Thesis. University of Queensland, 1970.
  • Ian Harmstorf: Insights into South Australian History. vol. 2, South Australia's German History and Heritage. Historical Society of South Australia, 1994, ISBN 0-9588276-2-1 .
  • Michael McKernan: Manufacturing the war: 'enemy subjects' in Australia . Sydney Collins, 1984.
  • P. Monteith (Ed.): Germans: travelers, settlers and their descendants in South Australia . Wakefield Press, Kent Town, South Australia 2011, ISBN 978-1-86254-911-1 .
  • Jürgen Tampke, Colin Doxford: Australia, welcome . New South Wales University Press, 1990, ISBN 0-86840-307-5 .
  • Johannes H. Voigt: Australia-Germany. Two Hundred Years of Contacts, Relations and Connections . Inter Nationes, Bonn 1987, OCLC 718872494 .

Web links

See also

Web links

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013. In: 2011 Census. Australian Bureau of Statistics , accessed September 3, 2017 .
  2. ↑ 200 years of history of the German-speaking community in Australia . Part I: Greetings from Governor-General Ninian Stephen and Prime Minister Bob Hawke , p. 1. Special Issue: The Week in Australia January 1988. Europa Kurier Pty. Ltd. Bankstown. ISSN  0726-4860
  3. ^ A b German Settlers in South Australia , on southaustralianhistory.com.au. Retrieved September 3, 2017.
  4. ↑ 200 years of history of the German-speaking community in Australia . Part I, p. 9. Special Edition: The Week in Australia of January 1988. Europa Kurier Pty. Ltd. Bankstown. ISSN  0726-4860 .
  5. ↑ Bernd Marx: From Klemzig to Klemzig. ( Memento from October 16, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) In: Lausitzer Rundschau. June 7, 2008, accessed April 7, 2019
  6. ↑ barossamuseum.com.au ( Memento from February 6, 2015 in the Internet Archive ): Barossa Museum, History of Barossa , on barosamuseum.com.au. Retrieved September 4, 2017.
  7. ^ German experience in Australia during WW1 damaged road to multiculturalism , April 22, 2015, on theconversation.com. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
  8. ↑ Rasp initiated the turnaround. In: 200 years of history of the German-speaking community in Australia. Part I, p. 29. Special Edition: The Week in Australia of January 1988. Europa Kurier Pty. Ltd. Bankstown. ISSN  0726-4860
  9. ↑ a b c d D. Nutting: The effect of the First World War on the German-Australians. 2001, accessed November 6, 2013.
  10. ↑ 200 years of history of the German-speaking community in Australia . Part I, p. 14. Special Edition: The Week in Australia of January 1988. Europa Kurier Pty. Ltd. Bankstown. ISSN  0726-4860 .
  11. ↑ a b Wartime internment camps in Australia , on naa.gov.au. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
  12. ↑ World War I internment camps . on naa.gov.au. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
  13. ^ Military Functions ( Memento of August 21, 2006 in the Internet Archive ), on rottnestisland.com. Retrieved April 4, 2019.
  14. ↑ Civilian Internees Australia ( Memento from September 1, 2017 in the Internet Archive ), on oldsite.awm.gov.au. Retrieved April 7, 2019.
  15. ↑ a b c Trial Bay, South West Rocks Detention Barracks 1914–1918 ( Memento from February 3, 2017 in the Internet Archive ), on auspostalhistory.com. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  16. ^ Trial Bay, New South Wales , at naa.gov.au. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  17. ↑ Arakoon State Recreation Area. Plan of Management , on environment.nsw.goa.au. Retrieved August 31, 2017.
  18. ↑ a b c Wartime internee, alien and POW records held in Perth - Fact sheet 180 , on naa.gov.au. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
  19. ↑ a b c Jurgen Tampke: Germans , 2008, on dictionaryofsydney.org. Retrieved September 4, 2017.
  20. ↑ John Perkins: Becker, Johannes Heinrich (1898–1961) , from 1993, on Australian Dictionary of Biography . Retrieved September 24, 2014.
  21. ^ A b Miles Kemp, Tim Lloyd: Barossa Valley Nazis an enemy in our midst , May 13, 2011, on Adelaide Now. Retrieved November 24, 2017.
  22. ↑ The complete passenger list can be called up using the search term “Dunera” on the Record Search website of the National Archieves of Australia . Searches by name are also possible there.
  23. ↑ a b c Wartime internment camps in Australia , on naa.gov.au. Retrieved September 1, 2017.
  24. ^ German colonists
  25. ↑ Using the search terms “Tatura” and “Queen Elizabeth”, extensive documents and the names of the interned Templars can be accessed on the Record Search website of the National Archieves of Australia .
  26. ↑ Harvey, Western Australia (1940-42) , on naa.gov.au. Retrieved September 5, 2017.
  27. ↑ a b c d Relations with Germany , at www.auswaertiges-amt-de. Retrieved September 14, 2017.
  28. ↑ List of German companies on rausnachaus.com. Retrieved September 9, 2017.
  29. ↑ Ludger Heidelbach: The end of the WEEK in Australia . In: woche.com.au, 2013.
  30. ↑ The Week - a long story in a few words. In: australia-news.de
  31. ↑ Numbers of Australinas Overseas in 2001 by Region ( Memento of July 20, 2008 in the Internet Archive ), on southern-cross-group.org, accessed on April 7, 2019.