Great Chinese famine

from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Great Chinese Famine
三年 大 饑荒 , Sānnián dà jīhuāng
country People's Republic of China
Location Mainland China
Total dead 15 million - 55 million
theory Big Leap Forward , People's Commune , Big Sparrow Campaign , and so on.
consequences End of the " Big Leap Forward " campaign


The Great Chinese Famine ( Chinese  三年 大 饑荒  /  三年 大 饥荒 , Pinyin Sānnián dà jīhuāng  - "The three-year great Chinese famine") occurred in 1959-61 in the People's Republic of China . Some scholars also included 1958 or 1962. Estimates of the dead range from 15 to at least 55 million people. It is widely considered to be the greatest famine in human history, as well as one of the greatest man-made disasters.

The main causes of the famine were the Great Leap Forward and institutional measures such as the People's Commune . During the “ 7000 Cadre Conference ” in early 1962, Liu Shaoqi , the second president of the People's Republic of China , officially attributed 30% of the famine to natural disasters and 70% to man-made errors. After the launch of “ Reform and Opening ”, the Chinese Communist Party officially declared in 1981 that the famine was mainly due to the mistakes of the “Great Leap Forward” and the “ Anti-Right Campaign ”, in addition to some natural disasters and the “ Sino-Soviet rift ”.

terminology

Before June 1981, the Chinese Communist Party called it "Three-Year Natural Disaster" ( 三年 自然 災害  /  三年 自然 灾害 , Sānnián zìrán zāihài ).

Since June 1981 the Chinese Communist Party has called it the "Three-Year Difficulty Period " ( 三年 困難 時期  /  三年 困难 时期 , Sānnián kùnnán shíqī ).

Data situation

Production decline

Grain production in China year after year. The harvest decreased by 15% in 1959. By 1960 it was 70% of its 1958 level. There was no recovery until 1962 when the "Great Leap Forward" ended.

According to the China Statistical Yearbook , grain production fell from 200 million tons (1958) to 143.5 million tons (1960).

Death toll

Birth rate and death rate in China.

According to government statistics, 15 million people died during the famine. Unofficial estimates vary, but researchers estimate the number of starvation deaths to be between 20 and 43 million. History researcher Frank Dikötter , who was granted special access to Chinese archival material, estimates that there were at least 45 million premature deaths between 1958 and 1962. The Chinese journalist Yang Jisheng concluded that there were 36 million deaths from starvation, while another 40 million were not born, so that “China's total population loss during the Great Famine then comes to 76 million.” (German: “ China's total population loss during the Great famine amounts to 76 million. ”) The term“ Three Bitter Years ”(German:“ Drei Bittere Jahre ”) is often used by Chinese farmers to describe this period.

Change in the Chinese population.

Due to the lack of food and the incentive system to marry at that time, the population was around 658,590,000 in 1961, around 13,480,000 less than in 1959. The birth rate fell from 2.922% (1958) to 2.086% (1960) and the death rate rose from 1.198% (1958) to 2.543% (1960), while the average values ​​for 1962–1965 were around 4% and 1%, respectively. In the 1970s, the agricultural area per capita was calculated at 1.3 hectares for the USA , 0.75 hectares for the Soviet Union and only 0.18 hectares for the People's Republic of China - the food situation continued to appear difficult.

The officially reported death rate showed a much more dramatic increase in some provinces and counties. For example, in the province of Sichuan , China's most populous province , the government reported 11 million deaths out of an average population of around 70 million between 1958 and 1961. In Huaibin County , the government reported 102,000 deaths out of a population of 378,000 (1960). At the national level, the official statistics contain around 15 million so-called “excess deaths” or “abnormal deaths” (German: unnatural cause of death), most of them due to starvation.

Yu Dehong, secretary of a party official in Xinyang (1959 and 1960), claimed that

“I went to one village and saw 100 corpses, then another village and another 100 corpses. No one paid attention to them. People said that dogs were eating the bodies. Not true, I said. The dogs had long ago been eaten by the people. "

“I went into a village and saw 100 bodies, then another 100 bodies in the next village. Nobody took any notice of them. It was said that the dogs ate the corpses. That can't be, I said, because the dogs had long been eaten by humans. "

- Yu Dehong

It is widely believed that the government understated the death toll: Lu Baoguo, a reporter in Xinyang for the Xinhua newspaper , told Yang Jisheng why he never reported on his experience:

“In the second half of 1959, I took a long-distance bus from Xinyang to Luoshan and Gushi . Out of the window, I saw one corpse after another in the ditches. On the bus, no one dared to mention the dead. In one county, Guangshan , one-third of the people had died. Although there were dead people everywhere, the local leaders enjoyed good meals and fine liquor. ... I had seen people who had told the truth being destroyed. Did I dare to write it? "

“In the second half of 1959 I took a long-distance bus from Xinyang to Luoshan and Gushi. From the window I saw corpses after corpses in the ditches. Nobody dared to mention the dead on the bus. In one district, namely Guangshan, a third of the population died. Although there were dead people everywhere, the local leaders enjoyed rich meals and fine liquors. ... I had seen people speak the truth and be destroyed. Dare I write this? "

- Yang Jisheng : The Yes Album

Most researchers estimate the death toll at 15 to 55 million. Some Western analysts such as Patricia Buckley Ebrey ( University of Washington ) estimate that approximately 20–45 million people died from starvation as a result of poor government policies and natural disasters.

  • A research team from the Chinese Academy of Sciences concluded in 1989 that at least 15 million people died of malnutrition.
  • Li Chengrui (李成瑞), a former minister of the National Bureau of Statistics of China , estimated 22 million (1998). His estimate was based on the estimate (27 million) by Ansley J. Coale and the estimate (17 million) by Jiang Zhenghua (蒋正华), the former vice chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress .
  • Judith Banister (Director of Global Demography on the Conference Board) estimates this number at around 30 million.
  • Cao Shuji (曹树基) from Jiaotong University Shanghai estimates 32.5 million.
  • The just mentioned Yang Jisheng (2008) estimates the death toll at 36 million.
  • Liao Gailong (廖 盖 隆), former vice director of the Chinese Communist Party's (CCP) Historical Research Division, reported over 40 million unnatural deaths from famine.
  • Chen Yizi (陈 一 谘), a former senior Chinese official and top adviser to former CCP General Secretary Zhao Ziyang , concluded that 43 million people died of famine.
  • Historian Frank Dikötter estimates that at least 45 million people died of starvation, overwork and government violence during the Great Leap Forward. However, both his approach to the documents and his claim to be the first author to use them have been questioned by other scholars. Dikötter's study also emphasizes that state violence has increased the death toll. He believes that at least 2.5 million victims have been beaten to death or tortured to death. He gives a pictorial example of what happened to a family after a family member was caught for theft:

“Liu Desheng, guilty of poaching a sweet potato, was covered in urine… He, his wife, and his son were also forced into a heap of excrement. Then tongs were used to pinch his mouth open after he refused to swallow excrement. He died three weeks later. "

"Liu Desheng, guilty of stealing a sweet potato, was covered in urine ... He, his wife, and his son were also forced into a feces heap. Forceps were then used to pry open his mouth after he refused to swallow feces. He died three weeks later. "

  • Yu Xiguang (余 习 广), an independent Chinese historian and former instructor at the Central Party College of the Communist Party of China , estimated that 55 million people died of famine. His conclusion was based on two decades of archival research.

cannibalism

There are extensive oral reports, as well as some official documentation, of cannibalism , which came in various forms as a result of the famine. Due to the magnitude of the famine, the resulting cannibalism has been described as unprecedented in 20th century history.

causes

Big leap forward

Steel production during the big leap forward

The Great Chinese Famine was caused by social pressure, economic mismanagement, and radical agricultural restructuring. Chinese Communist Party leader Mao Zedong introduced drastic changes to agriculture that banned private property. Violations of this led to persecution. The social pressures placed on citizens for agriculture and commerce controlled by the government created state instability. Due to the laws passed during the “ Great Leap Forward ” between 1958 and 1962, government statistics show that approximately 36 million people died during that period.

Iron and steel production was identified as a key industry for economic progress. Millions of farmers were withdrawn from agriculture in order to strengthen the workforce in the steel and iron industry.

People's Commune

The canteen in a people's commune . The slogan is "Eat Free, Work Hard".

During the great leap forward, agriculture was organized in people's communes and private cultivation was banned.

Yang Jisheng summarized the impact of the focus on production goals in 2008 as follows:

“In Xinyang , people starved at the doors of the grain warehouses. As they died, they shouted, "Communist Party, Chairman Mao, save us". If the granaries of Henan and Hebei had been opened, no one need have died. As people were dying in large numbers around them, officials did not think to save them. Their only concern was how to fulfill the delivery of grain. "

“In Xinyang, people starved to death in front of the granary doors. As they died, they shouted, "Communist Party, Chairman Mao, save us". If the Henan and Hebei granaries had been opened, no one would have died. The functionaries did not even think of saving those dying around them. Your only concern was the delivery of the grain. "

- Yang Jisheng

Eradication of the four plagues

The " Eradicate the Four Plagues " campaign killed sparrows and as a result the pests increased in numbers and negatively impacted crop production.

Fake data

For their part, the local party leaders conspired to cover up failures and blame others in order to protect their own lives and positions. In a famous example, it was announced that Mao Zedong was going to visit a local agricultural community in Shaanxi Province in the midst of the greatest famine to personally assess conditions. In preparation for his visit, local party officials ordered hundreds of starving farmers to carefully uproot hundreds of thousands of stalks of grain by hand and then transplanted from nearby farms into a "sample field" which was then shown to Mao as evidence that the harvest had not failed. Similar to the severe, partially anthropogenic famine in the USSR, from which Ukraine was hardest hit ( Holodomor ), doctors were forbidden to list “starvation” as the cause of death on death certificates. A famous famine propaganda image shows Chinese children from Shandong Province seemingly standing in a wheat field that has grown so dense it can support their weight. In fact, they were hidden on a bench below the plants and the “field” consisted entirely of individually transplanted stalks.

Agricultural techniques

Simultaneously with the collectivization, the central government decreed several changes in agricultural techniques based on the ideas of the Soviet pseudoscientist Trofim Denisovich Lysenko . One of these ideas was to plant the fields to be cultivated more closely, whereby the density of the seedlings was first tripled and then doubled again, which resulted in the seeds being planted on top of each other.

The Lysenkoism claimed by leaning to the Stalinist held political doctrine that any social failure (including the yield of crops) with the socialist class struggle linked that plants of the same species (ie the same "class") would not fight against each other and on the contrary harmoniously would grow together and produce high density fields. In practice, this resulted in the seedlings competing for nutrients and space, and all fields that applied Lyssenko's planting theories showed poor yields or complete crop failures. Another policy (known as “deep plowing”) was based on the ideas of Lyssenko's colleague Tewenty Malzew , who encouraged farmers across China to avoid the normal plowing depth of six to eight inches and instead cut the soil at a depth of one to two Meters to plow. According to the deep plow theory, the most fertile soil is deep in the earth, which means that exceptionally deep plowing would enable particularly strong root growth. In shallow soil, however, useless stones, useless soil, and sand were lifted up and the fertile top layer buried, which in turn led to poor seed growth.

Institutional Politics

Mao Zedong reads People's Daily (1961).

According to the work of the economist and famine expert, Amartya Sen , most famines arise not simply from lower food production, but also from improper or inefficient food distribution, often coupled with a lack of information or even disinformation about the scale of the problem. In the case of these Chinese famines, the urban population (under the dictates of Maoism ) had protected legal rights to a certain amount of grain consumption, while the peasantry were not granted such rights and were subject to non-negotiable production quotas, on the surplus of which they had to survive. As local rural officials vied to exaggerate the levels of production their own communities had achieved in implementing the new economic organization, local farmers were left with less and less surplus when they tried to meet the quotas and eventually gave up there is no longer any excess. When they finally failed to even achieve the necessary quotas to feed the cities, the peasant farmers were wrongly accused of hoarding , profiteering and other counterrevolutionary activities on the part of the Chinese Communist Party, which cited the massively inflated production estimates of local party leaders as evidence.

As the famine worsened, these allegations sparked widespread atrocities on the part of Maoist party officials (including large-scale grain confiscations that starved millions of farmers), who tried to divert their guilt for the harmful changes in agricultural policy and massive overestimates in grain yields. At that time, the famine was almost entirely blamed on the conspiracy of " class enemies " and "unreformed kulak elements" among the peasant farmers, three times more starving than the urban Chinese population. The increase in food exports to other socialist brother countries aggravated the famine.

Natural disasters

Premier Zhou Enlai (center front) visited the "Loukou Yellow River Bridge (泺 口 黄河 铁路 大桥)" during the 1958 Yellow River flood .

These fundamentally damaging changes in farm organization coincided with adverse weather patterns including droughts and floods. In 1958 there was a flood in the Yellow River . This flood was the only major flood during the Great Chinese Famine. It flooded half a million acres of crops (3.04 million mu (亩)) and destroyed over 300,000 homes. However, in Henan Province and Shandong Province , 2 million people were called in to protect the dams and river banks and the floods were successfully directed to the Bohai Gulf . On the other hand, historian Frank Dikötter has argued that most of the floods during the famine were not due to unusual weather, but rather to massive, poorly planned irrigation work that was part of the Big Leap Forward. In 1960, an estimated 60% of northern China's agricultural land had no rainfall.

However, there was disagreement about the importance of the drought and floods in causing the great famine. According to published data from the Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences (中国 气象 科学 研究院), the drought in 1960 was not uncommon and its severity was rated only as "mild" compared to other years - it was less severe than the one in 1955. 1963, 1965-1967, and so on. In addition, Xue Muqiao (薛暮桥), then head of the National Bureau of Statistics of China , allegedly said in 1958 that "we give all the numbers the manager wants" in order to overestimate natural disasters and relieve official responsibility for deaths due to hunger. Yang Jishen claimed he had investigated other sources, including a nongovernmental archive of meteorological data from 350 weather stations across China, and that the droughts, floods and temperatures between 1958 and 1961 were within China-typical patterns. Some scientists also pointed out that from 1959 to 1961, the negative effects of the climate were local at best and were definitely not the primary cause of the three-year famine that spread across the country. With food supplies abundant, even in the event of a major disaster, farmers have the energy and enthusiasm to keep disaster losses to a minimum.

aftermath

Cultural revolution

Liu Shaoqi and Mao Zedong (1964).

In April and May 1961, the then President of the People's Republic of China , Liu Shaoqi , conducted 44 days of field research in the villages of Hunan . He concluded that the causes of the famine were 30% natural disasters and 70% human error. Liu officially announced his results during the " 7000 Cadre Conference (七千人大会)" in early 1962.

The failure of the great leap forward and the famine led Mao Zedong to withdraw from active decision-making within the Communist Party and the government and to hand over various future responsibilities to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping . However, the differences of opinion between Mao and Liu (and Deng) gradually increased. In 1963 Mao started the " Socialist Education Campaign " and in 1966 he started the " Cultural Revolution ", in which Liu was accused of only 30 percent attributing natural disasters and was accused of being a "traitor." Liu was persecuted to death in 1969. Deng was also purged (twice) during the Cultural Revolution.

Reforms and opening up

Deng Xiaoping

After the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping became the new Supreme Leader of China in 1978 . In the late 1970s, Deng launched the Boluan Fanzheng program to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution, and launched the Reform and Opening Up program . The agricultural and industrial systems in China have systematically changed since then. In 2010, China overtook Japan to become the second largest economy in the world .

Until the early 1980s, the Chinese government's attitude , as reflected in the term "three-year natural disaster," was that the famine was largely the result of a series of natural events made worse by several planning errors. In June 1981, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) officially changed its name to "Three-Year Difficulty Period" and declared the famine was mainly due to the mistakes of the " Great Leap Forward " and the " Anti-Right Campaign, " in addition to some natural disasters and the " Sino-Soviet rift ".

Scientists outside of China believed that the massive institutional and policy changes that accompanied the Great Leap forward were key factors in the famine, or at least exacerbated natural disasters.

see more

Some claim that the famine in the Republican era caused a death rate of approximately five million / year, the same rate as the Great Famine. For example, the famine in northern China in 1920–1921 caused 10 million deaths.

Famine researcher Cormac Ó Gráda noted that even before the Great Chinese Famine, famines were "recurring characteristics of Chinese history during the previous century." He noted the "apocalyptic" nature of such famines, which, including the 'Great North China Famine' (1876–1879), claimed an estimated 9.5 to 13 million deaths. Quoting Yang Jisheng , Ó Gráda also notes that between 1920 and 1936, 18.36 million people died of starvation caused by crop failures, while the Henan Famine (1943/44) "created its own catalog of adversities".

Former Chinese dissident and political prisoner Minqi Li , an economics professor at the University of Utah and a supporter of Maoist politics, has collected data showing that even the peak death rates during the Great Leap were actually quite typical in pre-communist China. Li argues that based on the mean mortality rate over the three years of the 'big leap forward', several million fewer lives died during this period than under normal pre-1949 mortality conditions .

Amartya Sen puts this famine in a global context. His book Development as Freedom claims that the main culprit is the lack of democracy. He adds that “it is difficult to imagine that anything like this could happen in a country where the ballot box is open and where there is an independent press. During this terrible catastrophe, the government was not subjected to any pressure from newsletters that were controlled or from opposition parties that did not exist ”. Nonetheless, Sen notes in his paper Hunger and Public Action that “despite the gigantic extent of excessive mortality during the Chinese famine, the extraordinary mortality in India due to regular shortages already at normal times considerably [exceeds] that.” This view is also reflected in Noam Chomsky in Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs resist .

See also

literature

  • Ashton, Basil, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, Robin Zeitz, Famine in China, 1958-61 , Population and Development Review, Vol. 10, no. 4. (Dec., 1984), pp. 613-645.
  • Banister, J. Analysis of Recent Data on the Population of China , Population and Development, Vol. 10, No. 2, 1984.
  • Becker, Jasper (1998). Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine. Get paperbacks. ISBN 0-8050-5668-8
  • Cao Shuji, The Deaths of China's Population and Its Contributing Factors during 1959–1961 . China's Population Science (Jan. 2005) (In Chinese).
  • China Statistical Yearbook (1984), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1984. Pages 83, 141, 190.
  • China Statistical Yearbook (1991), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Publishing House, 1991.
  • China Population Statistical Yearbook (1985), edited by State Statistical Bureau. China Statistical Bureau Publishing House, 1985.
  • Coale, Ansley J. , Rapid Population Change in China, 1952–1982 , National Academy Press, Washington, DC, 1984.
  • Dikötter, Frank . Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62 . Walker & Company, 2010. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6 .
  • Gao Mobo (2007). Gao Village: Rural Life in Modern China . University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3192-9 .
  • Gao Mobo (2008). The Battle for China's Past . Pluto Press. ISBN 978-0-7453-2780-8 .
  • Jiang Zhenghua (蒋正华), Method and Result of China Population Dynamic Estimation , Academic Report of Xi'a University, 1986 (3). pp. 46, 84.
  • Li Chengrui (李成瑞): Population Change Caused by The Great Leap Movement, Demographic Study, No.1, 1998 pp. 97-111
  • Li. Minqi (2008). The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy . Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5
  • Peng Xizhe, Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces , Population and Development Review, Vol. 13, No.4. (Dec., 1987), pp. 639-670
  • Thaxton. Ralph A. Jr (2008). Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China: Mao's Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village . Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0-521-72230-6
  • Yang, Dali. Calamity and Reform in China: State, Rural Society and Institutional Change since the Great Leap Famine . Stanford University Press, 1996.
  • Yang Jisheng . Tombstone (Mu Bei - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi). Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), Hong Kong 2008.
  • Yang Jisheng . Tombstone: An Account of Chinese Famine in the 1960s (墓碑 - 中國 六十 年代 大 饑荒 紀實 (Mubei - Zhongguo Liushi Niandai Da Jihuang Jishi)), Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tiandi Tushu), 2008, ISBN 978-988-211 -909-3 (Chinese). By 2010, it was appearing under the title: 墓碑: 一九 五八 - 一九 六 二年 中國 大 饑荒 紀實 (Mubei: Yi Jiu Wu Ba - Yi Jiu Liu Er Nian Zhongguo Da Jihuang Shiji) ( Tombstone: An Account of Chinese Famine From 1958–1962 ).
  • Yang Jisheng . Tombstone: The Untold Story of Mao's Great Famine, Yang Jisheng, Translators: Stacy Mosher, Guo Jian, Publisher: Allen Lane (30 Oct 2012), ISBN 978-1-84614-518-6 (English Translation of the above work)
    • Translated into English and abridged. Yang Jisheng, Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 1958–1962 , Farrar, Straus and Giroux (October 30, 2012), hardcover, 656 pages, ISBN 0-374-27793-1 , ISBN 978-0-374-27793-2
  • Official Chinese statistics, shown as a graph.

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b Mao Zedong: China under Mao: 1949-1966. In: Planet Knowledge . July 29, 2016, accessed July 21, 2020 .
  2. ↑ a b Frank Dikötter: Mao's Great Hunger. In: Federal Center for Political Education . Retrieved July 21, 2020 .
  3. ↑ a b c Vaclav Smil: China's great famine: 40 years later . In: BMJ: British Medical Journal . tape 319 , no. 7225 , December 18, 1999, ISSN  0959-8138 , p. 1619-1621 , PMID 10600969 , PMC 1127087 (free full text).
  4. ↑ a b c XIN MENG, NANCY QIAN, PIERRE YARED: The Institutional Causes of China's Great Famine, 1959–1961. In: Columbia University . Retrieved July 21, 2020 .
  5. ↑ a b Joe Hasell, Max Roser: Famines. In: Our World in Data. Retrieved July 21, 2020 .
  6. ^ A b Frank Dikötter: Mao's Great Famine: Ways of Living, Ways of Dying . In: Dartmouth College .
  7. ↑ a b c d Jonathan Mirsky: Unnatural Disaster (en-US) . In: The New York Times , December 7, 2012. Retrieved April 22, 2020. 
  8. ↑ a b c China's Great Famine: A mission to expose the truth . In: Al Jazeera English . January 11, 2016. Accessed April 22, 2020.
  9. ↑ a b c Zheping Huang: Charted: China's Great Famine, according to Yang Jisheng, a journalist who lived through it ( en ) In: Quartz . March 9, 2016. Accessed April 22, 2020.
  10. ↑ a b c d Felix Wemheuer: SITES OF HORROR: MAO'S GREAT FAMINE [with response] . In: The China Journal . No. 66 , 2011, ISSN  1324-9347 , p. 155-164 , JSTOR : 41262812 .
  11. ↑ Ronald Coase, Ning Wang: China's Capitalism: Way Without a Plan and a Future? Schäffer-Poeschel, 2013, ISBN 978-3-7992-6706-9 ( google.com [accessed July 19, 2020]).
  12. ↑ a b c Sun Zhonghua (孙中华): 刘少奇 “三分 天灾 ， 七分 人祸” 提法 的 由来. In: Renmin Ribao . Retrieved July 22, 2020 (Chinese).
  13. ↑ a b c Sun Zhonghua (孙中华): 刘少奇 "三分 天灾 ， 七分 人祸" 提法 的 由来 (2) ( zh ) Retrieved April 22, 2020.
  14. ↑ a b c d 关于 建国 以来 党 的 若干 历史 问题 的 决议 ( zh ) In: The Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China . Retrieved April 23, 2020.
  15. ↑ a b c d 关于 建国 以来 党 的 若干 历史 问题 的 决议 ( zh ) In: The National Audit Office of the People's Republic of China . Retrieved April 23, 2020.
  16. ↑ Justin Yifu Lin, Dennis Tao Yang: Food Availability, Entitlements and the Chinese Famine of 1959–1961 . In: The Economic Journal . doi : 10.1111 / 1468-0297.00494 .
  17. ↑ Ó Gráda, Famine: A Short History, p.95
  18. ↑ Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces , Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 (1987), 639-70.
    For a summary of other estimates, please refer to Necrometrics
  19. ^ Arifa Akbar: Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years' . In: The Independent , September 17, 2010. Retrieved September 20, 2010. 
  20. ↑ a b Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62. Walker & Company, 2010. p. 333. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6
  21. ↑ Jonathan Mirsky: Unnatural Disaster: 'Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 1958–1962,' by Yang Jisheng . In: The New York Times Sunday Book Review , December 9, 2012, p. BR22. Retrieved December 7, 2012. 
  22. ^ Different Life of Scientist Yuan Longping ( Chinese ) Guangming Daily . May 22, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2012.
  23. ^ Ting Kai Chen: The People's Republic of China , Ernst Klett Verlag, Stuttgart 1977, page 110.
  24. ↑ a b c Translation from A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine. ( Memento of April 27, 2009 in the Internet Archive ), chinaelections.org, July 7, 2008 of content from Yang Jisheng , 墓碑 - 中國 六十 年代 大 饑荒 紀實 (Mu Bei - - Zhong Guo Liu Shi Nian Dai Da Ji Huang Ji Shi) , Hong Kong: Cosmos Books (Tian Di Tu Shu), 2008, ISBN 978-988-211-909-3 (Chinese)
  25. ↑ Patricia Buckley Ebrey: Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook, 2nd Ed . Simon and Schuster, 2009, ISBN 978-1-4391-8839-2 ( google.com [accessed July 20, 2020]).
  26. ↑ a b Zhenkuai Hong: 有关 大 饥荒 的 新 谬 说 （二） . In: Yanhuang Chunqiu .
  27. ↑ Wu Jinglian, Ma Guochuan: Whither China ?: Restarting the Reform Agenda . Oxford University Press, 2016, ISBN 978-0-19-022317-5 ( google.com [accessed July 20, 2020]).
  28. ↑ a b Yang Jishen (杨继 绳): 关于 大 饥荒 年代 人口 损失 的 讨论. In: Yanhuang Chunqiu. Retrieved July 20, 2020 .
  29. ↑ Philip J. Hilts: Chinese Statistics Indicate Killing of Baby Girls Persists (en-US) . In: Washington Post , July 11, 1984. 
  30. ^ A b c Basil Ashton, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, Robin Zeitz: Famine in China, 1958-61 . In: Population and Development Review . tape 10 , no. 4 , doi : 10.2307 / 1973284 , JSTOR : 1973284 .
  31. ^ Judith Banister: China's Changing Population ( en ). Stanford University Press, 1987, ISBN 978-0-8047-1887-5 .
  32. ^ Judith Banister (Director of Global Demographics). Retrieved July 20, 2020 .
  33. ↑ CormacÓ Gráda: Great Leap into Famine: A Review Essay * . In: Population and Development Review . tape 37 , no. 1 , 2011, ISSN  1728-4457 , p. 191-202 , doi : 10.1111 / j.1728-4457.2011.00398.x ( wiley.com [accessed July 20, 2020]).
  34. ↑ Shanghai Jiaotong University Institute of Humanities. Retrieved July 20, 2020 .
  35. ↑ - "I want to remember the 36 million people who starved to death". Retrieved on July 16, 2020 (German).
  36. ↑ "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine." ( Memento of April 27, 2009 in the Internet Archive ), chinaelections.org, July 7, 2008
  37. ↑ Sebastian Veg: Popular Memories of the Mao Era: From Critical Debate to Reassessing History ( en ). Hong Kong University Press, January 10, 2019, ISBN 978-988-8390-76-2 .
  38. ↑ Chris Buckley: Chen Yizi, a Top Adviser Forced to Flee China, Dies at 73 (en-US) . In: The New York Times , April 25, 2014. Retrieved July 18, 2020. 
  39. ↑ Valerie Strauss: HOW MANY DIED? NEW EVIDENCE SUGGESTS FAR HIGHER NUMBERS FOR THE VICTIMS OF MAO ZEDONG'S ERA (en-US) . In: Washington Post , July 17, 1994. Retrieved July 18, 2020. 
  40. ↑ Dillon, Michael. "Collective Responsibility" The Times Literary Supplement January 7 (2011), p. 13.
  41. ↑ Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62. Walker & Company, 2010. p. 298. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6
  42. ^ Issac Stone Fish. Greeting Misery With Violence . Newsweek . September 26, 2010.
  43. ↑ Chen Yixin (陈 意 新): 西方 学术界 的 大跃进 饥荒 研究. In: China in Perspective. Retrieved August 1, 2020 .
  44. ↑ Yu Xigung (余 习 广): 大跃进. In: Boxun (博讯). Retrieved August 1, 2020 .
  45. ↑ Yu Xiguang (余 習 廣): 大躍進 ・ 苦日子 上書 集 . 時代 潮流 出版社, 2005, ISBN 978-988-98549-9-7 ( google.com [accessed August 1, 2020]).
  46. ^ A b Richard Bernstein: Horror of a Hidden Chinese Famine , New York Times . February 5, 1997. 
  47. ↑ a b Jasper Becker: Hungry Ghosts: Mao's Secret Famine . Free Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0-684-83457-3 , p. 352.
  48. ^ Frank Dikötter: 36. Cannibalism . In: Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-62 2010, ISBN 978-0-8027-7768-3 , pp. 320-323.
  49. ↑ Jisheng, Yang Tombstone: The Great Chinese Famine, 1958–1962 . Book review. New York Times . Dec, 2012. March 3, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/09/books/review/tombstone-the-great-chinese-famine-1958-1962-by-yang-jisheng.html
  50. ^ Michael Lynch: The People's Republic of China, 1949-76 , second. Edition, Hodder Education, London 2008, p. 57.
  51. ↑ a b c 1958 年 黄河 大 水灾 纪实. In: dahe.cn. Retrieved July 17, 2020 (Chinese).
  52. ↑ a b c 中国 历史 上 的 水灾 有 哪些? In: China Internet Information Center . Retrieved July 16, 2020 (Chinese).
  53. ↑ 历史 上 的 五次 黄河 水灾. Retrieved July 17, 2020 .
  54. ↑ Dikötter, Frank. Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62. Walker & Company, 2010. p. 333. ISBN 0-8027-7768-6
  55. ^ Henry CK Liu: Part 2: The Great Leap Forward not all bad , Asia Times online. April 1, 2004. 
  56. ^ Tania Branigan: China's Great Famine: the true story (en-GB) . In: The Guardian , January 1, 2013. Retrieved April 22, 2020. 
  57. ↑ Yushi Mao: Lessons from China's Great Famine ( en ) In: Cato Institute . 2014.
  58. ↑ 高 素 华: 1951 ～ 1990 年 全国 降水量 距平 变化 图 ( zh ) In: Yanhuang Chunqiu (炎黄 春秋) . Retrieved April 22, 2020.
  59. ↑ Wen Guanzhong (文 贯 中): 中国 三年 大 饥荒 的 触发 及 加剧 之 原因 —— 论 无 退出 自由 的 公共 食堂 的 谋杀 性 后果. In: Modern China Studies. Retrieved July 17, 2020 .
  60. ↑ Daniel Leese, Mareike Ohlberg, Hans van Ess: history, cultural tradition, ideology. In: Federal Center for Political Education . Retrieved July 16, 2020 .
  61. ↑ a b 七千人大会 ( zh ) In: Renmin Ribao . Retrieved April 23, 2020.
  62. ^ Three Chinese Leaders: Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Deng Xiaoping . In: Columbia University . Retrieved April 22, 2020.
  63. ^ A b Lowell Dittmer: Death and Transfiguration: Liu Shaoqi's Rehabilitation and Contemporary Chinese Politics . In: The Journal of Asian Studies . tape 40 , no. 3 , doi : 10.2307 / 2054551 , JSTOR : 2054551 .
  64. ^ John Knight: Review: Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China ( en ) In: Ohio State University . Retrieved April 22, 2020.
  65. ↑ China's economy overtakes Japan . In: BBC News . February 14, 2011 ( bbc.com [accessed July 16, 2020]).
  66. ^ Sue Williams (director), Howard Sharp (editor), Will Lyman (narrator). (1997). China: A Century of Revolution . WinStar Home Entertainment.
  67. ↑ Famine in China . In: Demeny, Paul; McNicoll, Geoffrey (Ed.): Encyclopedia of Population . 1st edition. Macmillan Reference USA, New York 2003, ISBN 978-0-02-865677-9 , pp. 388-390 .
  68. ↑ Ren Bumei, Reconsideration before a Disaster: Restate the Catastrophism («在 一场 大 灾变 前 的 反思 —— 重申“ 灾变 论 ”»)
  69. ↑ Great Leap into Famine? - Ó Gráda's review of Dikötter book ( Memento from February 21, 2013 in the web archive archive.today )
  70. ↑ The New Left in China - Interview with Minqi Li . 
  71. ^ The Rise of the Working Class and the Future of the Chinese Revolution . 
  72. ^ Li. Minqi: The Rise of China and the Demise of the Capitalist World Economy . Monthly Review Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-58367-182-5 .
  73. ↑ Amartya Kumar Sen: Development as freedom . Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-19-289330-7 (Accessed April 14, 2011).
  74. ↑ Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen: Hunger and public action . Clarendon Press, 1989, p. 215 (accessed January 14, 2013).
  75. ↑ Chomsky, Noam (2000): Rogue States: The Rule of Force in World Affairs , pp. 177-78 , Pluto Press, ISBN 978-0-7453-1708-3 .