History of the People's Republic of China

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The history of the People's Republic of China begins on October 1, 1949, when Mao Zedong proclaimed the founding of the People's Republic of China on the Tiananmen in Beijing . The Chinese Communist Party has been the only ruling party in mainland China from the start . The Communist Party previously defeated the Kuomintang and the Republic of China , which then withdrew to Taiwan and stayed there. Since 1949 there have been five so-called " Outstanding Leaders ": Mao Zedong (1949–1976), Deng Xiaoping (1978–1989), Jiang Zemin (1989–2002), Hu Jintao (2002–2012) and Xi Jinping (2012–). Hua Guofeng was a leader during the transition period (1976–1978). Four constitutions were published in 1954, 1975, 1978 and 1982, respectively.

Party leader Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China

Mao Zedong era 1949-1976

The People's Republic of China was founded 1949–1957

Realignment of the state

Mao Zedong

After the Communist Party's victory over the Kuomintang in the Chinese Civil War , the People's Republic of China was proclaimed on October 1, 1949 . Successes in fighting inflation , rebuilding infrastructure, and degrading agriculture made the communist leadership popular. With the People's Republic, China experienced stability and peace for the first time in the 20th century. The fear of a renewed breakup of China and a consequent struggle against alleged "deviants" and "counter-revolutionaries" remained a constant in Chinese politics.

Initially, the party was dependent on the help of the bourgeoisie. Mao therefore proclaimed long-term cooperation with the bourgeois parties in the spring of 1949 and described this cooperation as a “democratic dictatorship”. In addition to the Communist Party, 8 other parties were admitted to help integrate the various population groups into the new state, and an “alliance of the proletarians, middle peasants, petty bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie” was proclaimed in the People's Republic. Middle peasants were peasants with 15 to 25 ares of land, the national bourgeoisie included the smaller entrepreneurs. However, only the Communist Party had political power, which reserved the right to represent the workers and peasants.

By mid-1950 the most pressing problems were under control. The famine was suppressed and the state administration functioned. The communist leadership was able to start transforming society according to their needs and trying to re-educate the people. In view of the country's economic backwardness, they wanted to create an as yet non-existent “socialist awareness” in the population through appropriate training.

China needed its educated elites, its experts, to help build the country, especially because there were so few. The majority of the population were illiterate. But ideologically the intellectuals and experts were subordinate to the peasants and ordinary workers and clearly disadvantaged by the communist government. Laws to protect women were passed and plural marriage was abolished.

The first years of the People's Republic were overshadowed by the Korean War . It lasted from June 1950 to July 1953, killed one million Chinese soldiers and exacerbated the domestic political climate. The communists viewed the advance of the American army as far as the Chinese border as a threat to the newly founded People's Republic and entered the war in October 1950.

Destruction of the previous social order

With the aim of smashing the old feudalist order and creating a new society, precisely organized mass campaigns were carried out from mid-1950, which were intended to change the consciousness of the masses. Each campaign was carefully controlled by the Communist Party, who specified the implementation of the four elements of a campaign (preparation, mobilization of the environment, implementation and summary of the results), including the duration.

In the land reform campaign, the landowners were expropriated and the land was divided among the landless peasants, the campaign against counter-revolutionaries was directed against the representatives of the old state. Many of the former landowners and representatives of the old state were charged with real or exaggerated crimes and, by the "vote of the masses," sentenced to death and killed.

The first five-year plan

Opening of the railway line to Chengyu

The economic balance from 1949 to 1952 was good. The combined output of industry and agriculture, at 1952 prices, had increased from 46.6 billion yuan to 82.7 billion yuan. The consolidation of the economy after the war was successful and a social system was established.

In the first five-year plan for 1953 to 1957, following the Soviet pattern, the emphasis was on heavy industry, while agriculture had to pay for the development of industry. The plan was successful, also thanks to Soviet help, with an annual growth in national product of 8 to 9%. The Soviet aid, however, had to be paid for in agricultural exports, which led to supply bottlenecks in their own country.

The “buying out” of the national bourgeoisie

When the People's Republic was founded, small business owners were assured of the protection of their property, but harassment began in the early 1950s. In 1954 it was clear to the entrepreneurs that they no longer had a future as entrepreneurs in China, and so they usually accepted the government's offer to sell their company to the state and continue running the company as managing directors.

The Sufan Movement and the Anti-Right Movement

From 1955 to 1957, the Sufan movement persecuted a large number of " counter-revolutionaries " such as the non-communist intellectuals.

In 1957 the population, i.e. H. In particular, the government called on intellectuals to criticize the party and the state in a constructive manner. After the population had waited for a while, a storm of protest, which was not expected by either the party or party critics, swelled. In July, the Hundred Flowers campaign was rigorously ended and in the subsequent right-wing deviator campaign, those who had followed Mao's call for criticism were persecuted as right-wing deviants. Many lost their jobs, but at least they had to endure humiliating interrogations with the compulsion to self-criticism, often combined with the entry "deviating from the law" with the security authorities.

The "big jump" is being prepared

In 1957, the alienation between the Chinese and Russian leaders increased and Mao succeeded in focusing on mass campaigns again in the next five-year plan, which were intended to massively accelerate the development of the economy. The farmers, who made up the vast majority of the population, were supposed to help expand steel production as well as many infrastructure projects. The government reveled in illusions and since the right deviator campaign hardly anyone in the administration dared to criticize. The tragedy of the " great leap forward " began.

Big leap forward 1958 to 1961

The "backyard furnace" for the production of steel .

Great Leap Forward ( Chinese  大躍進  / 大跃进 , Pinyin dà yuè jìn ) was the name for a mass campaign in the People's Republic of China for the period from 1958 to 1961.

The central idea of ​​the Great Leap was to use the peasantry, who made up the vast majority of the population and from whom the government expected “revolutionary” enthusiasm, to build up the country. A policy that Mao has been calling for for years. With the help of this campaign, the three great differences between country and city, head and hand, and industry and agriculture were to be leveled out, and the transition period to socialism was to be significantly shortened.

Economically, through the mobilization of the "masses" an annual growth of 45% in industry and 20% in agriculture was expected, figures which were increased again during the campaign. While the original five-year plan for 1962 had targeted steel production of 12 million tons, this number has now been replaced by 80 to 100 million tons. The grain harvest of 200 million tons in 1958 was to be increased to 525 million tons by 1960.

During the great leap forward there was a great famine from 1959 to 1961. The number of victims is estimated between 15 and 45 million people. While there were severe floods and droughts in China during those years, the main reason for the famine was political. While the agricultural yields fell during the campaign due to the collectivization of agriculture and the additional burden on the farmers due to the work for infrastructure projects, the grain levies expected by the state as a tax were massively increased due to far excessive fantasy figures about real production, and many farmers were left to survive too little left.

In today's official Chinese representation, 30% of the famine was due to weather conditions and 70% to political errors.

The period from 1961 to 1965

Mao Zedong, Peng Zhen , Norodom Sihanouk and Liu Shaoqi (1965).

By early 1961, China had hit rock bottom. The people were starving and industry was badly damaged. Grain production fell from 200 million t (1958) to 160 million t (1962), sugar from 0.9 million t to 0.34 million, cotton from 2.0 million t to 0.8 million t. , Pig iron from 13.7 million t to 8.1 million, cement from 9.3 million t to 6.0 million. Against this background, Liu Shaoqi sat down at the 9th plenary session of the CCP in January 1961 with an emergency program by. The program ran under the slogans "Regulation, Consolidation, Completion and Level Elevation".

Mao Zedong started the " Socialist Education Campaign " in 1963 , which was the forerunner of the Cultural Revolution .

From this original emergency program, Liu Shaoqi's group developed an economic model for building the Chinese economy, which was in sharp contradiction to Mao's approach. The model was successful, but the gap between rich and poor widened again and the winners of the new model faced losers. Two thirds of the workers in the state industry remained in permanent employment, with a job guarantee, health insurance and pension entitlement, while a third of the workers were only employed with temporary contracts and without social security. From 1961 to 1965, the lines of Mao and Liu Shaoqi vied for power, with one and the other getting the upper hand. With the Socialist Education Movement began in 1963, a movement with which Mao more and more prevailed and which ultimately led to the Cultural Revolution.

In 1964, China successfully detonated its first atomic bomb . The first hydrogen bomb and the first artificial satellite were successfully developed in the following years.

Cultural Revolution 1966 to 1976

Middle school students in Beijing during the Cultural Revolution.

The Chinese Cultural Revolution ( Chinese  無產階級文化大革命  /  无产阶级文化大革命 , Pinyin wúchǎnjiējí Wenhua dàgémìng  - "Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution", or short 文革 Wenge ) was a political campaign interlocutory 1966 and 1976 , by Mao Zedong has been triggered. Initially, the Cultural Revolution was welcomed as a movement to eradicate grievances in the state and society by large sections of the population and the majority of political leaders. However, instead of the renewal within the CCP desired by politicians like Liu Shaoqi, Mao started a mass movement to destroy the old CCP. Most of the old cadres have been removed from office. Only 28% of the Politburo and 34% of the Central Committee members and 29% of the provincial secretaries were able to hold onto their positions until the end of 1966.

The Cultural Revolution consisted of a series of mass campaigns that followed each other and in some cases contradicted each other. Originally the Cultural Revolution was supposed to last only six months, then it was extended over and over again for 10 years until Mao's death. At the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, Mao was still able to inspire significant parts of the population for the Cultural Revolution, but in recent years the mass movements that were ordered had degenerated into listlessly held mandatory rituals.

The Cultural Revolution is often divided into three phases: the Red Guard period (May 1966 to 1968), the Lin Biao period (1968 to August 1971), and the Zhou Enlai period (August 1971 to October 1976).

In contrast to the Great Leap Forward campaign with over 20 million deaths, the economy and agriculture were largely excluded from the Cultural Revolution. One had learned that production had to continue as undisturbed as possible. The campaigns focused on politics, culture, public opinion, schools and universities. The universities ceased their work at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution and normal university operations, with entrance and final exams and qualified certificates, were only reintroduced in 1978.

There was also this division of labor between the cultural revolution and production among the leading politicians. Politicians like Jiang Qing and Lin Biao were responsible for the Cultural Revolution, under Mao's direction, and for the economy, which Mao understood little about and left to others, politicians like Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping were responsible.

Foreign relations

Mao Zedong and Richard Nixon

Foreign policy at that time was characterized by isolation, especially the Sino-Soviet rift . In the United Nations after 1945, the Republic of China was represented in Taiwan as the successor to the Chinese Republic. Since 1960 there have been attempts by various states of the Eastern Bloc, including Albania , to revoke Taiwan 's status as the only legitimate Chinese state and instead to recognize the People's Republic and admit it as a member of the UN . However, this was not successful until October 25, 1971 ( UN resolution 2758 ). With the addition of many newly founded African states, the weight in the General Assembly had been shifted in favor of Beijing.

The United States discovered a potential ally against Moscow in isolated China. The rapprochement with the United States was in complete contrast to China's declared goal of making the world communist through a "constant cultural revolution". In addition, the United States was the protector of the archenemy Taiwan . The rift with Moscow weighed heavily enough, however, to take the step and establish contacts with the USA. In 1972 US President Richard Nixon traveled to China with the American table tennis team , hence the name ping-pong diplomacy . China established formal diplomatic relations with Germany in 1972 .

Disasters

time Disasters place Number of deaths details
1950 Assam earthquake in 1950 Tibet 4000 Around 4,000 people died in Tibet and over 1,000 in India .
1954 Yangtze River floods Yangtze River 33,000
1959-1961 Great Chinese famine Nationwide 15-55 million Mainly caused by the great leap forward .
1966 Xingtai earthquake Hebei 8064 Magnitude 6.8 M w .
1970 Earthquake in Tonghai Yunnan Over 10,000 Magnitude 7.1 M w .
1975 Haicheng earthquake Liaoning 1328 Magnitude 7.5 M s . The earthquake was predicted.
1975 The collapse of the Banqiao Dam Henan 85,600-240,000 62 dams including Banqiao Dam collapsed.
1976 Tangshan quake Hebei 242,769 Magnitude 7.6 M w .

Controversy

During the Mao era, tens of millions of people died during various political movements, as well as during the great famine in China, while tens of millions of other people were persecuted and permanently crippled.

Mao and the Chinese Communist Party (CPC) also exported the ideology of socialism and socialist revolution to other parts of the world, particularly to Southeast Asia . Influenced and supported by Mao and the CPC, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge carried out the Cambodian genocide that killed 1.5 to 2 million people in just three years.

Transition and the Deng Xiaoping Era 1976–1989

To invalidate the Cultural Revolution

Deng Xiaoping

Mao Zedong died in September 1976. The Gang of Four were arrested in October 1976, ending the Cultural Revolution . His successor was Hua Guofeng , who was still installed by Mao himself . Hua mainly continued Maoist politics. Hua Guofeng imposed the “two everything” (两个 凡是): all decisions of Mao are to be adhered to and all of his instructions are to be carried out.

In 1977 Deng Xiaoping, who had been disempowered by Mao, got his office back and soon became China's most important politician. In 1977 Deng Xiaoping proposed the " Boluan Fanzheng " for the first time to correct the mistakes of the Cultural Revolution. In December 1978, Deng became China's new supreme leader. Deng's allies like Hu Yaobang and Zhao Ziyang also received promotions.

In June 1981, the CCP unanimously passed a resolution elaborated by Deng and others (关于 建国 以来 党 的 若干 历史 问题 的 决议), extensively invalidating the Cultural Revolution. According to the resolution, it was "a domestic chaos falsely initiated by the leader ( Mao Zedong ) and exploited by counter-revolutionary gangs ( Lin Biao and the Gang of Four )." It also stated that the Cultural Revolution was "for responsible for the worst setback and losses that the Party, the country and the people have suffered since the founding of the People's Republic of China. "

Public security deteriorated after the Cultural Revolution, and in response, Deng Xiaoping and others launched the "Strike Hard" anti-crime campaign in 1983 .

Economic reforms and opening up

Shenzhen Civic Center . Shenzhen is one of the first special economic zones in China and is called China's Silicon Valley .

With the reform and opening policy since 1978, the country was on the way to a socialist market economy , wealth was now considered chic. Lee Kuan Yew's successes in creating an economic superpower in Singapore had a profound impact on communist leadership in China. Over the years, more than 22,000 Chinese officials have been sent to Singapore to investigate his methods.

In 1979 Deng emphasized the goal of the " four modernizations ". Four special economic zones ( Shenzhen , Zhuhai , Xiamen , Shantou ) were set up on the coast on an experimental basis in order to experiment in narrowly limited spaces. The people's communes were dissolved and farmers were allowed to work on their own account. In May 1984, fourteen coastal cities in China, including Shanghai , Guangzhou, and Tianjin , were designated "Open Coastal Cities (沿海 开放 城市)". Since then, China's economy has been one of the fastest growing in the world. The downside is increased environmental degradation, a growing gap between rich and poor, as there are (sometimes large) differences in the distribution of wealth, there is still a lack of rights for the working population and rampant corruption within the new generation in the CP and the military. Female embryos were often aborted during the one-child policy .

In December 1981, Deng Xiaoping approved the construction of the Beijing Electron-Positron Collider , the first high-energy particle collider in China, and held several meetings with Nobel Prize winner Tsung-Dao Lee , who supported the project. In 1985 the Great Wall Station , the first Chinese research station in Antarctica, was established. In 1986, Deng approved the proposal of four leading Chinese scientists and started " Program 863 ". In the same year, the nine-year compulsory education law was introduced. In the 1980s, the Qinshan Nuclear Power Plant in Zhejiang and the Daya Bay Nuclear Power Plant in Shenzhen were built. It became the first nuclear power plant in China and received long-term support from Deng. Deng also approved the appointment of foreigners to work in China, including the renowned Sino-American mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern .

Political reforms

Zhao Ziyang , a leading reformist, has been hired by Deng to lead political reforms since 1986. However, after the Tiananmen massacre in 1989, he was forced to resign as general secretary of the CPC . Most of the planned political reforms (after 1986) ended drastically.

Deng Xiaoping initiated the political reforms in China in the early 1980s. On August 18, 1980, Deng Xiaoping gave a speech entitled "On Reforming the Party and State Governance System (党 和 国家 领导 制度 改革)" at an expanded meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee in Beijing. He called for the end of the bureaucracy, the centralization of power and the patriarchy, proposed term limits for leading positions in China and advocated “ democratic centralism ” and “collective leadership”. Deng also proposed a systematic revision of the Chinese Constitution (the 1978 Constitution) to the National People's Congress, stressing that the Constitution must protect the civil rights of Chinese citizens and reflect the principle of separation of powers . Deng advocated the "one person, one vote" principle among leaders in order to avoid the dictatorship of the general secretary of the CPC . In December 1982, the fourth constitution of China, known as the " 1982 Constitution, " was passed by the 5th National People's Congress, which embodies constitutionalism based on the Chinese model, with most of its content in effect to this day.

In the first half of 1986, Deng repeatedly called for the revival of political reforms as further economic reforms were hampered by the original political system, while the country saw a growing trend towards corruption and economic inequality. In September 1986, a five-person research unit for China's political reforms was established. Members included Zhao Ziyang , Hu Qili , Tian Jiyun , Bo Yibo, and Peng Chong . Deng's intention of political reforms was to improve administrative efficiency, further separate the competences between the Communist Party and the government, and eliminate the bureaucracy. Although he also mentioned " rule of law " and " democracy ", Deng delimited the reforms within the one-party system and rejected the implementation of constitutionalism based on the "Western" model. In October 1987, Zhao Ziyang gave an important talk by Bao Tong on political reforms at the 13th National Congress of the CPC, chaired by Deng . In his speech titled “Progress on the Path of Socialism with Chinese Features (沿着 有 中国 特色 的 社会主义 道路 前进)”, Zhao argued that socialism in China is still in the primary phase. Using Deng's speech as a guideline in 1980, Zhao outlined a number of steps that should be taken for political reform, including promoting the rule of law and separation of powers, imposing decentralization, and improving the electoral system. At this congress, Zhao was elected as the new general secretary of the CPC.

However, after the Tian'anmen massacre of 1989, many leading reformists, including Zhao and Bao, were removed from their positions and the majority of planned political reforms (after 1986) ended drastically. Left conservatives, led by Chen Yun , President Li Xiannian and Premier Li Peng , took control until Deng Xiaoping's southern tour in early 1992. On the other hand, many of the political reforms (such as the new constitution, term limits for senior officials, and "democratic centralism") remained. , which Deng initiated in the early 1980s, took effect after 1989, although some of them were reversed by Xi Jinping after 2012 .

Political turmoil

The change in concepts and the economic upswing also caused many discussions within China about the right path. However, the democratization movement ended abruptly when demonstrating students were violently and bloody evicted from Tiananmen Square (Tian'anmen Square) by the People's Liberation Army in 1989 ( Tian'anmen massacre ). The broadcast of the event on international television brought China negative attention worldwide.

Military modernization

In early 1979, China began a month-long war with Vietnam . In addition, China supported the Khmer Rouge during Deng Xiaoping's time along with the United States , Thailand, and several other countries to counter the regional influence of the Soviet Union .

In March 1981, Deng Xiaoping determined that a maneuver was required for the People's Liberation Army (PLA), and in September the North China Military Exercise (华北 大 演习 / 華北 大 演習), the PLA's largest exercise since the establishment of the PLA, took place People's Republic became. 114,000 PLA ​​soldiers took part in the maneuver, in addition to 1,327 tanks and armored vehicles, 1,541 cannons, 475 aircraft and 10,606 army trucks.

To modernize the PLA and save money, Deng cut 1 million soldiers from the army in 1985 (百万 大 裁军 / 百萬 大 裁軍) and ordered further modernization.

Foreign relations

Deng Xiaoping and Jimmy Carter (1979).

During this phase, relations with the West were further improved, and the People's Republic of China was recognized internationally instead of the Republic of China . In 1979, China officially established diplomatic relations with the United States . In January 1979, Deng Xiaoping visited the United States in what was the first official visit to the United States by a leading Chinese leader. In the same year, the Chinese Olympic Committee for the PRC was recognized by the International Olympic Committee . In 1984 pistol shooter Xu Haifeng won the first Olympic gold medal for China during the 1984 Summer Olympic Games in Los Angeles .

In 1984 the " Sino-British Joint Declaration " was signed by China and the United Kingdom . The declaration stated that the sovereignty and administrative management of Hong Kong would be returned to China on July 1, 1997 under the One Country, Two Systems program . In 1987 the " Joint Declaration on the Macau Question " was signed by China and Portugal . The declaration stated that Macau's sovereignty and administrative management would be returned to China on December 20, 1999 under the One Country, Two Systems program.

In 1989, relations between China and the Soviet Union normalized for the first time since the Sino-Soviet rift in the 1950s. Mikhail Gorbachev , then general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , visited Beijing and met with Deng Xiaoping during the Sino-Soviet summit, which took place amid the protests in Tiananmen Square . After the bloody suppression of these protests with the Tian'anmen massacre in 1989, China was severely condemned and sanctioned by many countries, especially from the West . In response, Deng developed a new set of diplomatic strategies for China, summarized as "Hide your strength, wait for your time".

Disasters

time Disasters place Number of deaths details
1982 Flight 3303 accident Guangxi 112 CAAC Airlines plane crash
1987 "Black Dragon" fire Great Hinggan Mountains Over 200 The fire also spread to the Soviet Union . It was one of the biggest forest fires in history.
1988 Flight 4146 accident Chongqing 108 China Southwest Airlines plane crash .

Controversy

After the Cultural Revolution, Deng insisted on praising Mao for doing "7 good and 3 bad" for the Chinese people, while attributing numerous disasters in the Cultural Revolution to Lin Biao and the Gang of Four. In addition, he declared and imposed the "Four Cardinal Principles" as the basic principles of the Constitution of China (1982) in order to maintain the one-party state in China for the Communist Party.

Deng Xiaoping's role in cracking down on the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989 is rather controversial. In fact, in the early 1980s, he also crushed the “ Wall of Democracy ” movement and the “ Beijing Spring ”.

Jiang Zemin and the Third Generation 1989–2002

Change of power and Deng Xiaoping's south tour

Jiang Zemin

The end of the democracy movement initially strengthened the party cadres who were against any reforms, but Deng Xiaoping succeeded in ensuring the continuation of economic renewal in the sense of a “socialist market economy”, particularly through his trip to the south in 1992. Deng's South Tour saved the capital market in China, particularly the newly established Shanghai Stock Exchange and the Shenzhen Stock Exchange .

After his death in 1997, a younger generation of management (the “ third generation ”) took on the task of balancing the market economy with the communist form of government. First and foremost was Jiang Zemin , who had been elected General Secretary of the CCP Central Committee in 1989 (under the protection of Deng Xiaoping). Li Peng was the prime minister of China until 1997 when reformist Zhu Rongji succeeded as prime minister.

Internal affairs

Construction of the Three Gorges Dam began in 1994. In addition, projects such as the “ China's Go-West Strategy ” and the “ Qinghai-Tibet Railway Line ” were carried out. The average economic growth was 8% per year. During the Asian financial crisis , Prime Minister Zhu Rongji 's economic policies kept China's economy strong. However, a serious corruption problem persisted.

In the 1990s, Project 211 and Project 985 were launched for higher education in China. In 2002, the Chinese national soccer team, under the leadership of head coach Bora Milutinović, took part in the finals of the soccer World Cup for the first time in history . His idea of triple representation became a state doctrine in 2002.

Foreign relations

In November 1991, China joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . On July 1, 1997, the previously British Hong Kong became the Chinese Special Administrative Region . Macau , which had been Portuguese until then, followed on December 20, 1999 as the second such zone.

The " Third Taiwan Strait Crisis " in the mid-1990s and the " Bombing of the Chinese Embassy in Belgrade " in 1999 negatively affected relations between China and the United States.

In 2001 the PR China joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) to promote foreign trade . In 2001, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization was established. In August 2002, thanks to the efforts of the renowned mathematician Shiing-Shen Chern, the International Congress of Mathematicians was held in Beijing - the first time in a developing country , with Chern as honorary president of the congress and Wu Wenjun as president.

Disasters

time Disasters place Number of deaths details
1990 Flight 8301 accident Guangdong 128 The hijacking of an airplane resulted in serious collisions on the airport runway.
1992 Flight 7552 accident Jiangsu 106-109 China General Aviation plane crash.
1992 Flight 3943 accident Guangxi 141 China Southern Airlines plane crash .
1994 Flight 2303 accident Shaanxi 160 China Northern Airlines plane crash.
1994 Typhoon "Fred" Zhejiang 1426
1996 Typhoon "Herb" Fuijan 779
1997 Asian financial crisis Asia
1998 Yangtze River floods in 1998 Yangtze River 3000-4150 The worst flood in northern China in 40 years.
2002 Flight 6136 accident Liaoning 112 China Northern Airlines plane crash.

Controversy

The persecution of Falun Gong has been rather controversial.

Jiang Zemin, who officially retired as China's top leader in 2002, is believed to have moved behind the scenes and is still in control of the country. The Jiang faction, which included Zhou Yongkang , Guo Boxiong, and Xu Caihou , continued to have a significant impact on China after Hu Jintao succeeded as China's supreme leader.

Hu Jintao and the fourth generation 2002–2012

Hu Jintao

Change of power

The most important representative of the " fourth generation " was Hu Jintao , who became General Secretary of the CCP in 2002 and, as Chairman of the Central Military Commission and President of the State, held the central leadership positions as Supreme Leader until 2012 . Wen Jiabao was the prime minister.

Internal affairs

The new management elite of the third and even more fourth generation are mainly technicians and engineers who did not experience the Revolutionary and / or Cultural Revolution themselves and who usually approach the problems more pragmatically and less ideologically. And Prime Minister Wen Jiabao , representing the fourth generation, gave a speech at the People's Congress in 2004, which, in response to the new social tensions in the country, should usher in a turnaround.

At the end of 2002, the construction of the " South-North water transfer project " began. In 2003, China successfully sent an astronaut, Yang Liwei , into space via " Shenzhou 5 ". This made China the third country in the world after the USA and the Soviet Union to do this independently.

On October 1, 2009, China celebrated the 60th anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic with a major military parade on Tiananmen Square. In 2010, China overtook Japan as the second largest economic power behind the United States. In 2010, Jiaolong , the Chinese manned deep sea research company submersible , was deployed. In the years 2011–12, “ BeiDou-2 ”, the Chinese satellite navigation system , was put into operation. In 2011 " Tiangong 1 ", the first prototype of a space station in China, was successfully launched. In March 2012, the results of the Daya Bay experiment in Shenzhen attracted international attention. In October 2012, Mo Yan became the first Chinese (Mainland) citizen to win the Nobel Prize in Literature .

Foreign relations

The 2008 Summer Olympics took place in Beijing .

In 2010 the world exhibition took place in Shanghai . In 2010 the Asian Games were held in Guangzhou , and in 2011 the Summer Universiade was held in Shenzhen .

Disasters

time Disasters place Number of deaths details
2003 SARS pandemic Nationwide 349 ( mainland China ) SARS killed 774 people worldwide, including 349 in mainland China and 299 in Hong Kong .
2007-2008 World financial crisis Global
2008 Zibo railway accident Shandong 72 416 injuries.
2008 Sichuan earthquake Sichuan 69,227 Magnitude 8.0 M s .
2010 Yushu earthquake Qinghai 2698

Controversy

Despite the economic progress, the government was unwilling to tolerate criticism of the political system. Several prominent dissidents such as the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize laureate Liu Xiaobo or the artist Ai Weiwei were arrested or had to accept restrictions on their freedoms.

Xi Jinping and the "fifth generation" since 2012

Change of power

Xi Jinping

With the election of Xi Jinping as General Secretary in 2012 and as President of the Republic in 2013, the “ fifth generation ” took over the lead. Li Keqiang became Prime Minister of China in March 2013.

Internal affairs

It has launched an "anti-corruption campaign". The most prominent party officials affected are ex-rail minister Liu Zhijun, who was sentenced to death (on probation). and Bo Xilai , Minister of Commerce from 2004 to 2007 and then party leader of the subordinate government of Chongqing City. He was "convicted of bribery, embezzlement and abuse of office to life in prison." ( Trial of Bo Xilai ) but were most goals political rivals of " Jiang Zemin faction", including Zhou Yongkang , Guo Boxiong and Xu Caihou . In March 2018, the Communist Party-controlled National People's Congress passed a number of constitutional amendments, including lifting the term limits for the president and vice-president.

The population of the People's Republic of China is still divided into two barely compatible blocks: “below” around 900 million farmers, agricultural workers and migrant workers who have emerged from them live in poverty, partly cut off from electricity and modern water supply, “above” an increasingly broader one Middle class and growing upper class in economic growth. While even today not all rural residents (especially girls) can or are allowed to attend school, the middle class children are driven to top performance by a strict parental educational regime. An unsolved problem is the social question of the rural population: apart from the vague, increasingly dissolving “generation insurance”, there is no statutory protection for old age, and the emigration of active young people increases the plight of those left behind. In addition, the rural residents often complain about the arbitrariness of the local "cadres" who invent illegal taxes to enrich themselves. Since December 2013, couples have been allowed to have a second child after the birth of a girl.

On the other hand, the “ Yutu ” rover was successfully used on the moon in 2013 after the “ Chang'e 3 ” landed on the moon. In 2015, Tu Youyou became the first Chinese (Mainland) citizen to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . In December 2015, " Dark Matter Particle Explorer ", China's first space observatory, was successfully launched. The " Tiangong 2 " was successfully launched in 2016, and in the same year the "Spherical Telescope with a length of 500 meters ( FAST )" was built in Guizhou . In 2018, the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge , the longest sea bridge in the world, was open to the public.

Foreign relations

As Xi Jinping continued to consolidate power domestically, he gradually gave up the diplomatic principles set by Deng Xiaoping ("Hide your strength, wait for your time") and appeared more as a so-called "strong man" on the global stage.

In 2013, Xi Jinping's administration started the “ One Belt, One Road ” project or the New Silk Road. The program received widespread attention worldwide, including criticism and recognition.

In 2014, the 22nd annual meeting of APEC leaders took place in Beijing . In 2015, the “Ma Xi meeting” ( Ma Ying-jeou and Xi Jinping) took place in Singapore , the first meeting of the political leaders of both sides of the Taiwan Strait since the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1950. In 2016 the G20 summit took place in Hangzhou . In 2017 the BRICS summit took place in Xiamen .

The trade war broke out between the US and China since 2018 . In addition, China has gotten into territorial disputes with many countries in the South China Sea . In 2020, China and India got into territorial disputes in which dozens of soldiers were killed for both sides.

Disasters

time Disasters place Number of deaths details
2013 Sichuan earthquake Sichuan Over 200 Magnitude 7.0 M s .
2014 Kunshan blast disaster Jiangsu 146 114 injuries.
2014 Earthquake in Ludian Yunnan About 617 Magnitude 6.5 M L .
2015 Downfall of Dong Fang Zhi Xing Hubei 442
2015 Tianjin blast disaster Tianjin 173 798 injuries.
2019-2020 COVID-19 pandemic Global

Controversy

Since 2012, Xi has reversed several guidelines from Deng Xiaoping's " Boluan Fanzheng " period and promoted his personality cult such as Mao Zedong. For example, in 2018, Xi removed the term limit in the Chinese constitution for the Chinese president , which challenged some of Deng's political legacies and raised concerns about a new cultural revolution.

After Xi came to power, the Communist Party and the Chinese government significantly tightened their Internet censorship and control over the Chinese Internet environment, using the Great Firewall to block access to many foreign websites and mobile apps . At the same time, a large number of members of the " 50 Cent Party " were recruited to "lead" online narratives around the globe for the benefit of the party and the government. The mass surveillance in China together with the totalitarian “ social credit system ” caused great controversy.

The mass protests in Hong Kong attracted worldwide attention and concern. The "National Security Law for Hong Kong" negotiated by the People's Congress in Beijing de facto undermined the autonomy of the Special Administrative Region .

The re-education camps in Xinjiang and the mass imprisonment of millions of members of the Uighur minority have been criticized by many countries, especially western countries. However, the government continued to enact "national security" laws in 2017 that posed a grave threat to human rights. Repressions against religious activities outside “government-approved” communities are increasing.

In 2019-2020, China's handling of the novel coronavirus ( COVID-19 ) outbreak and its relationship with the World Health Organization (WHO) was rather controversial under Xi .

See also

Individual evidence

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