Day nursery

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Day nurseries are day care facilities or groups and childcare facilities that are complementary to families for small children and infants from around six months of age. The word “crib” is also used as a short form.

history

The day nursery , Albert Anker (1890)

The first crèche in Europe was initiated by the lawyer Firmin Marbeau and opened on November 14, 1844. Seven years later, 400 day nurseries are said to have opened in France. In 1849 a day nursery was founded in Vienna by the doctor Carl Helm . Further cribs followed in Vienna, then in 1851 in Dresden and Hamburg, 1853 in Frankfurt am Main, 1855 in Munich and 1857 in Nuremberg. In Germany at this time, numerous associations for the establishment of “small children's homes” were established.

At that time, the majority of the population saw day nurseries as a stopgap solution, which should enable the mother to work and protect the child from care in a foster family or an infant and children's home that was viewed as less good . At that time there were hardly any educational reasons for having a child cared for in a day nursery. This was in contrast to the developing kindergarten pedagogy . A reduction in infant mortality and the incidence of illnesses was considered crucial for a day nursery . Up until the time of the Weimar Republic , day nurseries were primarily considered to provide care for infants whose mothers were destitute or unable to raise their children. After the Second World War , day nurseries remained a marginal phenomenon in West Germany, while a large proportion of children in the GDR attended a day nursery.

Care in day nurseries

Everyday life in the day nursery

Bundesarchiv Bild 183-Z0515-029, Kaltensundheim, eating crèche children

Attention and attention from the caregivers are particularly important in the day nursery. Small children and toddlers receive age-appropriate meals in modern day nurseries, they take part in games and educational activities for early learning, depending on the weather conditions, and sleep at times that are adapted to their own age-dependent needs. Very young children can generally be breast-fed in the crèche by their mother or drink expressed breast milk or breast milk substitutes made from powder.

Acclimatization

Toddler education places special emphasis on gradually getting used to the day nursery. This also has a positive effect many months later, for example on the behavior and social interactions of the children and on the way mothers deal with the carers. The settling-in time depends very much on the age of the child, as the child goes through different development phases and reacts differently to unknown situations. According to studies, acclimatization after the phase of strangling , especially after about twelve months of life, takes more time and is often more difficult than acclimatization, which takes place either much earlier or much later (from about the 18th or 24th month of life).

As a rule, familiarization takes place gradually and is designed to adapt to the child's reactions in order to enable the child to develop a relationship with a caregiver . In the first few months, the child develops a relationship with those people who deal with the child regularly and constantly. From the sixth or seventh month onwards, this relationship can be clearly recognized by the fact that its exploratory behavior is directed towards the people with whom a bond has been established. The period of getting used to the crèche is very important for the relationship between child and caregiver.

quality control

In the past, the quality of many crèches in Germany was criticized. For example, the psychologist and consultant of the BMFSFJ Wassilios Fthenakis said in 2007: "There are individual places in Germany where the daycare centers are good, but so far they have been lucky." The establishment of a high-quality day-care center system in (West) Germany has so far been "criminally neglected “Been. Good crèches could be an enrichment for children: “But you can enrich your child's upbringing if they go to a high quality facility. When a child is alone with its mother, it receives only a third of the resources necessary for its development. The second third is the relationship with the father and the third is the quality of the partnership and social relationships with others, for example in daycare or relatives. "

The care key (in the sense of the number of carers per child), which is of great importance under the aspect of quality, is handled very differently in the federal states with regard to minimum standards and funded standards.

One aspect of high quality in external care may be a care ratio of 1: 2 for children between 0 and 12 months, 1: 3 for children between 12 and 24 months, and finally 1: 4 for children between 24 and 36 months. The Society for Mental Health in Early Childhood ( German-speaking Association for Infant Mental Health GAIMH) recommends mixed-age groups of six to eight children with a care ratio that is "closer to 1: 2 than to 1 : 3 “should be. In a position paper from 2011 relating to Germany, Austria and Switzerland, the GAIMH warned that the attachment and relationship needs of toddlers under the age of three were "often completely insufficiently taken into account" and called for childcare with constant groups of children and a good childcare key as well as one based on the activity Specialized training and supervision of caregivers in early childhood . The differentiation according to the types of care, however, shows in the NUBBEK study ( see below ) that children in mixed-age small groups experience a lower quality of care than when they are cared for in small groups of homogeneous age. The quality of the crib was measured in a standardized manner and was only 20% good or very good. 60% was satisfactory. Another 20% was unsatisfactory without the managers, agencies or municipalities (presumably) knowing about this unsatisfactory quality. The NUBBEK researchers conclude that it is urgent to set up quality monitoring.

The education and science union warned in 2007 that around 100,000 new educators would be needed for the planned expansion of daycare places in Germany and that appropriately trained educators could be lacking if their working conditions and pay were not improved. The wages in this occupational group had deteriorated even further with the changeover to the new collective bargaining system .

In January 2014, the attachment researcher and child and youth psychiatrist Karl Heinz Brisch pointed out to Brisch the urgent need to improve the quality of care in view of the expansion of day-care centers in Germany; In particular, the care key in day nurseries must be significantly improved, the training must be specifically geared towards the smallest children, the educators must be supported by good working conditions and supervision and a decent salary, and attachment-oriented familiarization must take place so that the children do not lack emotional contact. Under suitable conditions, a six-month-old child could develop a secure bond with a caregiver in the daycare center. Regarding funding, he notes that such an investment in early education prevents behavioral problems in the long term.

In July 2014, the Bertelsmann Foundation criticized the fact that there was often only a childcare ratio of 1 to 6 in day care centers, especially in East German day care centers. She estimated the need for additional educators to ensure high quality standards at 120,000 and demanded a nationwide statutory regulation for child-friendly quality standards in day-care centers.

Effect of early childhood daycare

NICHD studies (USA 2003 and 2007)

According to the 2003 study by the US National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), high quality child care has a positive effect on cognitive development, language development and preschool skills. Problem behavior was observed for children who were in the crèche for more than 30 hours a week, but this is also related to the socio-economic status of the family and the sensitivity of the mother and this is compensated by very high quality . Attending a high-quality daycare center or crèche is particularly beneficial.

A NICHD study from 2007 came to the conclusion that children who regularly attended childcare facilities (daycare centers up to the age of five) for more than two years had "a little more behavior problems in kindergarten in the course of the sixth year than others" . To the surprise of the researchers, these problems do not depend solely on the quality of the institution, but according to the researchers they are still in the “normal range” of child behavior. The study itself does not provide any information about the causes, but one of the co-authors, Margaret Burchinal, points to possible reasons such as the increased academization of early childhood education, which limits leisure time and overwhelms the children's ability to concentrate, or poor pay and frequent changes the educator. According to the study, those children who were raised at home had the least number of behavioral problems on average, regardless of whether this was caused by their own parents or e.g. by their parents. B. happened by child minders or nannies . The greatest influence on the development of the child, however, regardless of the care situation (i.e. also regardless of the duration of possible external care), the parenting (Die Welt) and the parent-child relationship (Burchinal): "the extent to which Parents have fun being with their children in which parents are attentive and sensitive to children, talk to them and give them ideas ”.

While Rainer Böhm, child neurologist, rates the NICHD study as the “gold standard” of scientific studies on the subject of early care, Susanne Viernickel , professor of pedagogy in early childhood, explains why the transferability of the NICHD studies to Germany is very problematic. “In the USA ... anyone who does not succeed as a hairdresser can open a childcare center. In addition, certain aspects find their way into the discussion and into pedagogical practice in this country, such as B. a gentle acclimatization of children who are very rare or completely unknown in the USA. We are starting here on a different educational level ”.

Study on behalf of the Bertelsmann Foundation

In 2008 the results of a study by the Swiss research institute BASS on behalf of the Bertelsmann Foundation were published.

“The targeted expansion of early childhood education and care offers not only significantly increases the likelihood of children in Germany that they will later attend grammar school. Due to the expected higher lifetime income, it also leads to a significantly greater economic benefit. This is especially true for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. This includes children with a migration background or a low education of their parents. "

A child’s daycare visit thus triggers economic benefits that are almost three times higher than the costs incurred for visiting the daycare of around 8,000 euros for an average length of stay of 1.36 years.

Criticism of the Bertelsmann study

The study did not differentiate according to the age of the children when they entered the crèche or the number of hours they attended; According to an article in Die Zeit, no statements were made about the causes, and little was said about the quality of daycare or the early childhood educational opportunities. Other influencing factors that could play a role, such as city / country origins of the children or country-specific schooling traditions, were also not taken into account. According to critics, the correlation between daycare and high school attendance does not in any way indicate a cause-and-effect relationship due to the factors that have not been taken into account . It is also pointed out that day care centers are far more frequent in the new federal states than in the old ones, but the Pisa results as an indicator of the level of education (reading, mathematics, natural sciences) are by no means better. When it comes to social skills, the students from the new federal states fared significantly worse than those from the old ones. The collection of official data on daycare visits by children with a migrant background is not suitable for comparing the care rates of children with and without a migrant background due to methodological weaknesses.

Overall developmental psychological development and protective factors

Mental deprivation

Zdeněk Matějček used his own comparative studies and studies from the then Eastern Bloc as well as international results of deprivation research to describe the causes of mental and emotional deficiency in children in various life situations (homes, day nurseries, day nurseries, families) as well as related protective factors . He differentiated the risk potential for psychological deprivation according to the following three dimensions: according to the extent to which individual institutions supplement the upbringing of the family (day care centers, day-care centers, all-day schools) or replace them (homes, day care centers), according to the age range (infants, toddlers, kindergarten and school children) and according to the educational concept and the personality factors of the educators (large groups, small groups, child minders).

While the influence of the family is minimal in the case of complete collective care (homes, week-end facilities), the role of the family was recognized as particularly important in the case of partial community upbringing (day-care facilities). Depending on the parents' attitude and personality towards the child, the crèches can become a “home” or a place of fruitful educational cooperation with a developmental stimulus. Complicating factors that appear on the parents' side as a reaction to the separation from the child, for example, were exaggerated fear, feelings of guilt, compensation for the separation through unconditional indulgence and an urge to constantly secure the child's love. The partial community upbringing (day nursery) can exert a positive influence where the upbringing in the family is neglected or is emotionally unbalanced. The daily contact of the parents with the specialist staff of a day nursery is of importance for the people's education, whereby targeted advice outside the day nurseries was seen as more effective and lasting. Comparisons of crèche children with children who only lived in the family sometimes showed insufficient emotional stimulation and a certain delay in maturity in social and emotional terms on the part of the crèche children, which mainly depended on the personality and emotional situation of the educator.

Frequency of illness and overall developmental psychological development

A number of independent pediatricians in the GDR viewed the external care of infants and small children critically in the 1950s. Even the research work of Eva Schmidt-Kolmer, Gerda Niebsch or Christa v. Bothmer (married Grosch) show the most favorable developments for family-bound babies and toddlers. The results of the investigation were able to prove the best levels of development for family-bound children with regard to morbidity , physical and psychological development and adaptation disorders when changing milieu. With the increasing degree of institutional care, the developmental deficits and disorders of the children increased. Pediatricians and developmental psychologists such as C. v. Bothmer called for measures to reduce adaptation disorders and to maintain contact between mothers and children. It was recommended that the child be admitted to an institutional facility only after the child had reached the age of two. Reform approaches such as constant care of the children by the nursing staff, the gradual acclimatization of the child or family milieus in the facilities were developed and tested. Due to considerable risks and dangers for the development of infants and young children, the focus of institutional accommodation of the displaced infant homes and cribs week more and more to the day nursery care. Due to political pressure from circles of the GDR government and the Central Committee of the SED , a higher social share in the education of infants and small children was to be achieved.

The most important aspect to consider when comparing different types of care is the age of the child being looked after. From infancy to the age of three, the child is heavily dependent on the person of the adult educator. For Matějček, crèches for small children essentially have a “makeshift function”, whereby two problems in particular were found in crèche children: difficulties in adapting and a two to three times higher susceptibility to illness compared to family children. Overall, the studies showed that the risk potential for psychological deprivation in long-term care of children under three years in nursing homes must be viewed as "dangerous", while their situation in day nurseries is at most "stressful". In the case of day nursery children, the emotional bond with mother and home remains intact, but it is subject to a certain burden; it is supplemented by additional impermanent relationships. Under optimal conditions, no significant differences were found in the somatic and mental development of day nursery children and family children.

English child experts pointed out that by focusing on intellectual development there is a risk that the psychological state of young children will be overlooked. Their studies showed that infants or toddlers under three years of age in a daycare center need to develop a lasting relationship with a second person (besides the mother) in order not to jeopardize positive emotional development during the most sensitive period of brain development. If such a relationship is not secure, the repeated separations from going to the daycare center could lead to a level of stress that is comparable to getting lost on a beach. Even if this stress only causes subtle changes in behavior in the child, which the parents and educators usually do not associate with the daycare situation, it can become a significant risk factor that increases the likelihood that the child will develop psychological problems in the future. Analyzes showed that in comparison within a test group of 3 to 8-year-old children, those children had lower levels of cortisol who had spent comparatively less time in childcare up to the age of four or who had slept in their parents' room . The “Vienna Daycare Study” carried out from 2007 to 2012 also found clear indications that children experience stress while they are in the daycare. It was shown that the cortisol level is significantly higher immediately after entering the daycare center than before and that even after four months of daycare, the stress management is no longer as successful as before.

For the attachment researcher Karin Grossmann , numerous conditions have to be met so that the crèche offers a positive development opportunity for small children and does not become a risk: If a crèche is designed in such a way that the children experience individual appreciation and are well protected, then this can be for children from families with sufficient loving care are seen as a beneficial extension of their experience .

Critics and supporters

Section needs to be revised: German technical opinions should be systematically explained in Chapter 4 instead of 3 of this article.
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Beyond the question of quality assurance, there are critics and supporters of the day nursery.

The Göttingen neurobiologist Gerald Hüther said in an interview with the newspaper Die Welt : “For some children, the crèche is better than nothing. It would be necessary, however, that one person does not look after more than five children. But it is often better if the parents take more time. ... It always pays off in the long term to invest time in children, especially when they are small. For that you have to make sacrifices elsewhere. It is a lie that you can combine family and career without any problems. "

Michael Schulte-Markwort , Professor and Director of the Clinic for Child and Adolescent Psychosomatics at the Eppendorf University Clinic, speaks out against “outside care” by one's own father, grandmother or a day nursery as a rule and emphasizes: “Children need a loving, empathetic, reliable, continuous, supportive and supportive relationship. A? No, there can be more if they are clearly structured in a hierarchy, ie if there are e.g. B. how in a large family there are important and less important or unimportant relationships for the child. "

Rainer Böhm, head of the Bielefeld Social Pediatric Center, draws conclusions primarily from one of the two NICHD studies - albeit different from the researcher Ahnert involved - and believes that German children under the age of two should not be cared for in day group settings. He clearly speaks out in favor of a childcare allowance and against a daycare visit.

"Since, according to international developmental psychological studies, group care for one and two-year-old children - regardless of their social origin - has a negative effect on social skills and stress-processing capacity (and possibly for life!), It is to be expected that the introduction of a care allowance will have a positive effect on the later social Adaptation in school, training and family will have an impact. "

- Rainer Bohm

Lieselotte Ahnert , Chair of Applied Developmental Psychology, University of Vienna, worked on the NICHD study in Washington for three years immediately before her habilitation, as a German exchange researcher (Forgaty grant). In 2010 Ahnert published a book on the subject for those affected and the specialist sciences. As early as 2007 she tried to protect herself against misrepresentations of her professional opinion. She never said parental upbringing was better than day care; because family could fail completely in satisfying the needs of children. Then public care must deal with these problems. Since it was “not at all clear” whether a care allowance for parents “benefits the child”, Ahnert was against this legislative proposal. She is amazed "Should you pay parents just because they are parents?"

NUBBEK study (Germany 2012)

In the “National Study on Education, Care and Upbringing in Early Childhood”, 8 German federal states and others participated. a. 1000 children in the 3rd year of life and 7 research institutes. These 7 published an overview of questions and results in April 2012.

The educational quality in the facilities was rated as unsatisfactory overall. It "should be improved". Tried and tested approaches to systematic quality development in child day care facilities and a collection of exemplary solutions should be used. The necessary improved framework conditions are costly and require strong political will.

Whether crèche care burdens or encourages a toddler depends most on how good the additional parental care is. "The public responsibility for education, care and upbringing cannot ... focus exclusively on the forms of childcare outside the family, but must include families and their surroundings as their parenting partners more than before. Public campaigns, addressing families directly, setting up social space-related networks and the related expansion of the functions of day-care facilities (e.g. in the form of family centers) should be systematically tested as part of coherent political measures. "It is not the daily duration of day-care visits, but the quality of acclimatization that is assessed as called another success factor.

If you have a migration background, external support should start as early as possible, which could a. lead to better communication behavior. Attending a daycare center early should be encouraged in a variety of ways, including through financial incentives (“integration bonus”). An incentive to separate is a shame (better no care allowance, polemical “herd bonus”). According to NUBBEK, the external care quality, including the educator-child key and personnel qualifications, should be particularly good with a migrant background and “life situations that are worth considering”.

"No Child Left Behind" (Norway 2011)

The study "No Child Left Behind" investigated the long-term effects of the regionally different, massive expansion of subsidized kindergartens in Norway between 1976 and 1979; these are care facilities for children between the ages of three and six. According to statistical analyzes, Tarjei Havnes (University of Oslo) and Magne Mogstad (University College London) indicate “precise and robust” relationships: Subsidized childcare therefore had a strong positive effect on educational success and working life. It reduced reliance on benefits. Girls and children of poorly educated mothers benefited particularly strongly. The researchers found that a previously cared for child later went to school an average of 0.35 years longer and had a six percentage point low probability of leaving school early - the probability of going to university, however, increased by seven percentage points. Ultimately, the likelihood of being low-paid or dependent on transfers also decreases. On the other hand, the chances of being among the top earners also decrease. The results are essentially comparable to the BASS study commissioned by the Bertelsmann Foundation, see p. O.

Germany

In Germany, day nurseries are facilities for children up to the age of three or groups for children of this age group in day-care centers . Sometimes day nurseries are divided into reclining, crawling and walking cribs according to the age of the children. There are a number of other regional-specific names, such as B. Crawling group . As a rule, the transition to kindergarten takes place from the age of three . Often children of this age group are cared for in mixed-age groups or in day-care centers with different age groups, but there are also pure day-care centers.

Day nurseries are part of day care and thus child and youth welfare . With the Tagesbetreuungsausbaugesetz (TAG) of 27 December 2004 (s. SGB VIII ) developing Kindertagesstätten- and day care centers in all provinces will also become a political target and the upbringing, education and care for young children receive legally, politically and financially, a new Attention. The pedagogical staff are predominantly skilled workers such as educators , curative teachers and, increasingly, childhood teachers , and child carers and social assistants are employed as auxiliary staff . Due to a regional shortage of skilled workers, people with non-specialist training such as child nurses are increasingly being used. In some cases, there are also unqualified staff with low educational qualifications or no professional qualifications at all.

Another form of day care is child day care provided by day care workers. In addition, there are other groups of toddlers that have less the task of enabling their parents to work, but rather make special offers and serve as meeting places for parents and children. Such offers have different names depending on the region or concept; common are z. B. Playroom, crawling group or PEKiP group.

A special role in the reconciliation of work and family take operating creches one, for mothers breastfeeding allow near the workplace and the re-entry into the job easier.

Demand and availability

Children in the " harvest kindergarten " of the LPG Schenkenberg 1972
Day nursery in Ingersleben in May 1958

In the GDR there was a dense network of state day nurseries (according to statistics, there were 7770 day and week day nurseries as well as permanent homes for infants and small children with 355,089 places in 1988). The need in West Germany , on the other hand, was based on an emergency situation or lack of parental upbringing. West Berlin was an exception : at the end of the 1980s, there was a daycare place for every fourth child under the age of three. Since reunification , the number of places for children of crèche age has also increased in western countries. Comprehensive care for all children, as set out in the Day Care Expansion Act (see above), is gradually being implemented in all federal states. The question of the actual need is disputed. In some cases, the demand for state-subsidized crèche places is so great that there are waiting lists for unborn children in many communities. On the other hand, individual federal states pay a childcare bonus to the youth welfare office for the fastest possible expansion. According to an overview by the AOK, the fees are between 70 and 425 euros per month, depending on the place of residence and income of the parents. To make it easier to compare tuition fees, that is between 840 and 5,100 euros per year and child.

The actual level of demand is disputed. According to an evaluation by the German Youth Institute (DIJ) at the end of 2010, however, the parents apparently want far more than the federal and state governments estimate.

An overview of the different levels of supply in the German federal states (number of places to the number of children in the age group) is provided by the contribution to kindergarten , the federal youth statistics, the figures from the German Youth Institute or the state overviews from the Brandenburg Youth Ministry. In Saxony-Anhalt there is a general legal right to a childcare place for children under three years of age; In Brandenburg there is a conditional legal entitlement (if necessary). The fact that in these federal states the legal right to a childcare place for a child is linked to the parents' employment is considered by critics with regard to the second guiding principle of the “family judgment ” of the Federal Constitutional Court to be unconstitutional (cf. BVerfG, 2 BvR 1057/91 of 10 November 1998).

The lack of state-subsidized childcare is often cited as a major cause of the low birth rate in Germany. The latter deny family associations such as the family network and the family association of Catholics . They point out, for example, that the federal states in which public childcare is particularly well developed also have a particularly low birth rate. For example, Saxony-Anhalt of all places, which, in addition to a comparatively well-developed public childcare facility, also has a legal right to a childcare place for every child of working parents, has the lowest birth rate of all with 1.2 births per woman (2005) Federal states. According to these family associations, the disadvantage of families in tax and social security law is a much more decisive factor for the lack of births in Germany. [80] [81] Other critics also warn against neglecting other possible causes.

The NUBBEK study (Germany 2012, see above ) replaces previous assumptions about demand and availability with facts from eight eastern and western German federal states: one third of the parents simply had not found a daycare or daycare place. The head of the study, FU scientist Wolfgang Tietze, speaks of “forced abstinence” . “Under the current conditions of scarcity, the families cannot exercise their right to choose and vote.” According to NUBBEK, the amount of the fees kept many parents away, who saw better opportunities for their child through daycare. "The data suggested that within the group of only family-cared for children there is a considerable number of mothers who would also opt for extra-family care if the conditions were better."

Political debate about the expansion of crèche places

Paradigm Shift in Public Debate

In the past, the care of young children in day nurseries in West Germany was largely critical. It was pointed out that at this age children the binding to a binding individual need. Conservative voices such as child and adolescent psychotherapist Christa Meves also articulated the view that the mother is primarily suitable as a primary attachment figure due to gender-specific biology.

In contrast, the public debate has shifted over the past 20 years. According to Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen, the Left Party, the FDP and the Social Democrats, the CDU Family Minister Ursula von der Leyen and with her the CDU party leadership under Chancellor Angela Merkel also formulated the demand for the expansion of daycare facilities. Von der Leyen's plans to triple the number of childcare places for children under three to 750,000 by 2013 initially met resistance within the coalition. On September 5, 2007, the Federal Cabinet decided to support the expansion to 750,000 childcare places for one to three year old children by 2013 and the introduction of a legal entitlement to a childcare place from the age of two, planned for 2008.

financing

While the further massive expansion of day nurseries in Germany is being called for by all parties in the Bundestag, there is disagreement among and within the parties as to how the financing of this expansion should be ensured. According to calculations by the SPD, 6.36 billion euros are necessary for the expansion of childcare places. The German Association of Towns and Municipalities comes to around 9.5 billion for around 897,000 crèche places (40 percent of children under 3 years of age). To finance the expansion of the day-care center, the SPD has proposed, among other things, a freeze on child benefit and a reduction in child allowances. This is strictly rejected by the CDU, CSU, the Family Network Germany and the Family Association of Catholics. Also up for debate are the erosion of the advantages of spouse splitting and the elimination of the free co-insurance of the spouse in statutory health and long-term care insurance for married couples who do not care for children or who have cared for children in the past.

According to the Federal Statistical Office , in 2009 , 9,500 euros per child were spent on caring for children under the age of three in independent and public day-care centers .

Legal claim

According to the Child Promotion Act (KiföG), since August 1, 2013, there has been a legal right to a daycare place from the age of one. There is hardly any legal entitlement to quality assurance. This is a reminder of the NUBBEK study (Germany 2012).

The Federal Ministry of Family Affairs anticipated a total requirement of 39 percent. In the old federal states, a childcare quota of 37 percent is to be achieved for under three-year-olds, in the new federal states 51 percent (as of 2012). In mid-2012, 220,000 of the 780,000 childcare places required were still missing in Germany.

According to the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs from July 2013, 813,093 childcare places should be available for one to two year old children during the 2013/2014 daycare year. This is around 30,000 places more than estimated. 12.7 percent of the places included in the statistics were not yet available and should still be created. The federal states reported the figures to the ministry and could not be verified by it. The Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft criticized the fact that the number of daycare centers had barely increased and assumed that the increase was due to increased group sizes. In 2012, the range of childcare rates ranged from 3.1 small children per full-time employee (in Bremen) to 6.5 in Saxony-Anhalt; the national average was 4.5.

According to a ruling by the Federal Court of Justice on October 20, 2016, parents whose children are entitled to a childcare place under the Child Promotion Act may be entitled to compensation for the loss of earnings if they postpone their return to work due to a lack of childcare. A claim for compensation only arises, however, if the municipality is partly to blame for the lack of childcare places, i.e. if the shortage arose, for example, from financial or other reasons for which the municipality is responsible. If, on the other hand, the reason lies in a general lack of educators or in unforeseen difficulties in setting up day-care centers, there is no entitlement to compensation. Another prerequisite is that the parents have tried to find a place in good time and have not refused a reasonable place.

With a judgment of October 26, 2017, the Federal Administrative Court ruled that the public youth welfare agency must provide evidence of a child care place that meets their individual needs. However, the right to a childcare place for children from one year of age does not result in the right to choose between a place in a daycare center and with a childminder. The youth welfare organizations are also not obliged to offer the child a free or at least inexpensive childcare place. Parents can only request reimbursement of daycare expenses if they were financially unreasonable.

Cost-effectiveness aspects

The political actors disagree on how high the current costs actually are. Cost-effectiveness analyzes (in the sense of cost-benefit analyzes in relation to projects whose benefits cannot or cannot be fully measured in monetary terms) on the subject of child day care must take into account numerous difficult-to-evaluate components and various regional conditions. In particular, the assessment of the effect of attending day nurseries is included in the calculation. Despite these difficulties, according to education economist C. Katharina Spieß, various analyzes agree that good care in day-care centers is actually profitable.

From cost-benefit analysis studies on early childhood day care in the international area as well as in Germany, the 2004 statement by DIW for the Committee on Family, Seniors, Women and Youth concluded that the economic benefits of public spending on day-care facilities were greater be as their cost. This opinion is based, among other things, on a Zurich study that found that daycare centers pay off.However, this study was criticized from other sources insofar as it examined the cost-benefit ratio of all existing daycare places and not the marginal costs , i.e. not those Cost-benefit ratio of additional crèche places. In addition, the suspicion has been expressed that studies commissioned by governments are to be seen as justification for existing offices or policies.

According to calculations of a study commissioned by the Bertelsmann Foundation, in view of the greater chances of crèche children found in the study to transition to high school and the average difference between the expected lifetime income of people with and without a high school diploma, attending children would improve the situation result in significant long-term economic benefits in day nurseries.

Equalization of opportunities with parental freedom of choice

In 2006 and 2007, Federal Family Minister Ursula von der Leyen's plans to expand daycare from public funds led to a heated debate about the distribution of taxpayers' money between childless, single-earning and dual-paid parents. Under the aspect of freedom of choice, several models or their mixed forms are discussed, such as the expansion of crèche places, the promotion of child minders or company crèches, the introduction of care vouchers or direct payments. When arguing about the various models, not only the costs, but also the quality, the possibilities of influencing quality assurance and the flexibility of support are cited as important aspects. Some market-liberal economists generally reject state investments in childcare facilities because they see it as an impermissible interference by the state in a private market. The market liberals are harshly opposed to the model of the social market economy: "It would be a fatal error to expect the automatism of the market to take on the task of creating a final social order and taking into account the necessities of state and cultural life." Fritsch / Wein / Evers argue that the average mother would systematically underestimate higher chances for her own child to achieve a higher income much later after good daycare care, because the hoped-for benefit lies far in the future with a large statistical spread.

Models for direct payments, similar to those in Canada , France , Norway and Finland , were already under political discussion under the concept of the educational salary.

“There is no freedom of choice” is a result of the NUBBEK study (Germany 2012). The head of the study, FU scientist Wolfgang Tietze, speaks of “forced abstinence”. “Under the current conditions of scarcity, the families cannot exercise their right to wish or choose.” Last but not least, reports Adelheid Müller-Lissner, the researchers are worried about the families who stated that the costs for daycare or daycare were too high for them . "The data suggested that within the group of only family-cared for children there is a considerable number of mothers who would also opt for extra-family care if the conditions were better."

Funding the infrastructure alone in the form of crèche places is sometimes seen as a disadvantage for parents who want to look after their children themselves or otherwise. The costs for a state day nursery are partly financed from general tax revenue, as the parental contributions do not cover the costs. Such a cost analysis often disregards opposing factors, such as a possible monetary effect from additional income from taxes and social security contributions from working parents and from the higher number of employees in childcare facilities. It is difficult to weigh up costs and benefits / effectiveness (see above).

Whether and how in this context the splitting of spouses and free co-insurance in statutory health and long-term care insurance can or should be up for debate is a matter of dispute. The inclusion of the splitting of the spouse could mean that unmarried parents are not in a worse tax position than married couples without children. The inclusion of co-insurance could mean that unmarried parents should not be burdened with higher insurance contributions than married couples without children.

The EU Commission is of the opinion that families are disadvantaged by the lack of childcare in Germany. The fact that the hourly wage of women in Germany is on average 22 percent below that of their male colleagues is due to the low number of daycare places and their inadequate opening hours, as well as the lower employment rate of women with children compared to other EU countries.

Finland

As in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, in Finland there is a legal right to a childcare place and an extensive childcare infrastructure at the latest from the age of one. Even so, only 23% of mothers in Finland have institutional support for their youngest child. This means that Finland is out of the ordinary among the Nordic countries and, with this share, is behind Denmark (72%), Sweden (61%), the Netherlands (45%), France (42%) in institutional childcare in EU countries, Norway (39%), Iceland (38%) and a further six countries but ahead of, for example, Germany, Ireland, Austria and most of the Eastern European countries.

“Almost three quarters of mothers, on the other hand, look after their child exclusively themselves, ie they forego any form of external care, be it institutional or private. One explanation for this is the Finnish parental choice model. This model that it z. B. also exist in Denmark, Sweden and Norway, enables parents to choose between public care offers or private care with financial compensation. In Finland, however, unlike in other countries, there is only an entitlement to childcare allowance if, in return, no public childcare place is required for the child […]. In addition, this national care allowance can be topped up with a municipal care allowance ”.

Switzerland

term

The term crèche is defined inconsistently in Switzerland. Most of the time, the definition includes the age spectrum from birth to entry into kindergarten at four or five years of age, but the term is often used synonymously with day care centers in general, including the meaning of after-school care .

The term is currently being pushed back in favor of the term day care center (regionally also in favor of the term day care center ) (status 2007). For example, in March 2007 the former Swiss Crèche Association changed its name to the Association of Childcare Centers in Switzerland .

politics

The political discourse is currently much less controversial than in Germany. Crèches are promoted by three of the four big parties ( SP , CVP and FDP ), each with different motives, e.g. B. Gender equality policy , economic development, integration of foreign language children. Of the four major parties, only the SVP is majority against an expansion of the crèche system. A federal stimulus program promotes the establishment of new day nurseries and also individual cantons such as B. Basel-Landschaft have or had such programs. ( See also: Political Embedding of Day Care Centers in Switzerland .)

Sweden

Sweden promotes alternatives to outside care in day nurseries. Parents who look after their children at home up to the age of three are supported with 300 euros per month. Working parents are entitled to part-time jobs. Parents can take time off from work for up to 120 days to care for sick children.

Norway

“In order to make it easier to combine family and work, the state greatly expanded childcare from 1975.” The consequences were scientifically researched through a long-term study, cf. o. No Child Left Behind .

On the other hand, a care allowance had an undesirable effect. It was mainly children from families with a low level of education and a migrant background who stayed away from the childcare facilities. According to an expert hearing in the German Bundestag, this shows that “if the childcare allowance creates incentives not to take advantage of early educational opportunities, this also contradicts the efforts to ensure equal opportunities” for all children.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , the expansion of childcare facilities for young children was accelerated. The number of childcare places rose from 425,000 (2002) to 725,000 (2006). The costs remained at a high level; in the London area and the surrounding counties, according to a study by the market research company Laing & Buisson in 2006, they averaged 168 British pounds per week (247 euros or 12,847 euros per year).

In 2006 almost a quarter of the places were not used, despite the highest birth rate in Great Britain (1.79) since 1992. This corresponds to an overcapacity of around 160,000 crèche places. The Times sees this as a sign of a trend away from an “all-round” generation of women towards women who increasingly want to look after their children themselves. In addition, there is now no longer the exclusive alternative of full-time employment or full-time housewife employment: at least one million parents have already used the right to part-time work introduced in 2003 instead of working full-time immediately after the birth. It is expected that the trend will be reinforced by the newly introduced right to one year of maternity leave. Employers are also now ready to give young mothers more flexible working hours and conditions (e.g. teleworking). Fees and quality of British day-care centers remain to be clarified as the obvious causes of free capacities in some places, in particular their possible correlations with poor care codes (above, in the chapter on quality assurance , 1: 2 for children between 0 and 12 months, 1: 3 for children between 12 and 24, 1: 4 for children between 24 and 36 months).

A group of experts highlighted 2006 as a quality deficiency or “inadequate” with the risk of long-term behavioral problems when British day nurseries did not ensure personal continuity of loving care.

France

In France, children can go to the École maternelle as soon as they no longer wear a diaper. Before that, they can be looked after in the following facilities:

  • Crèche collective, (crèche, after-school care center, public),
  • Crèche parentale (parents manage a crèche),
  • Crèche d'entreprise (in companies),
  • Établissement multi-accueil (crib),
  • Crèche familiale (family crèche: childminder for three children),
  • Assistante maternelle partagée (childminder looks after children from two families).

One can distinguish

  • Publicly sponsored day nurseries (crèches municipales, crèches intercommunales)
  • Private nurseries:
    • with the intention of making a profit
      • private crèches (e.g. the crèches parentales)
      • Daycare company
    • non-profit (the counterpart to the German "gGmbH" is the association loi 1901 )

In fact, 70% of children in France are cared for at home by their parents or relatives. Only 10% of children up to three years of age attend a day nursery.

United States

In the United States , Child Day Care Centers are available for the care of children between the ages of three months and five years. These are private-sector (mostly: non-profit) institutions that offer the children high-quality academic early intervention programs and therefore on the one hand understand them as schools, but on the other hand are also strongly service-oriented and, depending on the individual needs of families, enable full-day care as well as part-time programs. The fees, especially for good facilities, are significantly higher than those of German crèches. In good institutions the teachers have completed college training in Early Childhood Education , in others they are semi-skilled. A cheaper alternative to day care centers is Family Day Care , which many child minders offer in their homes. Many American families also employ a nanny or babysitter to provide all-day care for their children .

literature

  • Lieselotte Ahnert (Ed.): Day care for children under three years. Theories and facts. Publisher Hans Huber, Bern 1998.
  • Lieselotte Ahnert (Ed.): Early attachment, emergence and development. Reinhardt, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-497-01723-X .
  • Lieselotte Ahnert: How much mother does a child need? Attachment - education - care: public and private. Spektrum Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg 2010, ISBN 978-3-8274-2014-5 .
  • Christel van Dieken, Julian van Dieken: Insights into daycare centers - beautiful rooms for 0 to 3 year olds . Cornelsen Verlag Scriptor, Berlin 2013, ISBN 978-3-589-24743-1 .
  • Martin Dornes : Early Childhood. Developmental Psychology of the First Years of Life. 8th edition. Fischer, Frankfurt am Main 2009, ISBN 978-3-596-13548-6 .
  • Jesper Juul : Who do our children belong to? The state, the parents or yourself? Beltz, Weinheim 2012, ISBN 978-3-407-85970-9 .
  • Hans-Joachim Laewen, Beate Andres, Eva Hedervari: The first days: A model for getting used to the day care center. 7th, revised edition. Cornelsen, Berlin 2011, ISBN 978-3-589-24730-1 .

Movie

  • Christel van Dieken, Julian van Dieken (director); Inga Bodenburg, Ilse Wehrmann (Ed.): Very close to it 1 - Acclimatization of 0 to 3 year olds in the day care center Cornelsen Verlag Scriptor, Berlin 2012. DVD with booklet, ISBN 978-3-589-24760-8 .
  • Christel van Dieken, Julian van Dieken (director); Inga Bodenburg, Ilse Wehrmann (eds.): Very close to it 2 - Room design in day care centers for 0 to 3 year olds Cornelsen Verlag Scriptor, Berlin 2013. DVD with booklet, ISBN 978-3-589-24785-1 .

Web links

Wiktionary: Kindergarten  - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
Wikiquote: Crèche  - Quotes
Commons : Crèche  - Collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ a b c Lieselotte Ahnert: Cribs: How early care works: Well-founded advice on a controversial topic. Jörg Maywald and Bernhard Schön (eds.), Beltz, Weinheim / Basel 2008, ISBN 978-3-407-85861-0 , p. 24 ff. ( Books.google.de ).
  2. ↑ E. Kuno Beller: Getting used to the crèche - a model to support the active engagement of all those involved with the stress of change. In: "early childhood 2/02". German League for the Child, archived from the original on April 23, 2008 ; Retrieved March 3, 2008 .
  3. ↑ Sabine Buchebner-Ferstl, Sonja Dörfler, Michael Kinn: Child-friendly extra-family child care for under 3-year-olds. An interdisciplinary literature search. (PDF) (No longer available online.) In: ÖIF Working Paper, No. 72. Austrian Institute for Family Research at the University of Vienna, 2009, formerly in the original ; Retrieved February 6, 2010 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.oif.ac.at   P. 50.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.oif.ac.at  
  4. ↑ Sabine Buchebner-Ferstl, Sonja Dörfler, Michael Kinn: Child-friendly extra-family child care for under 3-year-olds. An interdisciplinary literature search. (PDF) (No longer available online.) In: ÖIF Working Paper, No. 72. Austrian Institute for Family Research at the University of Vienna, 2009, formerly in the original ; Retrieved February 6, 2010 .  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.oif.ac.at   P. 52 f.  ( Page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.oif.ac.at  
  5. ↑ the daily newspaper: interview with Wassilios Fthenakis: " Day care only from 18 months"
  6. ↑ Country overview day care center: Personnel standards table (as of March 2007) ( Memento of the original from March 5, 2006 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. and (overview) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.brandenburg.de
  7. ↑ Birgitta vom Lehn: Stress in the crib. Essay. World online. October 11, 2011.
  8. ↑ Care in day nurseries: responsibility for children under three years of age. Recommendations of the Society for Mental Health in Early Childhood (GAIMH) for the care and upbringing of infants and toddlers in day nurseries ( Memento of the original from July 22, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ( Page 7 ( Memento of the original from September 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ). Retrieved February 1, 2013. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gaimh.org @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gaimh.org
  9. ↑ Position paper Vienna 2011: One place alone is not enough-best quality for small children in the family and daycare center! ( Memento of the original from August 3, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ( Page 2 ( Memento of the original from August 9, 2014 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link has been inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. ). Retrieved February 1, 2013. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gaimh.org @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gaimh.org
  10. ↑ NUBBEK - National Study on Education, Care and Upbringing in Early Childhood p. 8 right, PDF.
  11. ↑ NUBBEK - National Study on Education, Care and Upbringing in Early Childhood , p. 14 f., PDF.
  12. ↑ GEW: “Finally pay educators better!” (No longer available online.) GEW, July 11, 2007, archived from the original on August 2, 2008 ; Retrieved June 14, 2008 . Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gew.de
  13. ↑ Childcare: The day-care risk. Interview by Christine Brinck . Zeit online, January 25, 2014, accessed May 11, 2014 .
  14. ↑ There is a shortage of 120,000 educators in German daycare centers. sueddeutsche.de, July 25, 2014, accessed on July 25, 2014 .
  15. ↑ Wolfgang Einsiedler: Research on small children and care for small children ( Memento from March 3, 2008 in the Internet Archive ). In: The Online Family Handbook
  16. ^ A b c Newsweek , March 26, 2007: Study: A Downside to Day Care? ( Memento of March 30, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  17. ↑ a b c Welt online: Psychology: Daycare children become troublemakers , March 29, 2007.
  18. ↑ USA Study: Are There Long-Term Effects of Early Child Care? ( Memento of September 28, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 173 kB), March 26, 2007.
  19. ↑ PDF, p. 18. ( Memento from March 20, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  20. ↑ PDF, p. 44 ( Memento from March 20, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  21. ^ Tobias Fritschi, Tom Oesch: Economic benefits of early childhood education in Germany. (PDF) An economic assessment of long-term educational effects for daycare children. Bertelsmann Stiftung , 2008, accessed April 8, 2019 .
  22. ↑ a b Study: Attending a day nursery leads to greater educational opportunities and increases lifelong income. In: Press release ( Bertelsmann Foundation ), Science Information Service . March 3, 2008, accessed March 4, 2008 .
  23. ^ A b Jeanette Otto: Crib child, clever child? Zeit online , March 6, 2008, accessed January 23, 2009 .
  24. ^ Press release of the family network from March 5, 2008; at familie-ist-zukunft.de ( Memento from January 8, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  25. ↑ a b press release of the ödp of March 13, 2008 at ödp.de
  26. ↑ Pisa 2000 at mpib-berlin.mpg.de (PDF).
  27. ↑ Magazine from February 23, 2012: The day care center visit of children with a migration background beyond what should and should
  28. ↑ Josef Lang Meier, Zdenek Matějček: Mental deprivation in childhood, children without love. Urban & Schwarzenberg Publishing House, Munich 1977.
  29. ↑ Becker / Grosch / Niebsch 1993, p. 300.
  30. ↑ cf. Schmidt-Kolmer 1977 and Arnim 1998.
  31. ↑ Jens Plückhahn: Permanent homes for infants and toddlers in the GDR from the perspective of attachment theory . Diploma thesis FH Potsdam, Potsdam 2012, p. 60 and p. 101ff .; Bundesarchiv Berlin-Lichterfelde - Ministry of Health of the GDR BArch DQ 1/13585 u. a. m .; Journal for medical training in the GDR 1957, 21/22, p. 895ff. / 1958,7, p. 307ff. / 1959,22, pp. 1443ff. / 1960,21, p. 1220ff. u. a. m.
  32. ↑ socialbaby.blogspot.com Richard Bowlby: Stress in the day nursery (English)
  33. ↑ D. Waynforth: The influence of parent-infant cosleeping, nursing, and childcare on cortisol and SIgA immunity in a sample of British children. In: Dev. Psychobiol. September 2007, 49 (6), pp. 640-648, PMID 17680611
  34. ↑ Birgit Zuba: Stress experience of the toddler when entering the day nursery . ( univie.ac.at [accessed on July 22, 2019] uniwien).
  35. ↑ Karin Grossmann, University of Regensburg: Features of good group care for children under three years of age in terms of attachment theory and its application to part-time supervision ( memento from July 25, 2010 in the Internet Archive )
  36. ↑ Gerald Hüther: welt.de Giftedness is more than good school grades in Die Welt , October 2, 2012; accessed on September 14, 2015.
  37. ↑ Michael Schulte-Markwort: What do children need? In any case, no external support ... on: Abendblatt.de , April 19, 2007.
  38. ↑ "Effects of early childhood group care on development and health" - ( Memento of the original from June 17, 2012 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.institut-bichtung.de
  39. ↑ DL Vandell, J. Belsky et al .; NICHD Early Child Care Research Network: Do effects of early child care extend to age 15 years? Results from the NICHD study of early child care and youth development. In: Child Dev. 81 (3) (2010), pp. 737-756.
  40. ↑ Statement by Dr. Rainer Böhm Head doctor of the Social Pediatric Center, Bielefeld on the draft law of the parliamentary groups of the CDU / CSU and FDP Draft of a law to introduce a care allowance (Care Allowance Act) BT-Drs 17/9917 ( Memento of the original from December 24, 2013 in the Internet Archive ) Info: Der Archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. German Bundestag, Committee on Family, Seniors, Women and Youth, Committee Printed Paper 17 (13) 188d @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.bundestag.de
  41. ↑ dieuniversitaet-online.at
  42. ↑ “How much mother does a child need?” ISBN 978-3-8274-2014-5 .
  43. ↑ Adelheid Müller-Lissner in http://www.zeit.de/2007/39/P-Lieselotte-Ahnert
  44. ↑ The long version announced for autumn 2012 was not yet known until January 2013. PDF
  45. ↑ PDF, p. 14.
  46. ↑ American Economic Journal. Economic policy, 3 (2011) 2, pp. 97–129.
  47. ↑ handelsblatt.com
  48. ↑ a b handelsblatt.com
  49. ↑ Federal Statistical Office: Children and people working in day care facilities and in publicly funded day care
  50. ^ State Central Administration for Statistics: Statistical Yearbook 1989 of the GDR , Staatsverlag der DDR, Berlin 1989, 1st edition, ISBN 3-329-00457-6 , p. 346.
  51. ↑ Lieselotte Ahnert: Cribs: How early care works: Well-founded advice on a controversial topic. Jörg Maywald and Bernhard Schön (eds.), Beltz, 2008, ISBN 978-3-407-85861-0 , p. 26.
  52. ↑ Netzeitung : From crèche to au pair - parents have the choice ( Memento from September 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  53. ↑ Kinderzeugs.de: Much more parents would like a crèche place ( Memento of the original from December 14, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. on kinderzeug.de @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.kinderzeugs.de
  54. ↑ 2 BvR 1057/91. bundesverfassungsgericht.de, accessed on June 9, 2019 .
  55. ↑ Federal Agency for Civic Education : Manfred Spieker: More children or more gainfully employed?
  56. ↑ 3sat : Family Policy - a European comparison on 3sat.
  57. ↑ Adelheid Müller-Lissner: There is no freedom of choice on Der Tagesspiegel
  58. ↑ Childcare - Who uses daycare and crèche places. There are differences in the population groups on tagesspiegel.de
  59. ↑ welt.de
  60. ↑ Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen : Tragedy: The Child Care Debate ( Memento of the original from March 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.gruene.de
  61. ↑ Left faction : Hands off child benefit ( Memento of the original from March 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / linksfraktion.de
  62. ^ N-tv : Union against SPD plan
  63. ↑ Tagesspiegel: CDU General Secretary: Everyone is behind Leyen
  64. ↑ Financial Times Deutschland : Althaus stands behind von der Leyen ( Memento from September 29, 2007 in the Internet Archive )
  65. ↑ Die Tageszeitung : Minister wants a day nursery for everyone
  66. ↑ Die Welt : Union questions the expansion of crèche places
  67. ↑ Trial of strength for the childcare allowance. on: Welt Online. September 5, 2007.
  68. ↑ today : Who pays for the crèche places? ( Memento of the original from March 5, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.heute.de
  69. ↑ Familienpolitik.spd.de ( Memento of the original from June 11, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was automatically inserted and not yet checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / Familienpolitik.spd.de
  70. ↑ Finances of the day-care facilities in private ownership. (PDF) Federal Statistical Office, October 10, 2012, accessed on October 10, 2012 .
  71. ↑ Child Promotion Act (KiföG)
  72. ↑ nubbek.de
  73. ↑ Big real estate deals with the little ones. In: Handelsblatt . No. 218, November 11, 2012, ISSN  0017-7296 , p. 46.
  74. ↑ a b Barbara Gillmann: Much more daycare places are missing than expected. In: Handelsblatt . No. 216, 2012, ISSN  0017-7296 , p. 9.
  75. ↑ Axel Schrinner: Don't trust any statistics . In: Handelsblatt . No. 132 , July 12, 2013, ISSN  0017-7296 , p. 10 f .
  76. ↑ BGH judgment: Municipalities can be made liable for lack of daycare places. Spiegel online, October 20, 2016, accessed October 20, 2016 .
  77. ↑ Judgment on day care places: Do many parents now receive compensation? Spiegel online, October 20, 2016, accessed October 20, 2016 .
  78. ^ BVerwG: reimbursement of expenses for a self-procured place in a daycare center. October 26, 2017. Retrieved November 6, 2017 .
  79. ↑ C. Katharina Spieß : Costs and Benefits of Childcare: International and National Considerations from an Economic Perspective, in: Family brings profit (ed. By L. Mohn and R. Schmidt), Bertelsmann Verlag, Gütersloh 2004, pp. 124-134 - Updated version online: Benefits and costs of family-related services: Economic considerations using the example of childcare in day-care centers ( Memento of the original from September 28, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , in: "Topic 2007/04: Children, crèches, costs - facts about the child care debate", German Youth Institute (accessed on April 15, 2007) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.dji.de
  80. ↑ Public hearing of the Committee on Family, Seniors, Women and Youth on BT-Drs. 15/3512, 15/3676, 15/3488 ( memento of July 2, 2007 in the Internet Archive ), written statement, DIW Berlin, C. Katharina Spieß, September 2004, pp. 6–7 (accessed on April 15, 2007)
  81. ↑ “Day care centers pay off - every franc spent brings three to four francs back to society”, Neue Zürcher Zeitung, February 23, 2001, quoted from What is missing in terms of schools, education and care ( Memento of the original from September 29 2007 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , SP Canton Lucerne, with reference to a study commissioned by the city of Zurich's government (accessed on April 15, 2007) @1@ 2Template: Webachiv / IABot / www.sp-luzern.ch
  82. ↑ Tobias Bauer, Karin Kucera-Müller: Economic benefits of day care centers. Edition Social Policy No. 5. Zurich: Social Department of the City of Zurich (ed.) - as well as: Tobias Bauer, Karin Kucera-Müller: Day care centers pay off. Every franc used brings three to four francs back to society. Edition Social Policy No. 5a. Zurich: Social Department of the City of Zurich (Ed.) - Quoted from CREMA (2005) (accessed on April 15, 2007)
  83. ↑ a b Failure in childcare - childcare vouchers as an alternative  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , Center for Research in Economics, Management, and the Arts, Alois Stutzer and Reto Dürsteler, Working Paper No. 2005-26, p. 13 (accessed April 15, 2007)@1@ 2Template: Dead Link / www.wwz.unibas.ch  
  84. ↑ See in detail: Eckstein, Christiane, Gender Equitable Family Policy. Freedom of choice as a model for the division of labor in the family, Stuttgart 2009.
  85. ↑ a b Childcare: day nurseries, vouchers or money
  86. ↑ Stuttgarter Zeitung: Vouchers for more competition ( Memento from May 5, 2014 in the Internet Archive )
  87. ↑ Welt online: Stoiber calls for more money for house mothers
  88. ↑ a b German Family Association : German Family Association for the Crèche Discussion: Families need real freedom of choice
  89. ^ Crèche debate - not just a question of funding , Georg Paul Hefty, FAZ.NET, March 5, 2007.
  90. ↑ State role in crèche places disputed (PDF; 135 kB)
  91. ↑ warned in Economic Control and Market Economy , 1947, p. 93, the "father" of the social market economy Alfred Müller-Armack
  92. ^ "Market failure and economic policy", Munich 2005, p. 303ff.
  93. ↑ ec.europa.eu
  94. ↑ Jürgen Liminski : Facts instead of hysteria: The crib debate urgently needs objectivity  ( page no longer available , search in web archives )  Info: The link was automatically marked as defective. Please check the link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.@1@ 2Template: Toter Link / www.familie-ist-zukunft.de  
  95. ↑ tagesspiegel.de
  96. ↑ tagesspiegel.de
  97. ↑ Spiegel online: Child care: Stoiber wants more money for house mothers April 21, 2007.
  98. ↑ Wiesbadener Kurier : Care allowance is intended to ensure freedom of choice ( Memento from September 28, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) from April 17, 2007.
  99. ↑ Kath.net  : Are housewives the new 'bad mothers'?
  100. ↑ dhg-vffm.de
  101. ↑ CHILD CARE: Freedom of choice through subsidized daycare places? ( Memento from June 25, 2007 in the Internet Archive ) (PDF; 120 kB), April 21, 2007.
  102. ↑ Focus : " Elterngeld : Die große Mogelpackung", Feb. 2007, Issue 8, pp. 20–24.
  103. ↑ Law on Tax Promotion of Growth and Employment ( Federal Law Gazette 2006 I p. 1091 )
  104. ↑ welt.de: We need a secure legal claim
  105. ↑ BVerfG, 2 BvR 1057/91 of November 10, 1998, paragraph no. 86.
  106. ↑ focus.de
  107. ↑ a b Information Service Social Indicators (ISI), form of child care highly socially selective ISI 48, July 2012, p. 2. (PDF; 645 kB)
  108. ↑ blick.ch
  109. ↑ National impulse program for the establishment of new day-care centers
  110. ↑ baselland.ch
  111. ↑ a b Childcare: What is the avant-garde doing. In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. October 19, 2011, p. N1.
  112. ↑ American economic journal. Economic policy, 3 (2011) 2, pp. 97–129.
  113. ↑ PDF, p. 23. ( Memento from March 20, 2013 in the Internet Archive )
  114. ↑ Kath.net : Is the crèche policy already outdated? May 3, 2007.
  115. ↑ a b The Times Nurseries feel pinch as mothers stay home , April 30, 2007.
  116. ^ Daily Telegraph : Day nursery may harm under-3s, say child experts
  117. ↑ kas.de Lecture by Charlotte Felt at a congress of the Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung (KAS) in March 2004 with the topic “Politics for the family a la française. What can we learn from our neighbors? "