Oromo (language)

Oromo (Afaan Oromoo)
Spoken in	Ethiopia , Kenya
speaker	24-25 million
Linguistic classification	Afro-Asian Cushy East Kushite Lowland East Kushite (Oromoid) Oromo
Official status
Official language in	Oromia , Ethiopia (regional working language)
Language codes
ISO 639 -1	om no code for Garreh-Ajuran and Sanye
ISO 639 -2	orm cus (other Cushitic languages, for Garreh-Ajuran and Sanye)
ISO 639-3	orm (macro language) contain: gax Borana-Arsi-Guji gaz west central oromo hae Ostoromo orc orma Other language of the language family: ssn Waata

Oromo (in Oromo: Afaan Oromoo [ ʌfɑːn ɔrɔmoː ] or Oromiff ) is an Afro-Asian language and the most widely used Cushitic language. Oromo is sometimes referred to as a group of closely related languages, but its speakers call it a language. It is spoken by 24 to 25 million Oromo and neighboring nationalities in Ethiopia and Kenya.

The external name Galla or Galligna is considered out of date and is rejected by the Oromo.

Oromo has been officially written using the Latin alphabet since 1991 . Before that, the Ethiopian script was mainly used, although it was forbidden to write Oromo at all under the government of Haile Selassie . The Arabic alphabet was also used and occasionally in the 19th century, before the conquest of most of the Oromo regions by Ethiopia, the Latin alphabet (introduced by missionaries).

Speakers and dialects

At least 99% of Oromo speakers live in Ethiopia, most of them in the Oromia (Oromiyaa) region, most of the others in Kenya, but there are also about 42,000 speakers in Somalia . It is the language with the largest number of native speakers in Ethiopia (31.6%) and the fifth largest in Africa. In addition to the native speakers, members of other ethnic groups who are in contact with the Oromo also speak this language.

The different variants of Oromo can be summarized in three main dialect groups:

West Central Oromo

Woolga (Wallagga) or Macha (Macca), spoken in northwest Oromia

Tulama (Tuulamaa) or Shoa (Shawaa), spoken in central northern Oromia

Wollo (Wallo), spoken in the Wollo region , partly also in Amhara

Raya (Raayyaa), spoken further north than the Wollo dialect

Ostoromo, spoken in the northeastern part of Oromia and near the cities of Harar and Dire Dawa

South oromo

Arsi, spoken in central Oromia

Guji (Gujii), spoken in central southern Oromia

Borana (Boranaa), spoken in southern Oromia, parts of the Eastern Province in Kenya, and Gedo in Somalia

Gabbra, spoken by the Gabbra in the northwest of the Eastern Province in Kenya

Garre-Ajuraan, spoken in parts of the North-Eastern Province of Kenya

Orma, spoken by the Tana-Orma along the Tana in the Coast Province in Kenya

Waata, spoken in isolated villages in the Coast Province of Kenya

There is still a lot of work to be done on the Oromo dialects, especially on mutual understanding. The southern dialects differ the most. For example, in these dialects, the gender of most nouns can be identified by the last vowel. The dialects spoken in Ethiopia and Kenya differ in the languages ​​from which words are borrowed. In Ethiopia, Oromo was in contact with Amharic for centuries , which resulted in mutual lexical influence. In Kenya and other countries, the Oromo dialects borrowed many words from Swahili and English .

Language policy

Before the Ethiopian Revolution of 1974, it was forbidden to publish or broadcast anything in Oromo, and the few published works such as the Bible translation by Onesimos Nesib and the previous Bible translation by Johann Ludwig Krapf and Ruufoo were written in the Ethiopian script. After the revolution, the government ran a campaign for literacy in some languages, including Oromo. However, plans for schooling on Oromo were not materialized until the fall of Mengistu Haile Mariam's government , with the exception of areas controlled by the Oromo Liberation Front .

Oromo has been officially reproduced in Latin script again since 1991, as it was in the first Oromo literary references from 1840–70. The Latin alphabet is better suited to reproducing the common consonant gemination and the ten vowel differences than the Ethiopian script , which only distinguishes between seven vowels. Due to the differences between the dialects, there is still no uniform spelling.

Oromo is the working language of the Oromia region , which was founded in 1991 and covers a large part of the Oromo areas. The Federalist Democratic Movement of the Oromo ( WAFIDO ) has so far been unsuccessful in advocating the introduction of Oromo as the second official language alongside Amharic throughout Ethiopia.

Phonetics and Phonology

Consonants

Like most other Ethiopian languages, Oromo has some ejectives , but there is also a rather unusual implosive retroflex plosive written “dh”.

In the Oromo alphabet, a letter consists of either a single symbol or a digraph. (ch, dh, ny, ph, sh). Gemination is not necessarily marked in digraphs, although some scribes indicate it by doubling the first consonant, for example qopphaa'uu = be prepared. In the table below, the IPA symbol is in brackets next to the letter if it is different from the letter. The phonemes / p /, / v / and / z / are in brackets because they only appear in loan words.

Consonants

		Bilabial / Labiodental	Alveolar / Retroflex	Postalveolar / Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosives	unvoiced	(p)	t		k	' [⁠ ʔ ⁠]
	voiced	b	d		G
	Ejectives	ph [ p ' ]	x [ t ' ]		q [ k ' ]
	Implosive		ie [⁠ ɗ ⁠]
Affricates	unvoiced			ch [⁠ ʧ ⁠]
	voiced			j [⁠ ʤ ⁠]
	Ejectives			c [ ʧ ' ]
Fricatives	unvoiced	f	s	sh [⁠ ʃ ⁠]		H
	voiced	(v)	(z)
Nasals		m	n	ny [⁠ ɲ ⁠]
Approximants		w	l	y [⁠ j ⁠]
Flaps			r

Vowels

Oromo has a typical South Cushitic vowel system with five short and five long vowels. The length is indicated by doubling the vowel.

	Front tongue vowel	Central vowel	Back vowel
closed	i [⁠ ɪ ⁠] ii [i:]		u [⁠ ʊ ⁠] , uu [u:]
medium	e [⁠ ɛ ⁠] ee [e:]		o [⁠ ɔ ⁠] , oo [o:]
open		a [⁠ ʌ ⁠]	aa [ ɑ: ]

morphology

Nouns

gender

Like other Afro-Asian languages, Oromo has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine, and all nouns belong to one of these two. Grammatical gender affects grammar in the following ways:

• Verbs (except to be ) congruent with their subject if this is in the 3rd person singular.
• Pronouns in the 3rd person singular have the gender of the noun they are referring to.
• Adjectives congruent with the nouns matched.
• Some possessive pronouns are congruent with nouns in some dialects.

With the exception of a few southern dialects, there is nothing that can be used to tell the gender of a noun. The grammatical gender (gender) usually corresponds to the natural gender. The gender of the inanimate varies in different dialects.

number

In Oromo there are the numbers singular and plural , but words that refer to several things are not necessarily in the plural if the connection is clear, for example through numeralia, for example: nama = man, nama shan = five men. The plural is formed by adding suffixes . The most common suffix is -oota ; the last vowel is left out before the suffix, for example: mana = house, manoota = houses; hiriyaa = friend, hiriyoota = friends; barsiisaa = teacher (sg.), barsiisoota = teacher (pl.). Other plural suffixes are - (w) wan , -een and - (a) an , whereby the preceding consonant can be reduplicated in the latter two: wagga = year, waggawwan = years; laga = river, laggeen = rivers; ilma = son, ilmaan = sons.

Certainty

Oromo has no indefinite articles , but definiteness is indicated by nominal suffixes : - (t) icca for masculine and - (t) ittii for feminine nouns. Vowel endings disappear before the suffixes: karaa = street, karicha = the street; nama = man, namticha / namicha = the man; haroo = lake, harittii = the lake. In the case of animated nouns that can have both genders, the suffix can show the intended gender: qaalluu = priest, qaallicha = the priest, qallittii = the priestess. These suffixes do not seem to be used that often and do not appear with plural suffixes. Indeterminacy is indicated by the numerals tókko , feminine tákka : qaalluu tókko = a certain priest.

case

A noun can appear in the absolute, which formally forms a kind of basic form, as well as in one of six cases identified by suffixes or an extension of the last vowel . These endings follow any plural or definitive suffixes. Some of these cases may have multiple forms, some forms include more than one case, and the differences in meaning can be quite subtle.

Absolutely

Nouns in Oromo have a basic form that is used when the noun is a direct object of a verb, object of a preposition or postposition, or a predicate noun :

• mana = house, mana binne = we bought a house
• hamma = until, dhuma = end, hamma dhuma = until the end
• mana keessa = in the / a house
• inni = he, barsiisaa = teacher, inni barsiisaa (dha) = he is a teacher

Nominative

The nominative is used for nouns that form the subject of a sentence.

• Ibsaa = male first name, Ibsaan = Ibsaa (nominative) makiinaa = car, qaba = he has, Ibsaan makiinaa qaba = Ibsaa has a car

For most nouns ending in a short vowel preceded by a simple consonant, the last vowel in the nominative is replaced by -ni . After certain consonants, the assimilation changes either the n or this consonant depending on the dialect .

• nama = man, namni = man (nominative)
• namoota = men, namootni, namoonni = men (nominative) (t and n can assimilate to nn)

If the last vowel is preceded by two consonants or a double consonant, the nominative suffix is -i .

• ibsa = statement, ibsi = statement (nominative)
• namicha = the man, namichi = the man (nominative)

If the noun ends in a long vowel, the suffix is -n

• maqaa = name, maqaan = name (nominative)
• nyachuu = eat, eat, nyachuun = eat (nominative)

If the noun ends in n , the nominative and base form are identical.

• afaan = mouth, language (basic form or nominative)

Some feminine nouns that end in a short vowel form the nominative with the suffix -ti , where assimilation can occur again.

• haadha = mother, haati (i.e. + t assimilates to t)
• lafa = earth, lafti

Genitive

The genitive is used for possession or belonging. The genitive is formed by lengthening the short final vowel, adding -ii to the final consonant or leaving the long final vowel unchanged. The possessive noun is in the genitive and follows the possessed noun.

• obboleetti = sister, namicha = the man, obboleetti namichaa = sister of the man
• hojii = profession, Caaltuu = female first name, hojii Caaltuu = Caaltuu's profession
• barumsa = research area, afaan = mouth, language, barumsa afaanii = linguistics

Instead of the genitive, the word kan (m.) / Tan (f.) Can be used in front of the owner:

• obboleetti kan namicha = sister of the man

dative

The dative is used for nouns that represent a recipient or a beneficiary of an event. The dative of an infinitive, which behaves like a noun in the Oromo, indicates the purpose of an action. The dative is formed as follows:

• Extension of a short ending vowel:
  • namicha = the man, namichaa = the man
• -f after a long vowel or lengthened short vowel, iif after a consonant
  • intala = girl, daughter, intalaaf = a girl, a daughter
  • saree = dog, sareef = a dog
  • baruu = to learn, baruuf = to learn
  • bishaan = water, bishaaniif = water (dative)
• dhaa or dhaaf after a long vowel:
  • saree = dog, sareedhaa, sareedhaaf = a dog
• -tti , especially with verbs of speaking:
  • Caaltuu = female first name, himi = say, tell, Caaltuutti himi = say (it) Caaltuu

Instrumental

The instrumental is used for nouns that represent the instrument ("through"), means, agent, reason, or time of an action.

• -n after a long vowel or lengthened, short vowel, iin after a consonant:
  • harka = hand, harkan = hand
  • halkan = night, halkaniin = at night
• tiin after a long vowel or an extended, short vowel:
  • Afaan Oromoo = Oromo (language), Afaan Oromootiin = in Oromo
• dhaan after a long vowel:
  • yeroo = time, yeroodhaa = in time
  • bawuu = to come out, bawuudhaan = by coming out

locative

The locative is used for nouns that represent the place. Pre- and post-positions are used for more precise location information. The locative sometimes overlaps with the instrumentalis, as it can also have a temporal function. The locative is formed by the suffix -tti .

• Arsiitti = in Arsii
• harka = hand, harkatti = in hand
• guyyaa = day, guyyaatti = per day
• jala, jalatti = under

ablative

The ablative is used for nouns that represent the source of an event.

• If the word ends in a short vowel, the ablative is formed by lengthening the ending vowel:
  • biyya = land, biyyaa = from the land
• If the word ends in a long vowel, dhaa is added:
  • Finfinneedhaa = from Finfinnee
  • gabaa = market, gabaadhaa = from the market
• If the word ends in a consonant, add -ii :
  • Hararii = from Harar
• -Tii is added after a genitive :
  • mana = house, buna = coffee, mana bunaa = café, mana bunaatii = from the café

An alternative to the ablative is the postposition irraa , whose first vowel can be omitted:

• gabaa = market, gabaa irraa, gabaarraa = from the market

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

In Oromo, sentences in which the subject is not emphasized do not need a personal pronoun, such as kaleessa dhufne = we came yesterday. The word “we” does not appear in this sentence, because person and number can be recognized by the verb dhufne , since it contains the suffix -ne . If the subject is particularly important in the sentence, a personal pronoun can also be used: nuti kaleessa dhufne . The table below shows all personal and possessive pronouns, with many variations depending on the dialect. Possessive pronouns are sometimes used as noun suffixes, and in some dialects there is no distinction between male and female in the first and second person.

Oromo personal pronouns

German	Basic form	Nominative	dative	Instrumental	locative	ablative	possessive pronouns
I	ana , na	ani , an	naa , naaf , natti	naan	natti	narraa	koo , kiyya [ too , tiyya (f.)]
you	si	ati	sii , siif , sitti	siin	sitti	sirraa	kee [ tee (f.)]
he	isa	inni	isaa , isaa (tii) f , isatti	isaatiin	isatti	isarraa	(i) saa
she	isii , ishii , isee , ishee	isiin etc.	ishii , ishiif , ishiitti etc.	ishiin etc.	ishiitti etc.	ishiirraa etc.	(i) sii , (i) shii
we	nu	nuti , nu'i , nuy , nu	nuu , nuuf , nutti	well	nutti	nurraa	keenya [ teenya (f.)]
her	isin	isini	isinii , isiniif , isinitti	isiniin	isinitti	isinirraa	keessan (i) [ teessan (i) (f.)]
she	isaan	isaani	isaanii , isaaniif , isaanitti	isaaniitiin	isaanitti	isaanirraa	(i) saani

The 2nd person plural is used as a form of politeness and the 3rd person plural can also indicate a polite reference to the 3rd person singular.

Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns

In Oromo there are two ways of expressing reflexive pronouns. One of them is the word "self" of (i) or if (i) . This word is inflected only with regard to case: isheen of laalti = she looks at herself, isheen ofiif makiinaa please = she bought a car. Another possibility is to use the noun mataa = head with a possessive pronoun: mataa koo = mir, mataa kee = dir etc. There is also the reciprocal pronoun wal = each other, which is used like of / if , for example: wal jaalatu = they like one another, kennaa walii bidan = they brought gifts to one another.

Demonstrative pronouns

Oromo demonstrative pronouns

case	Near ("this")	Fern ("that")
Basic form	kana [ tana (f.)]	sana
Nominative	kuni [ tuni (f.)]	suni

Verbs

In Oromo, a verb consists of at least one stem, which carries the lexical meaning, and suffixes, which indicate a grammatical tense or an aspect and which are congruent with the subject. For example, the verb form dhufne “we came” consists of the stem dhuf- “to come” and the suffix -ne , which indicates the tense past tense and the subject of the 1st person plural.

Verbal formation

In Oromo, new verbs can be formed from verbal or nominal stems with the help of suffixes and prefixes.

• Reflexive verbs: verb + -addh , e.g. B. bit = to buy to bitaddh = to buy sth
• Passive verbs: The Oromo forms passive verbs using a suffix -am , e.g. B. jaara = build to jaaram = to be built
• Causative verbs: Verb + - (i) s or -siis , e.g. B. bar = learn to barsiis = teach
• Fientic verbs: adjective + - (a) addh , -aaw , oom , z. E.g .: jab = strong to jabaaddh = become strong
• Intense and frequent verbs: They are formed by reduplicating the first stem syllable: dubbaddh = to speak to dudubbaddh = to speak again and again

Flexion

The verb in Oromo has five finite verb forms: a present tense, which also serves as the future tense, a past tense for past actions, an imperative, a subjunctive that is used in subordinate clauses, and a jussive, e.g. B. haa deemu (1st P. Sg.) "Let me go!", Haa deemtu (3rd P. Sg. F.) "Let them go!":

Conjugation of the verb in Oromo

	preterite		Present tense (past tense)				Jussive, imperative
			Main clause tense		Subjunctive (subordinate clause tense)
	Affirmative	negative	Affirmative	negative	Affirmative	negative	Affirmative	negative
1. P. Sg.	-n beeke	confess	-n beeka	beeku	-n beeku	confess	haa beeku	beekin
2. P. Sg.	beekt		beekta	beektu	beektu		beeki	hin beek (i) in
3. P. Sg. M.	beeke		beeka	beeku	beeku		haa beeku	beekin
3. P. Sg. F.	beekt		beekti	beektu	beektu		haa beektu
1. P. Pl.	confess		beekna	beeknu	beeknu		haa beeknu
2. P. Pl.	beektani		beektu , beektan (i)	beektan	beektani		beekaa	hin beek (i) inaa
3. P. Pl.	beekani		beeku , beekan (i)	beekan	beekani		haa beekanu	beekin

literature

Textbooks

• Catherine Griefenow-Mewis, Tamene Bitima: Oromo's textbook. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Cologne 1994, ISBN 3-927620-05-X .
• Mohammed Ali, Andrzej Zaborski: Handbook of the Oromo Language. Polska Akademia Nauk., Wrocław 1990, ISBN 83-04-03316-X .
• Rainer Klüsener, Debela Goshu: " Oromo word for word. 1st edition. Bielefeld 2008, ISBN 978-3-89416-386-0 . (Gibberish volume 215)

Grammars

• Catherine Griefenow-Mewis: A Grammatical Sketch of Written Oromo. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Cologne 2001, ISBN 3-89645-039-5 .
• Taha M. Roba: Modern Afaan Oromo grammar: qaanqee galma Afaan Oromo. Authorhouse, Bloomington 2004, ISBN 1-4184-7480-0 .
• Franz Praetorius: On the grammar of the Galla language. G. Olms, Hildesheim / New York 1973, ISBN 3-487-06556-8 .

Dictionaries

• Gene B. Gragg (Ed.): Oromo Dictionary. (Monograph (Michigan State University. Committee on Northeast African Studies) No. 12.) African Studies Center, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing, Mich. 1982.
• Edwin C. Foot: A Galla-English, English-Galla dictionary. Gregg, Farnborough 1968, ISBN 0-576-11622-X .
• Tamene Bitima: A dictionary of Oromo technical terms. Oromo - English. Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Cologne 2000, ISBN 3-89645-062-X .
• Tilahun Gamta: Oromo-English dictionary. University Printing Press, Addis Ababa 1989.
• A. Stroomer: A Concise Vocabulary of Orma Oromo (Kenya): Orma-English and English-Orma. Rüdiger Koppe Verlag, Cologne, 2001, ISBN 9783896450630

Other studies

• Harry Stroomer: A comparative study of three Southern Oromo dialects in Kenya. Helmut Buske Verlag, Hamburg 1987, ISBN 3-87118-846-8 .

Web links

Wikipedia on Oromo

• Ethnologue

Individual evidence

1. ↑ Ideology and complete party program of WAFIDO on the website (English) ( Memento of the original from April 6, 2010 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice.