Prostitution in ancient times

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Man and Greek hetaera before sexual intercourse; Red-figure oinochoe by the Shuvalov painter , around 430/420 BC Chr.

Prostitution in antiquity differs from prostitution in other epochs , despite many similarities . In ancient Greece , the division into lower-class prostitution and an upper-class prostitution of hetaerae , which is very controversial in today's science , can be seen. For Rome , however, it is noticeable that there was almost no high-priced prostitution. Unlike many other cultures, neither Greeks nor Romans rejected male prostitution, even if it was not always welcomed. Prostitutes were particularly often slaves and freedmen . For ancient Greece, the situation is in AthensRelatively well survived, otherwise the sources are very poor. In Roman times, especially the early imperial period can be extensively reconstructed using historical sources.

Designations

The noun prostitution is derived from the Latin verb prostituere . Prostitute literally means “to put (yourself or someone else) outside on the street”, which means “to offer for traffic”. The names for prostitutes in the ancient world are varied and sometimes drastic. In Greece, for example, there was the term σποδεσιλαύρα ( spodesiláura , "Gossenfegerin"), with the Romans lupa ("she-wolf") and scortum ("fur"). Most designations refer to women and their venality, so διώβολον ( diōbolon , "two obols -Woman") πόρνη ( porne from πέρνημι, pérnēmi , "into the distance selling") among the Greeks and meretrix (of merere , "Earn") with the Romans. Other terms refer to the availability of prostitutes: δῆμος ( dēmos ) and κοινή ( koinē , both terms stand for "common"); the Romans used the term publica ("public"). In some cases the term also refers to the place where a prostitute was looking for customers. So there is the γεφυρίς ( gephyrís , "bridge- keeper ") among the Greeks and the prostituta ("who stands on the street") among the Romans .

In contrast to the Greek Ἑταίραι ( Hetáirai , "companions") and the Roman amicae ("girlfriends"), a customer did not want to enter into a long-term relationship with a prostitute, only his quick sexual satisfaction.

The noun prostitution (Latin prostitutio ) was used exclusively by Christian authors in ancient times. This shows that it was only a new way of looking at things that arose with Christianity that created the need for a corresponding term.

Prostitution in ancient Greece

It is not known since when prostitution existed in ancient Greece in the sense of sexual service for money or other remuneration. It is first attested in writing by Archilochus in the 7th century BC. Apart from individual cases, statements about prostitution in Greece have only been made since classical times. Corinth in particular was known for its prostitution.

Sources

The most important source for research into ancient prostitution is the accusation speech of Apollodorus - handed down as one of the speeches of Demosthenes ( Pseudo-Demosthenes ) - against the former hetaera Neaira . She was accused of marrying an Athenian citizen, although she was not from Athens, and of having her own children as his, which was a criminal offense in Athens. In this speech the prosecutor, who actually only wanted to meet Neaira's partner, traces the whole life story of Neaira from her first steps as a prostitute in a Corinthian brothel to an age of over 50 years. It is not only the only such comprehensive source for Greece, but for all of antiquity. The tradition in the canon of Demosthenic speeches is a godsend for research into Greek cultural history. Here, as was customary in Athenian court speeches, not only was the problem presented, but the relevant laws were also mentioned.

In addition to the speech, there are longer passages in Athenaios . Also with the Greek historians and some poets, especially the Attic comedy poets, sometimes heavily exaggerated, there are occasional and mostly episodic references or reports about individual hetaerae.

Profane prostitution

Prostitute urinating; Interior of a drinking bowl by the ore foundry painter , red-figure vase painting , around 480 BC Chr.

Most of the evidence of prostitution in ancient Greece comes from Athens . There was evidence that various forms of prostitution were to be found in the port of Piraeus , in the suburb of Skiron and in Kerameikos . There was street prostitution as well as that in various brothels ; their visit was very cheap and open to all men, even slaves. There were no moral concerns; at most frequent visits could make a man a mockery of the public. Athens was also something special on mainland Greece because there were polis-owned brothels in the city where state-owned slaves worked.

Dealing with prostitutes was unproblematic for male Athenians. Nevertheless, the custom required that men with prostitutes did not socialize under the roof where the wife, mother or sister stayed or even lived. Sources show that offended women filed for divorce on the grounds that their husbands did not exercise sufficient discretion. There was seldom any other opportunity for men to gain sexual experience, since they generally did not marry before the age of thirty and sexual relationships with free citizens were not only frowned upon and accordingly rare, but could also put both partners in mortal danger. A guardian who caught the girl in his care with an intruder was allowed to kill her. Young Athenians, for example, had little contact with women to whom they were not related. In addition, there were apparently fewer women than men in Athens, so that many men could not marry at all. The problem for many young men was that the prostitutes, who were considered to be addicted to profit, had to be paid. It was not uncommon for young men to bring their inheritance through with prostitutes, but more likely with luxury-spoiled hetaerae.

Legal protection for prostitutes was extremely limited, and women could not survive without male protection. While wives and concubines were under the protection of the law, this did not seem to apply to prostitutes. So it was not possible without protection that only men could afford. Even without such problems, life was hard, and prostitutes decided to kill children more often than citizens. This was especially true for the male offspring, because unlike girls, they could not be used as prostitutes and were more of a financial burden than a pension for women. Numerous baby skeletons have repeatedly been found around the ruins of Roman brothels.

Many middle-class families abandoned their daughters so that they would not have to pay the expensive dowry later. If these girls were found, they were the property of the finder and were often brought up to prostitutes. This practice was one of the reasons for the numerical imbalance between the sexes. These women were not allowed to marry, marriage was reserved for free women. The greatest hope a slave working as a prostitute could have was release. Even then, not all claims of the previous owner, including sexual services, were extinguished.

In Athens one could distinguish three images of women, as presented by Apollodorus in his speech against Neaira:

  • Hetaera (prostitute) for pleasure,
  • Concubines for daily physical satisfaction,
  • Wives for procreation of legitimate offspring and as property managers.

However, this classification is not always consistent (see section on the hetaerae ).

A special form of Athenian prostitute were the flute girls ( αὐλέτιδες , aulétides ). They have existed since the end of the 6th century BC. BC, possibly earlier. They got their name from the instrument they played, the aulos . At the symposium , they first entertained the guests with their music, and later with sexual favors. However, these flute girls were not one of the respected hetaerae. They were normal prostitutes who generally looked for their customers in the port of Piraeus. Although there were even schools for flute girls - although they are said to have mastered the art of the flute less well - they were among the lowest prostitutes in town. Since the 4th century BC The name αὐλέτιδες ( aulétides ) became almost synonymous with “cheap prostitutes”. The maximum price they could charge was regulated by law and was two drachmas. It is said that men who paid more than the permitted two drachmas were reported and sentenced. Often there were fights between men at symposia over certain flute girls, as is known from the literature. Generally, however, a drawing of lots was used when several men claimed a girl. The woman herself had no say. So it is not surprising that the poet Anakreon described such prostitutes as “public passageways” or even “ cisterns ” (for taking in body fluids).

The living conditions in the brothel were apparently perceived as worse than a life on the street: From the speech against the stepmother of the Antiphon it is known that Philenus' slave concubine poisoned her master when she found out that he was tired of her, and they now fear had to be deported to a brothel. Larger brothels were called πορνέα ( pornéa ). The so-called building Z. with 15 small rooms, which served as a brothel and hostel for a long time, is known in Athens . Objects from the possessions of the women who worked there as well as dishes for symposia were found in it.

The prostitute's wages were negotiated before sexual intercourse. There are also reports that an entrance fee had to be paid and that the customer could then choose freely. Last but not least, the mundane way of dealing with money differentiated normal prostitutes from coveted lust boys and hetaerae, from whom one expected more than just a quick sexual act. The money generally went to the owner of the brothel, who was called πορνοβοσκός ( pornoboskós ). In Greek medium and recent comedy, these pimps were often the subject of ridicule. They were mostly portrayed as greedy villains. The prostitutes were generally slaves who were dependent on their masters and for whom social advancement was next to impossible. But there were not only slave prostitutes: From Athens, both freed women and non-Catholics have been found who prostituted themselves in order to earn a living. Often women had to work off their debts resulting from the self-ransom in this way. Such women had to register and pay a special tax.

It was evidently common for owners of slave girls to let them work even when they had no customers. They were mostly used in the manufacture of cloth, as the depiction of spinning prostitutes on many vase pictures shows. The discovery of over a hundred weaving weights in the aforementioned building Z also seems to confirm this.

Hetarianism

A hetaera dances for a symposium; Interior of a red-figure drinking bowl by the Brygos painter , around 480 BC Chr.

The term hetaera is problematic in itself. Just as the word γυνή ( gynē ) could mean both wife and woman in general, ἑταίρα ( hetáira ) denoted women with their own wealth or high prices as well as simple, prostituting slaves. In modern research, the term hetaera has prevailed for the expensive, more respected prostitutes.

In the minds of the Greeks, such a hetaera was very different from a simple prostitute. Hetaerae were an expensive luxury and usually only accessible to rich and aristocratic men. In their eyes, however, they did not pay the hetaera for sexual acts, but saw themselves as generous donors in the tradition of the aristocratic ethic of exchanging gifts. Accordingly, they supported the hetaerae and received company, affection and sexual favors in return.

Prostitutes were usually the only female participants in symposia . They could be simple flute girls, but also expensive hetaerae. They took care of the entertainment of the men present, which initially included dancing and making music, but later also included sexual acts. Depictions of hetaerae are quite common in Greek art. They were often drawn on the interior of drinking bowls in the red-figure style (see images on the right). Such drinking bowls were also part of the inventory used at the aforementioned symposium.

Hetaerae were partly slaves, but partly also free women. Occasionally they achieved great prosperity. Enslaved hetaerae were often ransomed by wealthy patrons. After that, they were able to operate on their own account or maintain a relationship with their patron. The aforementioned Neaira, whose fate is the only surviving story of an ancient prostitute, had the problem after her ransom that two men laid claim to her. One was the man who ransomed her, the other a new patron. Finally, the two men agreed on the modalities. It is not known whether Neaira agreed; she had to submit to the judgment.

Compared to the sources on simple prostitutes, that on heterosexuals and their social position in ancient Greece is much more extensive; many hetaerae have been handed down by name. The best-known is Aspasia , the wife of Pericles , but wrongly because she was not a hetaera. Her marriage was not legally recognized in Athens because of her foreign origin, so she was considered a concubine and, as such, could be directly linked to prostitution by her husband's political opponents. This example shows how the vagueness of the terms was used for demagogic purposes.

This problem continued into the 20th century. In order to reconcile one's own moral views with the idea of ​​these women, the image of an educated woman was constructed in research. Today, however, this picture can no longer be maintained. In current research, the boundaries between heterosexuals and simple prostitutes are becoming more and more blurred; some researchers are already denying the real existence of heterosexuals and see in them either only expensive prostitutes or concubines who were not prostitutes at all.

Male prostitution

In contrast to the respected pederastic boyhood love that took place within the polis societies of the classical epoch of Greece between freeborn men and those who had the right to be a citizen of the respective polis and which actually did not belong in the field of prostitution, the male prostitutes in the Greek cities were classical and Hellenistic times usually slaves; as with the female, male prostitutes were exclusively male customers. Male prostitutes had to pay a whore tax ( πορνικὸν τέλος , pornikón télos ). It is likely, but not certain, that the same was true of the female prostitutes.

Boy love was usually not synonymous with love that could be bought. It was often used as a means of education, and even when it was based on consideration, it was seldom monetary, but was given subliminally in the form of gifts.

There weren't any larger brothels with men, at least in Athens. They managed rather small, individual rooms ( οἴκημα , óikēma ), the door of which opened to the street. If they had no customers, they would sit in front of the door and wait for customers. The case of Phaedo from Elis , a friend and student of Socrates , is known to whom Plato erected a monument with the work of the same name: After the conquest of Elis, he was deported to Athens and used as a slave in a boys' brothel. Later he was freed by Socrates.

A Solon attributed law forbade on pain of death Athenian citizens who prostitutes herself before the People's Assembly to speak, to hold office or otherwise participate in public life.

Sacred prostitution

In modern research, the existence of temple prostitution , in which temple slaves ( hierodules ) prostituted themselves for money in honor of a deity, is controversial. In ancient sources, especially from Corinth, a cult in the temple of Aphrodite is reported. In one of his poems Pindar paid tribute to the Corinthian Xenophon for dedicating 100 hierodules. However, the historian V. Pirenne-Delforge denies that such sacred prostitution ever existed in Greece.

Sacred prostitution is also assumed for the Sicilian cult of Aphrodite of the Eryx , as Ovid , Strabo and Diodorus report. Hierodules are said to have been active as temple prostitutes here until the early Roman Empire. This cult was of supraregional importance and spread to Rome, where there was no proven sacred prostitution, even if prostitutes played an important role at the festivals for Venus Erycina , Venus Verticordia , Fortuna Virilis and Flora .

Prostitution among the Romans

Sources

There is no comprehensive account of the subject by ancient Roman authors. The existing numerous sources on Roman prostitution in antiquity are of different character. Usually these are marginal notes in texts on other topics. This applies to historical texts as well as purely literary works. Many such remarks are difficult to interpret today; they were rated differently in the course of the dispute. The most important authors are Catullus , Ovid , Martial and Petronius .

Relevant sources are also works on Roman law , some of which deal in more detail with prostitution. In the Digest there is a first comprehensive and precise definition of prostitution. Epigraphic texts, especially graffiti from Pompeii, are just as productive . After all, there are many statements on the economic dimension of prostitution in economic texts on papyri , especially for Egypt . In most cases, these are writings from around 200 BC. BC to about 300 AD. Above all, the literary sources refer mainly to the city of Rome . Unless otherwise stated, the following statements on Roman prostitution apply to the period of the late republic and the Roman imperial period until the rise of Christianity under Constantine the Great in late antiquity . Nevertheless, prostitution does not end in this period either, despite the sometimes violent treatises by Christian writers (but see the relevant section on the legal situation below).

World of prostitutes

Origin of the prostitute

The commercial exploitation of both males and females for sexual purposes was only part of the forced services. Every slave could be sexually abused by its owner or passed on to third parties for this purpose. Intercourse with slaves was not only recognized, it was even described and recommended in the literature and was in no way to be regarded as shameful. This was true of both the master and the slaves.

Since rich men could get themselves harmless from their slaves, there was hardly any noble prostitution among the Romans, in contrast to many other cultures. Sexual services took place for the most part in the lower-class milieu, in higher social classes the maintenance of a prostitute was considered more than patronage . The rather small number of high-class prostitutes attracted their wealthy clientele primarily through their sexual skills. State protection for female slaves did not exist anyway, as the Roman legal structure only granted rights to the owners.

There were several ways to get into prostitution. The most widespread was the abduction of prisoners of war. In later times, when there were fewer and fewer new slaves, the increase in slaves in one's own house became more and more important. Other possibilities were organized kidnapping - especially pirates kept the waters of the Mediterranean in uncertainty for decades - as well as child abandonment, child sales and also, until the final ban in the 2nd century BC. Chr., The self-sale.

But not only slaves fell into prostitution. Recent research suggests that there were far more volunteer prostitutes than previously thought. However, voluntary mostly only means that the women were not forced by their owners to sell their bodies. The Augustan marriage ban between prostitutes and not dishonorable persons suggests that there were quite a significant number of free prostitutes. It is also known that a few women rented themselves in brothels and offered themselves to the suitors there on their own account. There may also have been prostitution forced by the father. However, there are sources for this only from the time of the emperors Theodosius and Valentinian . During her reign, laws were passed that stipulated that fathers would lose control ( patria potestas ) over their daughters when they prostituted them.

The reasons for the prostitution of free women in ancient Rome were hardly different from today. These include a poor economic basis, a lack of training and catastrophic events in the family. It was not uncommon, however, that prostitution made it possible to earn more money faster, easier and more than with hard physical labor, for example in textile production.

Artes meretriciae : demeanor, clothing and skills

Two men and one woman having sexual intercourse; Pompeii, Stabian thermal baths
Woman sitting on a man during sexual intercourse; Pompeii, Stabian thermal baths
Sex act on a Pompeian mural
Man and woman doing cunnilingus; Pompeii, Stabian thermal baths

As usual at all times, prostitutes had to draw attention to themselves in Roman antiquity in order to attract customers. This form of self-presentation was called artes meretriciae . It was passed on between the prostitutes and includes social rules, beauty tips, but also more general rules of conduct.

Since it was not permissible for a proper Roman woman to move particularly conspicuously or even provocatively on the streets, this was inevitable for the business of the prostitutes . For a long time, research was based on dress codes for prostitutes, but this can no longer be maintained today. When prostitutes were not going about their business, they often wore the simple toga with a short tunic . They wore the simple clothes of the normal population, but their work clothes certainly corresponded to a refined code: some brothel whores displayed themselves naked or with bare breasts. Transparent, apron or short dresses made of brightly colored fabrics imported from the East were also popular.

Not least to cover up physical defects or minor blemishes, prostitutes were very well versed in the art of make-up and in handling other personal care products. Above all, the excessive use of perfume was almost proverbial and is often described in ancient literature. Considerable value was also placed on the hairstyle . Since blondes were considered particularly erotic, prostitutes often bleached their hair or wore blonde wigs. Depilation was also very widespread ; Prostitutes without pubic hair were particularly popular, even if graffiti known from Pompeii indicate other preferences of some men. The process of Depilierens however, was not very pleasant, as arsenic and Kalklauge were canceled want to remove pubic hair.

Depilation generally took place in the bathroom . Many brothels had their own water connections and a correspondingly high water consumption. Cleanliness was evidently common among Roman whores. In the brothel, at least, they seemed to have cleaned themselves thoroughly between two customer visits. Prostitutes who made their living on the street could seldom afford such luxury and only went to the public bath after their work. In Roman culture there was an abhorrence of all uncleanliness in relation to sexuality. Prostitutes who did not groom quickly lost their clients. The prostitutes were said to have a certain degree of uncleanliness, especially through the exercise of certain practices such as fellatio or anal intercourse .

But it was precisely these practices - unacceptable for a chaste Roman matron or concubine - that drove the prostitutes many customers into the arms. It was considered normal, common, and even healthy for young men in particular to visit prostitutes. In contrast, it was frowned upon when older men did this. Age sexuality was a certain taboo in Roman society. Older men who went to prostitutes faced ridicule from others because they were expected to be above their instincts. Oral intercourse in particular was very popular with customers and was regarded as a kind of “supreme discipline” among sexual practices. Last but not least, countless graffiti Pompeii still tell of it today. However, the prostitutes were often said to have bad breath because of the exercise.

Vaginal intercourse was generally performed in the form known today as the missionary position or by the prostitute “riding” her client . The course of these actions was mostly impersonal and sometimes quite brutal. The only goal was the satisfaction of male pleasure. A man also had to go to the brothel for other preferences. Cunnilingus was frowned upon in Roman society. Anyone who wanted to do this had to try a prostitute, as it was considered unreasonable for their own wife. Within a marriage, only vaginal intercourse was perceived as normal, and a wife should generally not feel any pleasure in the sexual act, because it was intended solely for the generation of legitimate offspring. Men who liked to give women oral satisfaction were considered impotent. Also considered voyeurism as a sign of impotence. Nevertheless, prostitutes were also paid to have sex in front of onlookers.

Other forms such as sadomasochism or coprophilia have not been proven.

Places of prostitution

topless courtesan on Kline , 2. – 3. Century AD, mold-shaped clay

Despite often poor or ambiguous sources, it can be said that prostitution was widespread throughout the Roman Empire. Particular points of contact were the cities and places such as inns or similar social centers in the country, where prostitutes or slaves were found who performed sexual services for the guests for the benefit of their masters.

In the cities, some places can be identified as particularly popular for establishing contact between prostitutes and customers. Ovid's Ars amatoria is an abundant source of information about the best places to contact. The preferred places were porticos, temples - primarily those that were primarily dedicated to deities worshiped by women, such as Isis , Pax , Ceres , Bona Dea or Magna Mater , but of course also the Venus  baths, circus and theater and in Rome especially in the poor district of Subura . On the outskirts of the city one could find prostitutes on the arterial roads in front of the city gates, the streets of graves being particularly notorious here. In the province, military camps and brothels are often found in the immediate vicinity. This is probably also due to the fact that Roman legionaries were not allowed to marry. Both in front of the gates and at the military camps, travelers or soldiers briefly stationed in Rome were probably the main customers, whereas in the Subura, for example, mainly residents living there are to be assumed as customers.

The ordinary Roman brothel was called lupanar , which is derived from lupa (she-wolf). Other names were lustrum (morass, puddle, wild cave; in the plural lustra also brothel and "dissolute life") or fornix (vault, wall arch). The first two terms in particular had a negative connotation even then. Brothels were private enterprises, only in Egypt there are signs of more strictly regulated systems, about which no more precise statements can yet be made. There were several forms of brothels or brothel-like accommodations:

  • the brothel building planned as a brothel from the start,
  • other businesses that offer sexual services in addition to their own products, such as inns, pubs, shops (especially bakeries),
  • Single rooms, mostly facing the street.

The last two forms in particular are very difficult to prove, as other uses cannot necessarily be ruled out here.

View into a cell of the Pompeian brothel owned by Africanus and Victor

After originating from the time of Constantine directory, there were forty-five Lupanare in Rome, later resulting in a short time Curiosum were even named forty-six. In the past, exaggerated numbers were assumed for Pompeii, but today it is assumed that there was only one first-type brothel in the city. This Lupanar by Africanus and Victor is the most important archaeological example of a Roman brothel today. It had ten rooms, five of which were on the lower floor, another five on the upper, no longer preserved floor. The lower cells, only two square meters in size, arranged around a corridor, were smaller than those on the upper floor and presumably housed the cheaper prostitutes. In each room there was a brick bed with a raised brick head. There were no other furnishings, apart from oil lamps that illuminated the windowless rooms. The rooms were closed by a wooden door or a curtain. The miserable air known from literature is then understandable, as there was only a small vent towards the corridor.

The walls of the corridor were painted quite high up with erotic scenes. This suggests that these images are to be interpreted both to stimulate those waiting and as a kind of catalog of services. Such catalogs seem to have existed on papyrus, at least they are known from illustrations. Until recently, researchers ignored the murals because the images appeared immoral to them. They weren't even described. The current situation is therefore very bad.

The brothels operated quite offensive advertising to attract customers. The entrances to the brothels were marked in different ways. Reliefs with erotic representations or phallus reliefs or lamps with phallic symbols were possible, for example . However, the interpretation is often difficult here, too, because such representations were quite common and did not necessarily have to be related to prostitution. Graffiti was also painted on the walls for advertising . Sometimes they were very clear, as they were written in large letters with a loud scream . Sometimes it was the prostitutes themselves who put up these inscriptions, sometimes the pimp or owner, but sometimes also a satisfied (or even dissatisfied) customer.

Information signs carved into a slab of the pavement

Obviously, there were also more subtle methods of advertising. For example, some prostitutes had put texts on the soles of their shoes that, as prints in the sand, signaled to the men that they should follow. Far less subtle were the rather rabid methods with which some brothel owners lured customers: there were smugglers and customer catchers on the move, some of whom also used violence in bad times to force customers to their fleeting pleasure. The prostitutes, too, sometimes tried to drag customers with them and were known for their cannonades if they failed. The simplest means of advertising, however, was when the prostitutes were sitting or standing in front of the brothel, scantily clad.

The meaning of some tesserae is unclear , which may have been brought to the people as vouchers by emperors as scatter brands. The meaning of this spintriae is very controversial in research, but there are many aspects that suggest that in addition to vouchers for the "circus", for grain and wine, vouchers for visits to brothels were also distributed. This is not only supported by the adornment of the stamps with sexual motifs, including the representation of positions, but also the numbering from one to 16 As , which corresponded to the most common rates for prostitutes.

The customer

Basically, as with the Greeks, it was also common with the Romans that only men used prostitutes of both sexes. Roman society did not allow women to have sexual contact outside of marriage or cohabitation . Marriages were not intended to satisfy either man or woman, but primarily to produce legitimate offspring. Even the development of a love was only of secondary importance and at most as an addition. Although women were seen as the more vicious and lustful sex, they were not allowed to live out their sexuality freely in a relationship, as prostitutes or with prostitutes. According to the prevailing views in Roman society, sexual fulfillment was only necessary for men. Since this was not possible within a marriage or cohabitation and certain sexual practices were frowned upon, it was absolutely okay for a Roman man to seek satisfaction in a brothel.

Those who did not have their own slaves or otherwise dependent persons could find prostitutes in many places in the city. More expensive courtesans were safely brought into the house, as were dancers, musicians and singers who performed at parties and were often available for sexual favors. Those who couldn't afford that went to a brothel or looked for contact options directly on the street. You either retired to a room to be rented, went to the prostitute's room, or simply looked for a place where you could perform the act in secret. There were also opportunities on the grave roads in front of the city gates. The prostitutes working there, called busturiae , who were said to have done it primarily with grave diggers, were considered particularly wicked. Her status was considered to be the lowest level a prostitute could get.

Naked dancer; Pompeii, Villa of the Mysteries

Much of the prostitution took place in the simple neighborhoods and was ubiquitous there. Prostitutes were not excluded from society, they were part of it. Although they were subject to certain restrictions - for example in the marriage laws - and had to pay a special tax, the amount and modalities of which were probably often regulated by aediles (in Greece by agoranomen ). However, even in the religious cult they were integrated and sometimes even took part in the festivals and mysteries in leading roles . Thus the customers and the prostitutes lived close together and mostly came from the same milieu. The low price invited to use sexual services more often. A man got a lot for little money and could do things that seemed impossible with a wife. However, there was not always respect for the sexual service providers and the brothels were not least seen as places of violence. From the literary tradition, the rough handling of the customers with the prostitutes is often known, who were beaten and hardly taken into consideration during intercourse. A prostitute was not entitled to courteous treatment while doing her job, which many men took advantage of. A society that was more used to rough morals - just think of gladiator games and animal baiting - consequently did not pay any attention to the sensitivities of women and men for sale. In art, however, unlike in the Greek period, there are no such representations. Probably even worse than the prostitutes in the brothel were those who earned their money on the street. In the literature, customers are also often described as a drunken rabble. Possibly to save money, it also happened that two customers shared a woman, as can be seen from graffiti in Pompeii.

In the course of time, special brothels developed for the specific wishes of customers. In addition to lupanaries for women and men, there were probably also brothels with animals or children. Martial praises Emperor Domitian for banning the sale of children for sexual purposes. However, this did not rule out the possibility that slaves born in the house continued to be abused. But here, too, the sources cannot be clearly interpreted.

A not to be underestimated share of the brothel visitors were slaves and freedmen who had little other option to fulfill their sexual desires. The graffiti on the brothel walls in Pompeii also give eloquent testimony to this, which is also well documented in the literature. For example, Cato the Elder makes a deal out of having his male slaves pay him permission to have intercourse with his female slaves. Two types of slaves emerged in literature: on the one hand the hard-working country slave, on the other hand the dilapidated city slave. There is undoubtedly a real core to this, as all the urban amusements in the city - also for slaves - were within reach and, in addition to visits to brothels, visits to thermal baths and games could be made. In the countryside, all these options were limited or nonexistent.

In addition to the lower-class customers, there were probably not a few younger boys from the upper-class who “shed their horns” on the simple prostitutes. Where older representatives of the upper class were badly regarded, if they even went into a brothel, one looked after the younger visitors. They were only blamed for wasting their inheritance in the brothels.

Unlike a normal prostitute, the courtesans, especially popular among the upper classes, were available for the rich patron, just like a Greek hetaera, for longer relationships. Often they were supported by just one customer. Such amicae are known at the side of many important ancient men, such as Scipio the Younger , Sulla , Verres , Pompey and Mark Antony . In Roman law, these courtesans were not regarded as prostitutes, not least because of their freedom of choice.

The soldiers made up a not inconsiderable part of the clientele. Wherever Roman armies gathered, prostitutes were to be found in the train . The soldiers, who were not allowed to marry up to the rank of centurion since the law of Augustus and who served long periods of service, had little choice but to go to prostitutes for sexual contact. The strict rules of Augustus were relaxed during the reign of Trajan and Hadrian and completely abolished under Septimius Severus . Some soldiers had female slaves who must certainly also be of sexual service. Homosexual contacts within the troops were not very welcome, especially when higher ranks abused their power over simple soldiers in this direction. Since Caligula , the soldiers had another connection to the prostitutes, since from that time on they were responsible for collecting the whore tax.

The profiteers of the business

When reconstructing the work of pimps and similar people, interpretation is difficult. Even in the early comedies, lenones and lenae , pimps, are often mentioned . They are portrayed extremely negatively. Although the profession of leno was consistently a recognized trade until the time of Valentinian I and Theodosius I , which ultimately prohibited pimping , these were at all times poorly regarded and were subject to infamy . Leno were little pimps. Some of them may have only prostituted their own wife, daughter or guardian. This form of prostitution has been forbidden as adultery since Augustan law.

The innkeepers, caupones , often acted as pimps on a small scale. Many rented rooms to prostitutes and their customers or, in addition to food and drink, also offered their mostly slavish waitresses for sexual services. In addition to landlords and bar owners, lifeguards, hairdressers and, particularly often, bakers were also mentioned in this way.

It is not uncommon for prostitutes to raise their own daughters or foundlings so that they can later work for them and thus have a secure livelihood in old age. This also explains the findings of many male, but only a few female, baby skeletons in a Roman brothel. In Roman society, the prostitution of free children, although not prohibited by law, was considered one of the most reprehensible acts one could commit; it couldn't even be justified by the threat of starvation. There were no such concerns about so-called unfree children.

Professional pimps were only found as owners or tenants of brothels. There is no information that street prostitution was divided into districts and that these were administered by individual pimps. Professional pimps had several options for obtaining slaves. One was the slave market, buying children from mostly needy parents, but also raising foundlings and children born in the house. Sometimes brothels belonged to more than one person. There are also known cases in which the actual owner did not want to be known, as this function was associated with a bad repute. Then he had his establishment run by other people, mostly a freedman or a slave.

Prices

The prices for the sexual services are partly literary, partly papyrological, but above all epigraphic in the form of graffiti on the walls of Pompeii.

The sources show a normal price range of 2 to 16 As (the latter corresponds to one denarius ). The literary sources also speak of lower prices, which seems rather implausible, especially for prices below an ace. The lowest prostitutes were called Quadrantaria , the name derives from the name for a quarter of ace, which was the usual payment for such a girl. Many higher prices are not to be regarded as realistic, although there were certainly hetaerae who were well to exceptionally well paid. Most sources that report high prices - especially when cited in connection with the Roman emperors - may be viewed as anti-emperors propaganda.

Graffiti from Pompeii shows amounts between 2 and 23 As. Almost half of the prices mentioned mention 2 As. It can therefore be assumed that this was the usual price that was occasionally exceeded. It can also be assumed that more was offered for higher prices or that the prostitutes paid for their special beauty. One can also assume that prostitutes who asked higher prices had fewer customers per day. Virgos are said to have achieved particularly high prices.

Sources for prices outside of Rome and Pompeii are very few, but it can be said that the price spectrum in the cities of the empire was roughly the same in the first and second centuries. There is generally little evidence of prostitution outside the cities; however, they suggest that prices there were somewhat higher. This can obviously be explained by the fact that there was much less competition in the countryside than in cities. In a well-known document from Aesernia , a customer is billed. A prostitute who was apparently employed at an inn was also billed. At 8 As, it even comprised most of the bill (14 As), which also included accommodation, meal and hay for the donkey.

The need for livelihood, as far as possible, has been calculated by historians Duncan Jones, Bettina Eva Stumpp, and others. Stumpp sets the subsistence level at 3000 As per year. According to their calculations, prostitutes could earn around 6,500 to 12,000 As net under ideal conditions. However, it is unclear to what extent this sample calculation can depict the reality of the time. In addition, the prostitutes also lost their attractiveness with increasing age; so you have to expect discounts. Of course, dependent prostitutes got less because their pimp or owner got the money. Nevertheless, one can assume that self-employed prostitutes in particular sometimes earn enough money to buy one or more slaves themselves and then let them buy them for themselves at an advanced age.

Little is known about the prices for female slaves who should be used for prostitution. In the literature there are some very high prices, but these are to be understood primarily in connection with criticism of imperial extravagance and their extravagant lifestyle and need not have anything to do with reality. For a normal prostitute, Martial's quotation is likely to be 600 denarii. This is in the lower price segment for slaves, which is realistic, however, since prostitutes were unskilled and did not have any special skills.

Legal position

Principate

Couple having sexual intercourse, Roman oil lamp from the Roman-Germanic Museum in Cologne

In Roman law there were repeated attempts to regulate prostitution. An attempt to abolish them was not made until late antiquity (see below). The most drastic legal regulation was the lex Iulia et Papia , which forbade high-ranking people to marry prostitutes. The aim of this law was to prevent prostitutes from rising to higher ranks of the Roman people. Equally important for prostitutes was the exception to the strict moral legislation regulated by the lex Iulia de adulteriis . This law exempted prostitutes from the penalties for adultery. This regulated the place of purchasable persons within Roman society. Legally they were at the bottom and on the fringes of society. This also applied to related professions, the protagonists of which were often equal to prostitutes in terms of their job description, such as male and female actors, serving girls, singers and dancers.

As in other professional groups and with people who were exposed to infamia , prostitutes were not allowed to inherit or only to a limited extent. The prostitutes were not protected from harassment and rape, especially by higher-ranking people; practically they were fair game. It is controversial in research whether the intrusion into a closed room and the subsequent rape of an enslaved prostitute was to be assessed as rape, or whether property law applied here.

In the course of the imperial era, laws against forced prostitution were repeatedly passed, for example the aforementioned law against the prostitution of children under Domitian. The prostitution of female slaves who had been expressly sold or inherited on the condition that they did not have to work as prostitutes was also prohibited. They were expressly protected by Roman law in this regard. In the sources, however, there are many places where there are reports of the disregard of such contractual clauses. Freed former slaves could not be forced to pay their debts as prostitutes.

Since the reign of Caligula , prostitutes and pimps had to pay a tax that was based on Greek models and generally equaled the price of having sex with the prostitute in question. In Egypt a fixed amount was due. Many documents that have been handed down speak in favor of consistent tax collection. Different bodies were responsible for this: in Rome and Carthage, for example, different ranks of the army, in Palmyra and Egypt civilian tax collectors.

This tax was evidently of great importance for the Roman state, which explains the consistent collection up to the Christian era. It was also a symbol of the legality of prostitution. As long as the tax was levied, prostitution was allowed in the Roman Empire.

In late antiquity

The strengthening of Christianity also had an impact on prostitution: at the end of the 3rd century, Pelagia renounced her previous life and withdrew into an ascetic existence, bequeathing her fortune to the Church. The bishop Nonnus is said to have refused to accept it.

Interestingly, Constantine the Great , who privileged Christianity, changed little in the state's existing attitude towards prostitutes - which does not mean, however, that there were no serious attempts to prevent prostitution in late antiquity . Around the middle of the fifth century, attempts were made by the state to eliminate certain problems of prostitution: the praefectus praetorio per Orientem Florentinus, referred to in the sources as a pious Christian, ensured that a new law was passed in the year 428 during the reign of Theodosius II was issued. Accordingly, prostitutes could present themselves to the bishop, the provincial governor or in the cities if they wanted to be released from their work. In 439, Florentinus also made sure that all prostitutes in the capital Constantinople were released and that brothel owners were expelled from the city. Also, as already mentioned, fathers were forbidden to profit from the prostitution of their daughters.

All of this happened not only because individual Christian authors took action against prostitution: Rather, it was now viewed as unethical to generate additional profit for the state from prostitution. This expressed the slowly growing contrast between the old Imperium Romanum and the new Imperium Romanum Christianum . Prostitution was finally banned under the Eastern Roman Emperor Leo I , and the corresponding tax was abolished; both proved to be ineffective, because under Anastasios I at the end of the fifth century there was again talk of the tax.

In Justinian's time , additional laws to protect young girls were passed after it became known that the prostitution industry was growing again in the capital. In the provinces, girls, some of them younger than ten, were bought by "traders". The emperor put an end to this. His wife Theodora campaigned for prostitutes: she had the girls freed, the brothels closed and gave them clothes and some money.

Research history

As with all topics that have to do with sexuality, initially non-specialist authors dealt with this topic in predominantly popular scientific works. Expert scientists found the topic too dubious and frowned upon. If at all, they only devoted themselves to the subject under a pseudonym. So it is not surprising that various misinterpretations arose that have been preserved in the collective memory to this day. Most of these first works were parts of overall presentations such as the sexual debauchery among the peoples of the old and the new world historically and the trade of haggling women represented under constitutional law (anonymous, 1826). As a rule, they were written on the pretext of wanting to improve morality or fight venereal diseases. In more demanding works like that of Ludwig Friedlaender , the subject was treated only marginally.

The topic experienced an upswing at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. Under the influence of socialism , psychoanalysis , the women's rights movement and an incipient sexual liberalization, academics sought and found a new approach to the topic. The first scientific discussion was carried out by the doctor and founder of modern sexology, Iwan Bloch . But even his work still contained the intention to destroy prostitution as such. So it is not surprising that many of his approaches are now to be viewed as outdated.

In the research of this time, for example, hetaerae were initially represented in an idealized way. The fact that, in addition to exercising their skills, they also gave themselves to men for a fee, was often pushed into the background as an unpleasant side effect. Those who were under the influence of the spreading feminism took a different view . They divided women into two categories: wives whose sexuality was restricted by men and prostitutes. The latter were simply prostitutes as well as heterosexuals and even concubines. Ultimately, both ideas were attached to idealized images of women. Today's research no longer sees any clear possibilities for separation, all boundaries have become fluid.

It was not until 1960 that a new wave of preoccupation with the topic set in. Among other things, Hans Herter researched in this area. He published an article that was highly regarded at the time ( The Sociology of Ancient Prostitution in the Light of Pagan and Christian Literature ) in the Yearbook for Antiquity and Christianity , which is, however, only partially up to date today. In retrospect, the work of this time dealt with Greeks and Romans across epochs and is of little scientific relevance today.

At the end of the 1980s, the studies of Ingeborg Peschel and Carola Reinsberg also brought a feminist perspective into ancient studies. The work of the two reinterpreted the image of the Greek hetaera. Bettina Eva Stumpp published a comprehensive study on prostitution in the Roman Empire. Since the 1990s at the latest, the topic has been taken out of the 'dirty corner', and many individual studies from a historical and archaeological point of view deal with individual aspects of this research area.

See also

literature

Source collections

Secondary literature

Web links

Commons : Prostitution in ancient times  - collection of pictures, videos and audio files

Individual evidence

  1. ↑ Plautus : Pseudolus 178.
  2. ↑ Compare the later terms scortum honestum , scortum regium and escort agency .
  3. ↑ For the names, see Elke Hartmann: Prostitution II: Classic Antike . In: The New Pauly . Vol. 10 (2001), column 451.
  4. ↑ Narrated by Aelian : varia historia 4,14.
  5. ↑ Demosthenes : Speech 59 .
  6. ↑ Athenaios 13.
  7. ↑ See, for example, Eubulos Fragments 67 K.-A.
  8. ↑ a b See Hamel: The case of Neaira , p. 25 f.
  9. ↑ The Mystery of 97 Dead Roman Babies. YouTube video, accessed December 22, 2013 .
  10. ↑ Jennifer Viegas: Infanticide Common in Roman Empire. Discovery News, May 5, 2011, accessed December 22, 2013 .
  11. ↑ Killing babies. (No longer available online.) The Times Literary Supplement, July 30, 2010, archived from the original on December 24, 2013 ; accessed on December 22, 2013 .
  12. ↑ On the flute girls see Hamel: Der Fall Neaira , pp. 18–24.
  13. ↑ For the financial details see Hamel: Der Fall Neaira , p. 17 f.
  14. ↑ Harald Patzer: The Greek boy love. (Meeting reports of the Scientific Society at the Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt am Main, vol. 29, 1), Wiesbaden 1982, pp. 1–131.
  15. ↑ Aeschines : in Timarchum 40.
  16. ↑ Aeschines: in Timarchum 21; Demosthenes: Speeches 22.30.
  17. ↑ Strabo 8, 6, 20; 12,2,36; Athenaois 13, 573 f.
  18. ↑ Fragments 122.
  19. ↑ Ovid: fasti 4,865ff .; Strabon 6, 2, 6; Diodorus 4, 83.
  20. ↑ So Petronius : Satiren 75,11 or Horace : Satiren 11, 2, 116ff .
  21. ↑ For the origin of the prostitute see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 25-60.
  22. ↑ On the Artes meretriciae see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 96-109.
  23. ↑ For the locations, see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 61-72 and 151-173.
  24. ↑ For advertising see Stumpp: Prostitution. P. 22; 62 f .; 214-219.
  25. ↑ For customers see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 174-191.
  26. ↑ Julius Rosenbaum : History of the lust epidemic in antiquity together with detailed studies of the Venus and phallic cults, brothels, Νούσος ϑήλεια of the Scythians, paederasty and other sexual excesses of the ancients as contributions to the correct explanation of their writings . 7th edition, H. Barsdorf, Berlin 1904, pp. 106-108 and 85 f.
  27. ↑ Very well prepared in Weeber: Decius was here , especially pp. 61–74.
  28. ↑ On the pimps and other profiteers see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 192-213.
  29. ↑ For this see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 214-229; Weeber: Decius was here , v. a. Pp. 66-72.
  30. ↑ See p: Dufour, Weltgeschichte der Prostitution, Vol. I, p. 212
  31. ↑ To calculate the required income and the budgeted expenses, see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 224-226; Richard Duncan-Jones: Economy of the Roman Empire. Quantitative Studies . 2nd edition, Cambridge 1989, ISBN 0-521-20165-9 , p. 11 ff.
  32. ↑ On the law, see Stumpp: Prostitution. Pp. 296-364.
  33. ↑ General information on the legal situation McGinn: Prostitution ; see. especially on late antiquity Arnold Hugh Martin Jones : The Later Roman Empire . Baltimore 1986 (reprint of the 1964 edition), Vol. 2, pp. 975 ff.
  34. ↑ See James AS Evans: Theodora . Austin 2002, p. 30 ff.
  35. ↑ Volume 3 (1960).
This article was added to the list of excellent articles on November 11, 2006 in this version .