Convict Colony Australia
The term Convict Colony Australia is used to refer to early Australia. In the former colony of Australia there were several convict colonies, first in Sydney and the resulting New South Wales , a "branch" of Sydney on Norfolk Island , also in Tasmania , at that time "Van Diemen's Land" and towards the end of convict shipping from 1851 to 1868 in Western Australia . The shipping and transfer of convicts to Australia, called "Transportation" in English, began in 1787 with the casting off of the eleven ships of the First Fleet and ended legally on June 26, 1857. In fact, it did not end until January 9, 1868, when the ship Hougoumont landed in Fremantle in Western Australia.
In an official statement, the Australian government assumes a total of around 162,000 convicts who were transported on 806 ships.
prehistory
Criminal law
In English criminal law which was prior to the beginning of the 18th century the death penalty for high treason, murder, manslaughter, assault, robbery, rape and theft imposed, including also fell forgery and counterfeiting. Deportation to penal colonies was seen as a substitute for the death penalty. It remained in force as a substitute for the death penalty until June 26, 1857.
A law from 1718 allowed deportation for offenses with a penalty of seven years, including petty theft. This meant that almost all crimes could be punished with the same penalty.
In 1784 King George III. authorized by a parliamentary act to determine suitable places of dispatch. He and the State Council decided on December 6, 1786 to build a prison on the east coast of Australia. Captain Arthur Phillip was named the first transport leader and the first governor of New South Wales .
Social conditions
The social situation of the English population was not only bad with the loss of the American colonies in the War of Independence of 1783, but rather impoverishment began as a result of the mechanization of work in factories with low wages, child labor and long working hours without opportunities to relax.
With the loss of the American colonies, the social situation deteriorated further and the crime rate continued to rise. Criminals had previously been exiled to the American colonies for detention. The capacities of the prisons and the alternative accommodation in prison ships were exhausted to accommodate the numerous prisoners. New alternatives to accommodation were needed. These factors led the British government to decide in 1787 to establish a convict colony in New Holland , which was then Australia's name.
Political conditions
Another possible reason for the establishment of the Australian colony is that after the loss of the North American colonies, England had found itself in a politically defensive position against France and wanted to strengthen its military presence in the Pacific region by setting up a fortified convict colony.
Foundation phase
First prisoner transports
On May 9th, Captain Arthur Phillip , the first governor of New South Wales , arrived in Portsmouth , and on May 13th, 1787, the eleven-ship First Fleet cast off at Mother Bank near the Isle of Wight . There were two warships, three ships with food, equipment and supplies and six ships for the transport of the convicts. The warships, the Sirius and the HMS Supply , were under the command of Captain John Hunter . The Sirius was the flagship of Governor Phillip. The number of soldiers including officers in the Royal Navy was 212 (of which 28 officers were allowed to take their wives and children) and the number of convicts was 778; 13 children of the convicts were distributed among the ships. When the fleet anchored off Tenerife at Santa Cruz on June 2, nine marines and 72 convicts were sick and 21 convicts were dead, including three of the convicts' children. Attention was paid to dangerous disease outbreaks on these ships, and therefore only 45 people, 36 men, four women and five children in total died on this voyage.
On January 18, 1788, the HMS Supply was the first of a total of eleven ships in the First Fleet to reach Botany Bay, Australia . As Botany Bay proved unsuitable for a settlement, Port Jackson was eventually chosen and named Sydney .
On February 7, 1788, the first statutory government was installed on the coast, during which 14 convicts were married. However, around February six convicts were tried for theft and sentenced to death. The ringleader was immediately executed, one was pardoned, and four were abandoned on an island with dry bread and water.
The second transport of prisoners, the Second Fleet , was operated by a transport company that used to transport slaves to America, and a fixed price was negotiated for each convict, regardless of whether the person arrived alive or dead. The fleet left England on January 19, 1790 with 1006 convicts, including 928 men and 78 women, and arrived in Sydney in June. The death rate was the highest during the transport to Australia, because 267 of the convicts died on the ships, of which 256 were men and 11 women and another 150 died after landing in port. One in four at sea did not reach Sydney. The newly arriving convicts, most of whom were sick or in poor health, faced the starved convicts of the First Fleet. As a first measure, those responsible for the Second Fleet sold surplus food and clothing. The health of the people in the Second Fleet was so poor that, for example, of 499 convicts on the transport ship Neptune, only 72 were in a state of health that could be described as normal.
Thomas Muir of Huntershill , Thomas Fyshe Palmer , William Skirving and Maurice Margarot arrived on the Surprize , a ship of the Second Fleet . They were the first political convicts to campaign for civil rights, thus turning against British authorities, and being deported to Australia as punishment.
The third ship transport, the Third Fleet , took place in 1791 with eleven ships and 2,000 passengers, on which 194 male and four female convicts died. When the news of the high death rate reached London, the Third Fleet was already on its way. No further order was placed with the shipping company responsible for transportation .
Struggle for survival
After the First Fleet arrived, the food consisted of salty 4 English. Pounds of beef and 2 pounds of pork , 2 pints of dried peas , 3 pints of wheat flour , 7 pounds of ship's rusks , 12 oz of hard cheese , 6 oz of butter, and ½ pint of vinegar . The food, which was supposed to last two years, was distributed weekly to seamen, officers, marines and convicts. The male convicts received only 2/3 of the aforementioned rations and the female 2/3 of the male convicts. The fleet also brought 2 bulls and 5 cattle, 29 sheep, 19 goats, 74 dogs and pigs, 5 hares, 18 turkeys, 35 ducks, 35 geese and 209 chickens to Australia, but continued breeding failed.
In order to be successful in agriculture, there were no draft animals in 1788, and it was not until 1803 that the first plow arrived in Australia. Only officers were allowed to plant a vegetable garden that convicts had to cultivate. The yield remained modest and the monotony of the food as well as hunger determined the life of the newly founded convict colony in the first years. In the first few years, the colonists lived largely peacefully next to the indigenous population and could therefore certainly see that they did not suffer from severe malnutrition, as they could be. a. also fed on local plants. Hence, it remains incomprehensible why they did not adopt and apply this knowledge. One possible explanation for this is that, in their colonial arrogance, they preferred to starve to death rather than eat “Blackfella food”. The colonists harvested little local plants such glycophylla smilax , a sarsaparilla , called sweet tea ( sweet tea ), and wild spinach.
Fish was the only fresh protein available to Europeans. Those who chose fish had to forego 2½ pounds of the half-rotten rationed beef when they got 10 pounds of fish. Hardly anyone wanted to do without the salty meat. The extent to which locally occurring animals were used for food is not documented. When in 1789 the expected supply ship Guardian, laden with food from England, failed to materialize because it was shipwrecked on its way, Governor Arthur Phillip cut the weekly rations for all to 4 English. Pounds of wheat , 2½ pounds of salted beef, and 1½ pounds of rice because of famine threats. He was severely punished for food theft and also imposed the death penalty. As a further measure to alleviate the hardship, he sent a ship to Cape Town to procure food . When it docked again in Sydney in May 1789, it had 52 tons of flour and other grains (wheat and barley ) on board. The flour only lasted for four more months and the grain was used for sowing on Rose Hill , now a suburb of Parramatta near Sydney . To reduce the number of people to be fed in the colony, Arthur Phillip sent 281 convicts in 1790, a third of the convicts at the time, with other soldiers as security guards on the Sirius to Norfolk Island. The situation improved when the Justinian , a Second Fleet supply ship, landed in Sydney in June 1790 and convicts were allowed to grow food. The first convict to become a successful farmer on the Australian continent was James Ruse from Cornwall . Ruse had given Arthur Phillip land at Parramatta to grow corn and wheat, and when he had a successful harvest in February 1791 after developing a fertilizing method for the existing poor soils, he gave him 30 acres of land in gratitude . Four years after the arrival of the first European settlers, the colony was still unable to support itself. By October 1792, Phillip had only been able to transfer land to 66 people that could be used to feed the population. Only gradually did the food supply stabilize.
After Phillip left the colony, at a time of persistent hunger and the benefit of New South Wales Corps officers in giving land to everyone else and to the hard-working convicts, many of the disadvantaged turned to rum . The monopoly over rum was in the hands of the officers of the New South Wales Corps, also known as the Rum Corps, who used it to their advantage (see below). Robert Hughes , the author of the English-language book The Fatal Shore ( The Deadly Shore ) describes the first five years of the convict colony as a "colony of the hungry" and the period thereafter up to the Rum Rebellion as a "colony of the drunk".
Clothing emergency
Not only was there an emergency in terms of food, but also the provision of clothing to the marines and convicts had been neglected by the colonial administration in England: The marines wore torn uniforms, buttons were missing, and some were barefoot or with torn boots. They obeyed neither military drill nor marching orders, their rank was for the most part no longer recognizable by their ragged uniforms. Philip Gidley King , the official founder of the penal colony Norfolk Iceland, remembered a report of the botanist Joseph Banks , in which he reported that the Maoris of New Zealand master the art of linen weaving and so this problem could be solved for the new arrivals. King sent a ship to New Zealand that brought two young Maoris to Norfolk Island at the age of 24. After six months they were brought back because it was discovered that only women in New Zealand can weave. The problem was later resolved by female convicts when they were given opportunities to grow flax .
On December 10, 1792, Governor Phillip left the prison colony with the Aborigines Bennelong and Yemmerrawanne due to illness .
Rum rebellion
The Marines of the New South Wales Corps , led by Major Francis Grose and William Paterson , used Phillip's absence to their private advantage. The convicts were now at their personal disposal. As a first measure, Grose set aside the same distribution of food rations that Phillip had ordered, and each member of the New South Corps could receive 20 acres of land if so desired. All goods arriving at the port were confiscated by the military and distributed according to their interests. This was the first time that a prominent social class emerged in Australia. At that time rum played a special role, which was used by the officers like a currency and enriched them. When the American merchant ship Hope brought 7,300 gallons of rum to Australia in 1793 , this development was further promoted. This resulted in the officers owning 33% of the cattle present, 40% of the goats, 59% of the horses and 77% of the sheep in 1799 and having funds at their disposal on large land holdings on the fertile plains of the Hawkesbury River to the northwest of Sydney to acquire. Governor John Hunter , who was installed after Phillip, made several unsuccessful attempts to have troops guarded imported rum and thus prevent the officers from buying it, but this failed. Attempts to stop all imports failed due to the lack of cooperation from other governments and because the officers chartered a Danish ship and thus organized their own imports from India. This development in the convict colony led to the Rum Rebellion in 1808 , the only armed uprising in Australia, as a result of which Governor William Bligh was ousted after attempting to reverse the appropriations of land and wealth by officers of the New South Wales Corps close.
Penal colonies of Australia
Sydney and New South Wales
In the years that followed, convicts were transported to Sydney and the settlement expanded. Significant for the further development of Sydney was that the first free settlers arrived in 1793, although the number remained small in the first time. They received free passage, free land, equipment and food in the beginning and the convicts were given no obligation to provide for their maintenance, because otherwise “ nobody would have been willing to enter this country as a free settler. “In late 1789, Sydney ran out of butter and the food supplies were depleted by mice and rats. At the end of 1789 the rations were reduced to two thirds and further reduced in early 1790. In the spring the Sirius was sent with men to Norfolk Isle to relieve Sydney. The ship crashed on Norfolk Isle. In times of need, the convicts' thievery and looting became rampant and the governor used martial law, which resulted in executions and severe punishments. The situation only eased in June 1790 when a ship, the Justinian , arrived laden with groceries.
When the warship Gorgon landed in Sydney on September 21, 1790 , it brought the right to pardon, which the governor was only allowed to grant if the convict undertook to settle in the colony. Otherwise they were only released after their sentences had expired, often never returned to England and settled in Sydney and later in other parts of Australia. By October 1790, Sydney had grown to 4,000 people, including soldiers and officials.
Arthur Phillip returned to England in November 1794 because of his poor health, followed by Major Franz Grose and then Captain William Paterson . The officers of the New South Wales Corps , the so-called Rum Corps, occupied civilian posts that became vacant and appropriated land and influenced trade and thus also the distribution of brandy. Crime, drinking and gambling addiction developed as a result. When John Hunter, Phillip's successor, arrived on September 7, 1795, the population of New South Wales had risen to about 4,000. Hunter failed to reduce the officers' influence and he resigned in 1800. He was succeeded by Captain Philip Gidley King , who was on the Norfolk Isle on Phillip's orders. During his tenure, a new penal colony was established in Tasmania. He resigned in 1806, followed by William Bligh , who was known for the mutiny on the Bounty. Bligh went immediately against the officers and their machinations, whereupon they occupied his house after a scandal in court and took him prisoner. Colonel Paterson held Bligh prisoner for a while, and Bligh returned to England. England then set up Lachlan Macquarie , who took the place of governor on December 28, 1809 and ruled for twelve years. During his time, the white population of New South Wales grew to 24,000 people, the convicts were used in public road construction, and he supported released convicts wherever he could. The country flourished and in 1822 free immigration began, which gradually increased. The colony was only able to expand further inland when the Europeans Gregory Blaxland , D'Arcy Wentworth and William Lawson crossed the Blue Mountains in 1813 , and the first road was built two years later, and a railroad some 40 years later .
Initially there were around 800 free immigrants in the mid-1830s and 12,000 in 1841. Immigration had become attractive, the land was valuable and could be acquired, convicts were given to the settlers for wages and food. As there were complaints about the security situation in Australia and an anti-transport league was formed, an investigation was initiated and based on this result the deportation was stopped on May 22, 1840. On June 25, 1851, New South Wales was removed from the list of penal colonies due to popular protests.
Norfolk Island
On February 14, 1788, an officer, six marines, a midshipman, a surgeon and two other persons under the command of Phillip Gidley King , Sirius ' second officer , were sent to Norfolk Island on the Sirius to establish another colony Another officer, eight marines and 30 convicts, 20 men and 10 women, followed in October. The colony grew to 498 people from Sydney by March 24, 1790, including 291 convicts, 191 men and 100 women. This settlement of the island was the result of the lack of food in Sydney, which would last until June 1790, as no supply ships had arrived. Thefts were committed every day and the perpetrators could only rarely be traced. Only severe punishment and surprising searches of the huts put something off. The convicts' work ethic was poor because there were not enough supervisors for the convicts. With the collapse of wood and flax processing, the convict colony was abandoned in 1813, all buildings demolished and the island left to its own devices. 12 years later, Norfolk Island became a prison for serious criminals, and the prisoners had to work under the most extreme conditions; the death rate was high. The prison was closed in May 1855 when reports of the situation reached the public in England and the free people of the Norfolk Isle protested.
Tasmania
The first settlement of Tasmania took place from Sydney under the direction of Lieutenant John Bowen . He arrived in September 1803 and founded the first settlement, Risdon Cove , on a branch of the Derwent River . He was accompanied by 94 prisoners and soldiers. In February 1804, more than 200 prisoners and soldiers came directly from England. They built the settlement Sullivan's Cove , later Hobart, and another place on the opposite bank of the Derwent . Tasmania was made an independent colony in 1825 and 4,000 convicts were brought to the island every year. The settlements and the prisons were overcrowded. The convicts were outnumbered on the island and roamed Tasmania, pillaging, pillaging and committing crimes in broad daylight. Security and order were no longer in force. England wanted to start transporting from Tasmania to New South Wales. When a ship with convicts pulled into Sydney, the population tried to prevent it from being unloaded, but inland settlers took them in and, due to the protests, on June 25, 1851, transactions in New South Wales were ended and New South Wales off the list Penal colonies deleted. The sending of convicts to Tasmania ended entirely in 1854.
Western Australia
Today's Western Australia was settled by Europeans on the Swan River from 1829 . The colonization initially took place without convicts in the so-called Swan River Colony . This form of colonization threatened to fail due to a lack of labor. As a result, around 10,000 convicts were brought there between 1850 and 1868. But here, too, the deportation of convicts was ended after popular protests.
Convicts
.jpg)
Political convicts
In addition to the convicts who had committed criminal offenses, there were also political convicts such as the Irish, Scots and British who turned against the authorities and demanded civil, social and trade union rights.
Irish
Early rebellious Irish who campaigned for a unified Ireland called themselves United Irish and Defender . The first ship to bring Irish political convicts to Australia was the Marquis Cornwallis , which had 168 men and 73 women on board. More of them were transported when the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was put down, in which the Irish, united with France, turned against British rule in the Kingdom of Ireland , including Joseph Holt , Maurice Margarot , Richard Atkins and Samuel Marsden . In the period from 1815 to 1840, during a period in which more or less a civil war was raging in Ireland, numerous political convicts were also transported to Australia for punishment. There were around 1,200 Irish political men who came to Australia as political convicts during this period. These Irish, who called themselves Carravats and Carders, Whiteboys, Rightboys, Heart of Steel and Ribbon Men, tortured their opponents or burned houses. From a British point of view, however, the White Boys were the most dangerous because they championed union interests.
A total of around 30,000 men and 9,000 women were deported from Ireland directly to the prison colony between 1793 and 1840, around 20% of them because of their political and social engagement. Because of politically motivated rebellion, which resulted in human injuries and property damage, only around 1,500 people are said to have been in total.
Bulkheads
In the early 1790s, under the influence of the French Revolution, a movement emerged in the Kingdom of Great Britain among intellectuals, lawyers and pastors, including in Scotland , who met with like-minded workers in political discussions. They called themselves - following the French Jacobins - as Jakubiner and campaigned for the abolition of the nobility. Their manifesto Rights of man ( The rights of man ), the Tom Paine had written, was sold a million copies in England. The first Jakubins were thrown into prisons in Edinburgh and came as convicts on the first fleets to arrive at Botany Bay. One of the political convicts was the Scot Thomas Muir , who was the vice-chairman of the round table in Glasgow and had been sentenced to 14 years of transportation in Australia. The Scot William Skirving advocated a reform of the British constitution, this was punished with 7 years of transportation. The British government only wanted to neutralize these convicts politically, they did not have to work in the convict colony, were given land and initially earned their living by selling rum until this ended in the Rum Rebellion .
British
About 1,800 British people were deported between 1800 and 1850 for participating in disputes with the authorities or their political stance. It was above all people who can be counted among the first labor movement of the early industrialization of England and who wanted to change their poor living conditions. Deportees were on hunger strikes (1816) or on food (1812-1813 and 1816) and weaver uprisings (1821 in Yorkshire, also in Scotland in 1820), on the uprisings of Bristol (1831) and Wales (1835), on the machine storms in the early 1830s were involved. Furthermore, from 1828 to 1838, 30 to 40 black Africans were transported annually, who were classified in the courts as members of the exicitable classes ( excited classes ). The same thing happened to about 100 Chartists between 1839 and 1848.
progeny
It is now believed that approximately two million citizens in Great Britain and four million citizens of Australia are descendants of convicts.
Convict Numbers
The Australian government states that around 162,000 male and female convicts were shipped on 806 ships. Of these, 70% were English and Welsh , 24% Irish, 5% Scots and the remaining 1% consisted of Indians and Canadians, Maoris , Chinese from Hong Kong and slaves from the Caribbean . About a fifth were women. 83% of the male convicts were between the ages of 15 and 30, with the oldest nearly 70 and the youngest 13 years old. 75 percent were unskilled workers. But only 2% were murderers or felons. 87% of the men and 91% of the women were transported to Australia as convicts for minor offenses.
From 1787 to 1838 a total of 79,000 convicts were sent to Australia, 43,506 men and 6,791 women to New South Wales, 24,785 men and 2,974 women to Tasmania. The deportation of convicts from Great Britain to Australia was legally ended on June 26, 1857, when England repealed the "Transportation Law".
The youngest male convict was John Hudson , who reached the convict colony with the First Fleet on the Friendship at the age of 13 . The youngest female convict was Elizabeth Haywood, aged 14. She came with the Lady Penrhyn . The oldest convict , as far as is known, was Joseph Owen , 68 years old. Dorothy Handland was the oldest female convict because her age was estimated at 82 years. The long-mentioned age of 61 when they arrived is now believed to be wrong.
Convict ships
.jpg)
All of the convict ships were not built specifically for the transport of people; most of the early days were old and barely seaworthy. The British colonial administration awarded the orders to private British shipping companies and thus the ships were not subject to any higher state supervision. The first three fleets set sail on the basis of contracts between the shipping company Camden, Calvert & King and the British colonial administration. This shipping company used to be a slave transport company that now fitted the First Fleet ships with chains that were used to put African slaves in irons. After the high death rate of the Second Fleet caused a sensation in London, this shipping company was not given a new transport order after the return of the Third Fleet. The British government, however, blamed "barbaric skippers".
When it later emerged that there were many Irish among the dead convicts at sea , this was explained in such a way that the skippers feared mutinies from them. As evidence for this, it was cited that on the transport ship Britannia , which carried 144 Irish male and 44 female Irish on board in 1796, after the flogging of the alleged ringleader, William Trimball, published 31 names of convicts who were planning a mutiny. When the ship was then examined for weapons, half a dozen self-made objects such as hand saws, knives, irons and scissors were found, which were taken as evidence of a prepared mutiny. The skipper Thomas Dennott sentenced the suspects to a total of 7,900 lashes, which six convicts did not survive. Dennott forbade the ship's doctor Augustus Beyer to treat wounds for the whipped. The government investigated the incident, but did not condemn the skipper or the ship's doctor. However, it prohibited both of them from any further activity on ships. In 1801, because of the poor conditions on the transport ship Hercules, there was a mutiny of the convicts, in which 14 convicts were shot in the ensuing confrontation. Another 30 convicts died from exhaustion and exhaustion on the further voyage. Mutiny attempts were frequent and they were usually punished by whipping, but only one mutiny on a transport ship with female convicts, the Lady Shore , was successful . However, this bloodless mutiny was carried out by marines of the New South Wales Corps, who hijacked the ship to Montevideo and handed over the convicts there as political refugees "in the name of the French Republic".
The colonial government changed its contracts after the events on the Second Fleet. The convict transport ships were no longer allowed to transport goods to Australia that they could sell there with high profits. Each ship was assigned a marine doctor who was no longer accountable to the skipper and the shipping company. The doctors were now able to make independent decisions on health issues. The first marine doctor performed his service from May 1792 on the Royal Admiral . Another three ships had a doctor on board in 1793 and of a total of 670 British and Irish convicts, only 14 died during the voyage. After Great Britain entered the Napoleonic Wars in 1795 , the convicts were again transported without doctors because they were used in this war. The ships were now accompanied by a so-called "marine supervisor" with the result that the death rate was reduced to individual cases. There was only a doctor on one of the 18 ships that transported convicts in the next 20 years after the start of the war. Furthermore, there were inhuman contractual agreements, such as from 1798 in which the transport ship Hillsborough was guaranteed a bonus of 4 British pounds, 10 shillings and 6 pence for every convict who landed either dead or alive in Australia. According to reports from convicts, in these cases, because of this contract, they often had to live and sleep next to the deceased for days. But there are also indications that the treatment of the convicts on the ships was different and not always inhumane. Mutiny attempts were intervened and the whipping, as happened on the Britannia , was not repeated, the penalty was limited to four dozen blows, with both the team and the convicts having to be present when the sentence was carried out.
According to Robert Hughes, by the end of convict transport in 1868, 825 ships were being transported, an average of 200 convicts per ship. By 1800, 42 ships and from 1801 to 1813 no more than 5 convict haulers annually docked in Sydney. This means that no more than 1,000 convicts reached Australia each year during this period. From 1815 the number of transports increased, which can be attributed to the end of the Napoleonic Wars of 1815, in which the British were involved. From 1831 to 1835 133 ships deported 26,731 convicts to Australia, with 36 ships in 1831 with 6,779 convicts being the highest figure. Of these, 4,000 were transported to Sydney and the rest to Van Diemen's Land .
After 1810 the ships became faster. While the First Fleet needed 252 travel days to get to Botany Bay and spent almost ten weeks in ports to store food and water, this was no longer necessary to this extent. Some of the ships were accompanied by the British Navy, no longer had to carry provisions for years to survive in Australia and they chose other routes. From 1820 the ship's captains sailed via Rio de Janeiro and then directly to the south coast of Australia and deposited the convicts north in Sydney or sailed on to Hobart . In the 1830s, convict transports typically reached Australia in less than 110 days. Several ships even took less than 95 days.
The last convict ship was the Hougoumont , an 875-ton ship that left England on October 12, 1867 and reached Fremantle on January 9, 1868 with 108 passengers and 279 convicts, including Irish poet and Fenian John Boyle O'Reilly . One convict died on the trip.
See also
literature
- Arthur Phillip , Rudolf Plischke (arrangement): Australia. The establishment of the penal colony . Lamuv , Göttingen 2001, ISBN 3-88977-593-4 (= Lamuv-Taschenbuch Volume 293).
- Australia: of aborigines and dream paths, of convicts and colonists, the history of the fifth continent . Gruner + Jahr , Hamburg 2009, ISBN 978-3-570-19889-6 (= Geo Epoche , No. 36, with DVD: "Long Walk Home" )
- 'David Collins, History of British Folk Planting in New Holland or New South Wales from May 13th 1788 to September 1796 , 1799, digitized
Web links
- List of Irish convicts by ship and name
- Entry of the "Convict Records of Australia" in the list of UNESCO World Document Heritage
Individual evidence
- ^ A b Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 24.
- ^ A b Convicts to Australia . Retrieved July 2, 2010
- ↑ a b Convicts and the British colonies in Australia ( Memento of the original from January 1, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. (English): In: Australian Government , accessed March 7, 2015
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 28
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . Lamuv, Göttingen 2001, ISBN 3-88977-593-4 p. 33
- ^ Albrecht Hagemann: Brief history of Australia. CH Beck Verlag, Munich 2004, ISBN 3-406-51101-5 online in parts on Google Books
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 37 f.
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 44
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 101
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 63 and 73
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 145. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ↑ http://www.historyaustralia.org.au/ifhaa/ships/2ndfleet.htm Information on www.historyaustralia.org.au
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 96-108. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ List of Convicts
- ^ A b Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 145. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ A b Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 96-108. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ The final gastronomic frontier - In: The Age of July 16, 2002.
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 103. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 100-101. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 108. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 109-111. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 176
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 161 f.
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 167
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 174 ff.
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 147
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 82 ff.
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 189
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. ISBN 0-394-50668-5 . Pp. 181-183
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. ISBN 0-394-50668-5 . P. 195
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. ISBN 0-394-50668-5 . Pp. 175-180
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. ISBN 0-394-50668-5 . P. 195
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. ISBN 0-394-50668-5 . Pp. 195/196
- ↑ a b Tom Lawrie: On this day: Australia's last convict ship docks ( Memento of the original from June 25, 2016 in the Internet Archive ) Info: The archive link was inserted automatically and has not yet been checked. Please check the original and archive link according to the instructions and then remove this notice. , on australiangeographic.com.au, dated December 11, 2011. Retrieved June 25, 2016
- ↑ Online records highlight Australia's convict past , on abc.net.au. Retrieved August 6, 2016
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 188
- ^ Arthur Phillip, Rudolf Plischke (adaptation): Australien. The establishment of the penal colony . P. 190
- ↑ Scott & Fiona Brown: First Fleet oldest , August 1, 2000, on archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.ocm. Retrieved September 14, 2016
- ^ A b Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 151. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 147-149. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 150. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 155/156. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 148/149. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 152-155. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. p. 155. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
- ^ Robert Hughes: The Fatal Shore. The epic of Australia's founding . Knopf, New York 1987. pp. 143-144. ISBN 0-394-50668-5
