Angola

Edit links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Malhonen (talk | contribs) at 10:04, 11 November 2007 (+wo). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For other uses, see the country in Africa.
Republic of Angola
República de Angola
Motto: "Virtus Unita Fortior"  (Latin)
"Unity Provides Strength"
Anthem: Angola Avante!  (Portuguese)
Forward Angola!
Location of Angola
Capital
and largest city
Luanda
Official languagesPortuguese
Recognised regional languagesKongo, Chokwe, South Mbundu, Mbundu
Demonym(s)Angolan
GovernmentNominally multi-party (Free elections never held)
• President
José E. dos Santos
Fernando da Piedade Dias
dos Santos
Independence 
from Portugal
• Date
November 11 1975
Area
• Total
1,246,700 km2 (481,400 sq mi) (23rd)
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• 2005 estimate
15,941,000 (61st)
• 1970 census
5,646,166
• Density
13/km2 (33.7/sq mi) (199th)
GDP (PPP)2005 estimate
• Total
$43.362 billion (82nd)
• Per capita
$2,813 (126th)
HDI (2004)Decrease 0.439
Error: Invalid HDI value (161st)
CurrencyKwanza (AOA)
Time zoneUTC+1 (WAT)
• Summer (DST)
UTC+1 (not observed)
Calling code244
ISO 3166 codeAO
Internet TLD.ao

Angola is a country in south-central Africa bordering Namibia to the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, and Zambia to the east, and with a west coast along the Atlantic Ocean. The exclave province Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. A former Portuguese colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which oil and diamonds are the most significant. The country is nominally a democracy and is formally named the Republic of Angola (Portuguese: República de Angola, pronounced IPA: [ʁɛ'publikɐ dɨ ɐ̃'gɔlɐ], Kongo: Repubilika ya Ngola).

History

Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.
Main article: History of Angola

The earliest people of the area were Khoisan hunter-gatherers. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during Bantu migrations, though small numbers of Khoisan remain in parts of southern Angola to the present day.

The geographical areas now designated as Angola first became the subject to incursions by Europeans in the late 15th century. In 1483 Portugal established a base at the river Congo, where the Kongo State, Ndongo and Lunda existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. In 1575 Portugal established a colony at Cabinda based on slave trade. Slavery was practiced in Africa before the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade. The African slave trade provided a large number of black slaves to Europeans and their African agents.[1][2] The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the sixteenth century by a series of treaties and wars forming the country of Angola. The Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641-1648, where they allied with local tribes to consolidate their colonial rule against the remaining Portuguese resistance.

Colonial era

In 1648, Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of reconquest of lost territories, which restored the pre-occupation possessions of Portugal by 1650. Treaties regulated relations with Congo in 1649 and Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last great Portuguese expansion, as attempts to invade Congo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed.

Portugal expanded its territory behind the colony of Benguela in the eighteenth century, and began the attempt to occupy other regions in the mid-nineteenth century. The process resulted in few gains until the 1880s. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1951, the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa.

Portugal had a presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and the population's initial reaction to calls for independence was mixed.

Independence

After the overthrow of colonial Portugal's government by a socialist-inspired military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January 1975. An agreement was reached with the Portuguese government, with independence to be declared in November 1975. Almost immediately, a civil war broke out between MPLA, UNITA and FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention. Upon independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola's capital and nominal government came under the one-party rule of the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA).

South Africa soon became involved in the Angolan conflict, ostensibly to protect its interests in its territory of South West Africa, present-day Namibia. The South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) was fighting for independence from South Africa from bases inside Angola. In an attempt to prevent cross-border operations by SWAPO forces, the South African military, the South African Defense Forces, cleared a one-kilometer-wide strip in Angola along nearly half the length of the 1,376 km long border. Zaire, which had provided support to FNLA guerrillas, soon began to furnish support for UNITA as well. In turn, the Soviet Union began to significantly increase military aid to MPLA, providing armored vehicles, aircraft, and advisors, while large numbers of Cuban troops were airlifted by Soviet transport planes into Angola in an undisguised effort to tip the military balance in favour of the MPLA. By October 1975, MPLA and Cuban forces took control of Luanda, and much of the country's infrastructure, forcing UNITA forces to revert to guerrilla actions. The MPLA declared itself unilaterally to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with Agostinho Neto as the first President.

In 1976, the FNLA was defeated by Cuban troops, leaving the MPLA and UNITA (now backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power. Since 1979, Jose Eduardo dos Santos has been in control of the country's political leadership. Despite the introduction of a multi-party system in 1991, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) has remained in power. "In 1976, controversy over U.S. covert assistance to paramilitary forces in Angola led to legislative bans on such action." [3] [4]

Civil war

The conflict between MPLA and UNITA raged on in the countryside, fueled by the geopolitics of the Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources. In 1991, the factions agreed to the Bicesse Accords which were intended to convert Angola from a one-party authoritarian government into a multiparty state with democratic elections in 1992. President dos Santos led the first round of the election with more than 49% of the vote to Jonas Savimbi's 40%. After claims of fraud, civil war again broke out, and the final runoff election never took place. A 1994 peace accord (the Lusaka protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA insurgents into the government. A national unity government was installed in 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. The international community largely blamed UNITA for the breakdown in the Lusaka peace process; as a consequence the UN Security Council imposed sanctions against them (Kevlihan, 2003). Despite the formation of a government of national unity, which included disaffected elements of UNITA (UNITA-Renovada), generally known by its Portuguese acronym of GURN, power remained with the MPLA, concentrated in particular in the hands of the President Dos Santos and his circle of close advisors.

The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (Chilliers & Dietrich, 2000, Le Billon, 2001). The Angolan government was heavily criticized by human rights organizations for a lack of transparency in the sources and uses of its oil revenue during this time (Global Witness (1999), Human Rights Watch (2004)); what detailed analysis was possible of Angola's expenditure on social services during the war highlighted the extremely low levels of expenditure on health and education, and the way in which large proportions of available budgets benefited elites through scholarships and access to health care overseas (Hodges, 2004). Meanwhile, Angola suffered from one of the highest caseloads of internally displaced persons in the world, displacement caused in large part by the military tactics of both UNITA and government forces (Lari & Kevlihan (2005), Médecins Sans Frontières (2002)).

Ceasefire with UNITA

On February 22 2002, Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops, and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilize, President dos Santos has so far refused to institute regular democratic processes. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of minefields, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda). While most of the internally displaced have now returned home, the general situation for most Angolans remains desperate, and the development facing the government challenging as a consequence (Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005)).

Politics

Main article: Politics of Angola

Angola's motto is "Virtus Unita Fortior", a Latin phrase meaning "Virtue is stronger when united."

The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only twelve of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Critics have drawn an ironic comparison between Angola's current one-party rule and the authoritarian regime of António de Oliveira Salazar of Portugal, under whose rule Angolans began their revolt for independence.

The 27-year-long Angolan Civil War ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

The current government has announced an intention to hold elections in 2008. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.

See also: List of political parties in Angola

Provinces and municipalities

Map of Angola with the provinces numbered
Map of Angola with the provinces numbered
Main articles: Provinces of Angola and Municipalities of Angola

Angola is divided into eighteen provinces (províncias) and 163 municipalities (municípios)[5]. The provinces are:

  1. Bengo
  2. Benguela
  3. Bié
  4. Cabinda
  5. Cuando Cubango
  6. Cuanza Norte
  7. Cuanza Sul
  8. Cunene
  9. Huambo
  1. Huila
  2. Luanda
  3. Lunda Norte
  4. Lunda Sul
  5. Malanje
  6. Moxico
  7. Namibe
  8. Uíge
  9. Zaire

Military

Main article: Military of Angola

The Angolan Armed Forces (FAA) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense.

There are three divisions--the Army,(Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA), and Air and Air Defense Forces ( Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 100,000 men and women. The Navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers, and transport planes. There are also, Brazilian made EMB-312 Tucano for Training role, Czech made L-39 for training and bombing role, Czech Zlin for training role and a variety of western made aircraft such as C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Aloutte III, etc.

A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville).

Police

The National Police departments are : Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for police operations. The National Police are also developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The National Police has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 Taxation and Frontier Supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and 90 Economic Activity Inspectors.

The National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization; modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm UZIs for police officers in urban areas.

Geography

Satellite image of Angola
Main article: Geography of Angola

At 481,321 mi² (1,246,700 km²),[2] Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country (after Niger). It is comparable in size to Mali and is nearly twice the size of the US state of Texas, or five times the area of the UK.

Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The exclave of Cabinda also borders the Republic of the Congo to the north. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola's average temperature on the coast is 60 degrees Fahrenheit (16 °C) in the winter and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 °C) in the summer.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Angola

Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of war to being the fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and has also limited the influence of the International Monetary Fund in the country.[6]

Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed 1.4 million barrels per day in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC.[7] The economy grew 18% in 2005; growth is expected to reach 26% in 2006 and stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production.

Demography

Angola is composed of: Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%[8]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Angola

Angola was ruled by Portugal and both countries share cultural aspects: language (Portuguese) and main religion (Roman Catholic Christianity). The Angolan culture is mostly native Bantu which was mixed with Portuguese culture.

Capoeira Angola

Once synonymous to slavery, outlaws and violence, Capoeira is now well known all over the world as an art form, and has fascinated thousands.

Capoeira is divided in two parts: Capoeira Regional and Capoeira Angola. Capoeira Regional is a modern and popular form of capoeira. Capoeira Angola is the original form, created in Brazil by African slaves. Capoeira Angola has roots in the wedding rituals of the Bantu tribe, where the Dance of the Zebra, the N´golo, was a sparring between young warriors. That is why the Zebra is part of the Capoeira Angola logo. Capoeira Angola is a sparring between friends, an exciting game in the middle of the "roda", a ring formed by musicians and singers. It is fight, dance, play, music and philosophy, all in one. For years Capoeira was practiced in secrecy and it was not lawful to practice and teach until after the 1930s; forty years after the abolition of slavery. Berimbau is an instrument related with capoeira, it commands the roda, and determines the kind of fight (Angola or Regional)

Public holidays

Angola has 15 public holidays over the year. These are:

Movable public holidays:

See also

Column-generating template families

The templates listed here are not interchangeable. For example, using {{col-float}} with {{col-end}} instead of {{col-float-end}} would leave a <div>...</div> open, potentially harming any subsequent formatting.

Column templates
Type Family
Handles wiki
 table code?†
 Responsive/
Mobile suited 		Start template Column divider End template
Float "col-float" Yes Yes {{col-float}} {{col-float-break}} {{col-float-end}}
"columns-start" Yes Yes {{columns-start}} {{column}} {{columns-end}}
Columns "div col" Yes Yes {{div col}} – {{div col end}}
"columns-list" No Yes {{columns-list}} (wraps div col) – –
Flexbox "flex columns" No Yes {{flex columns}} – –
Table "col" Yes No {{col-begin}},
{{col-begin-fixed}} or
{{col-begin-small}} 		{{col-break}} or
{{col-2}} .. {{col-5}} 		{{col-end}}

† Can template handle the basic wiki markup {| | || |- |} used to create tables? If not, special templates that produce these elements (such as {{(!}}, {{!}}, {{!!}}, {{!-}}, {{!)}})—or HTML tags (<table>...</table>, <tr>...</tr>, etc.)—need to be used instead.

Lists

References

  1. ^ Adu Boahen, Topics In West African History, p. 110.
  2. ^ Kwaku Person-Lynn, Afrikan Involvement In Atlantic Slave Trade.
  3. ^ [Congressional Research Service, Congressional Use of Funding Cutoffs Since 1970 Involving U.S. Military Forces and Overseas Deployments, January 10, 2001, pg. 5.]
  4. ^ [1]
  5. ^ "Virtual Angola Facts and Statistics". Retrieved 2007-10-30.
  6. ^ "The Increasing Importance of African Oil". Power and Interest Report. March 20, 2006. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  7. ^ "Angola: Country Admitted As Opec Member". Angola Press Agency. 2006-12-14.
  8. ^ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ao.html#People
  • Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
  • Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening, The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening
  • Hodges, T. (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press.
  • Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/
  • Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/
  • Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2." Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95-106.
  • Lari, A. (2004). Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf
  • Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola." African Security Review 13(4): 29-41. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf
  • Le Billon, P. (2001). "Angola’s Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds." African Affairs(100): 55-80.
  • Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). Angola: Sacrifice of a People. Luanda, Angola, MSF. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf
  • Pinto Escoval [2004): "Staatszerfall im südlichen Afrika. Das Beispiel Angola". Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Berlin
  • Much of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.

Bibliography

  • Le Billon, P. (2005). "Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola." Disasters 29(1): 1-25.
  • Le Billon, P. (2006). Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts. Routledge. ISBN 0415379709. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  • Pearce, J. (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas." 2005.African Security Review 13 (2), 2004, pp 51-64. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf
  • Porto, J. G. (2003). Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html
  • Tvedten, I. (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press.
  • Vines, A. (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch.

External links

Government
News
Politics
Overviews
Directories
Tourism
Other
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Angola&oldid=170721280"